Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

First aircraft was design and pattern by Wright’s brothers in 1903.

However on their first aircraft does not equip with the landing gear. They were
built a launching rail to fly the aircraft. The brothers built a 60-foot launching rail
from four 15-foot two-by-fours laid end to end(1). The landing gear then was
invented in 1908 by Matthew Bacon Sellers. Who Invented Landing Gear(2).
The landing gear was improved years by years until these days many type of
landing gear were created.

2.2 Landing Gear

Landing gear is the undercarriage used for aircraft, spacecraft and

helicopter. Its function is the same that to support the body of the structure. It is
a complex design and operating system. However it is also design to equipp
with the safety in the event of landing gear failure. As the safety-critical
equipment of aircraft, landing gear retraction/extension (R/E) system’s failure will
delay/cancel the scheduled flight, or even make the aircraft unable to land,
endangering the flight safety(3). The aircraft manufacturer will inevitably demand
a lower mass landing gear, increased service life and lower support costs of the
product, the latter now becoming increasingly important(4). It is important to take
into consider the weight of landing gear construction so that it will not cause the
aircraft to carry extra weight. Landing gear weight calculations can be carried out
using statistical or analytical methods(5).

The undercarriage is typically 4–5% of the takeoff mass and can even
reach 7%(6). Function of landing gear can also be used as:

 Ground maneuver for the aircraft movement

  Dampen the vibration during landing and movement on the groung
 Absorb the shocks due to the landing
 Give the aircraft abilities for braking and steering function

Each type of aircraft, spacecraft and helicopter has different type of

landing gear for their specific operation. The design of landing gears has
followed the development of aircraft and their operational requirements(7).

2.2.1 Landing Gear Material

The main factor need to be considered when constructing landing gear is

the material used. Landing gear is the most crucial part of the aircraft as it
accommodates the whole weight of the aircraft. The most impact adapt by
landing gear is during landing due to the impact. So the material used need to
high strength in order to avoid any failure. Material that is used in landing gear
are:

 Steel
- steel can be made avoid from corrosion and provide low volume and
high strength and stiffness. However the disadvantage of steel is its
weight. Steel is the strong material but used of the material cause extra
weight added to the aircraft that makes the aircraft become less efficient.
Most common landing gear steel are 4130, 4340, 4330V, and 300M.
 Aluminum alloy
- aluminum alloy is more lighter but it has high strength. However
aluminum alloy is very prone to stress concentration. It has relatively low
cost, light in weight, and can be heat treated to strength level. Aluminum
7075 is used for the landing gear because it is strong, with a strength
comparable to many steels, and has good fatigue strength.
 Titanium alloy
- titanium alloy has high strength and low density used as for weight
saving. Titanium alloy is used in the main landing gear component.
 Material Applications
Bogies, piston, braces, links, switch bracket, plug, axle,
Steel shaft, spring, plate, clamp, sleeve, arm(tube), pin,
bushing
Aluminum Arm, collar, shim, wheel, adapter assembly
Titanium Main landing gear structure
Aluminum bronze Extremely used for upper and lower shock strut bearing
Beryllium Brake heat sink material and bushing material
Composite Aircraft wheel, main landing gear parts including outer
Material cylinder, pistons, side braces, torque arms, trailing arms,
springs, wing panels, stabilizers and control surfaces
Figure 2.1: Material application in landing gear.

Figure 2.2: Schematic diagram of landing gear

2.3 Type of Landing Gear

Aircraft landing gear is the most crucial part for the aircraft. Its main
function is to support the whole weight of the aircraft during landing and takeoff
and also ground operation. Landing gear is attached to the primary structure of
an aircraft. It is important for the landing gear to be strong and durable for the
operation of the aircraft especially when in absorbing the shock during aircraft
landing. The type of the aircraft landing gear is depends to the aircraft design
and its operation to be use. Aircraft can be used in many type of operation.
There are there basic type of surfaces of aircraft operation such as on ground
surface, water surfaces and also snow surfaces. Each of the surfaces the
aircraft operates will use different type of landing gear. For aircraft operates on
ground, the landing gear will equipped with wheels to ease the aircraft move,
and takeoff landing operation. Aircraft that operates on water will have floats on
the landing gear. This float will help the aircraft to keep float on the water. This
type of landing gear normally used on small type of aircraft. Lastly, landing gear
will equipped with ski for the operation where the surfaces covered with snow.
The landing gear construction will have both wheel and ski. The ski will help the
keep the surface loading low on soft surface and the tire can still be used for
landing on firm runways. The picture below will show clearer view on each type
of landing gear described.
 Figure 2.3: Wheel type landing gear(8)

Figure 2.4: Float type landing gear(9)

Figure 2.5: Ski type landing gear(10)

2.3.1: Wheel type landing gear

Most of the aircraft are using wheel type landing gear due to the normal
operation that required to landing and takeoff on airport runways. Wheel type
landing gear can be divided into two:

 Fixed landing gear

 Retractable landing gear

Fixed landing gear is referring to the aircraft that have a landing gear that
remain its design, position, system and operation throughout its operation during
landing takeoff and fly. The landing gear is intentionally designed cannot be
retract. This type of landing gear normally used on small and light aircraft. The
landing gear also will be design equipped with fairing or cowling at wheel to
cover and maintain the airfoil shape in order to reduce the parasite drag. These
type of landing gear give an advantage in reduces the weight and also simplify
the design and maintenance.

Figure 2.6: Fixed landing gear(11)

Retractable landing gear is where the landing gear is designed that allow
it retract and stowage in wheel well compartment either in wing or fuselage. Big
aircraft and high performance will mostly use this type of landing gear as it give
an advantage is eliminate total drag that may be caused by the gear. The
landing gear will fully expand on ground and when about to landing and it will
keep in stowage during cruising. Red lights indicate the gear is in the up-locked
position; amber lights indicate that the landing gear is in transit (neither down
and locked nor fully retracted(12). Aircraft that retractable landing gear can help
saving the fuel as no drag will be experience at the gear and also it can give the
aircraft higher speed in cruising. However, retractable landing gear is a complex
design and system, thus it cause more weight come from the landing gear and it
is more expensive. The maintenance also need to always to be done due to this
system tend to easily malfunction as a moving part can be tear and wear faster.

Figure 2.7: Retractable landing gear(13)

2.4: Direction of landing gear retraction

Aircraft performance can be improve by retracting the landing gear as it

can eliminate the drag. The landing gear is retract and stowed in the landing
gear compartment, or also known as wheel well compartment. The method or
direction of retraction is various depends on the designed system. The main
wheels are retracted inboard whenever possible, because outboard retraction
places the weight of the gear further out in the wings. This, in turn, will increase
the wing lateral mass moment (known as the ’lateral inertia’). The increase of
the lateral inertia must be compensated by larger and more powerful ailerons for
maintaining a specified rate of roll or acceptance of a reduced rolling rate
necessary for the wing configuration. There are three types of retraction on
retractable landing gear:

 Rearward retraction
  Sideward retraction
 Forward retraction

Rearward retraction is mostly is used on all aircraft as it can retract for

main landing gear and also nose landing gear. The rearward-retracting nose
wheel strut used on the Heinkel He 219(14). Rearward retraction is where the
landing gear retract from its extended position and move backward towards
inside the wheel well compartment.

Figure 2.8
Rearward retraction landing gear(15)

Sideward retraction landing gear can only be used on main landing gear.
It can either be retract inboard or outboard. Aircraft fuselage does not allow nose
landing gear to retract sideward due to the small structure of fuselage where it
cannot fit the landing gear.

Figure 2.9: Sideward landing gear

retraction(16)

Forward retraction used generally on both landing gear, which is nose

landing gear and main landing gear. This method of retraction needs higher
effort to retract due to the direction of the retraction against the airflow. However
the airflow can help in assisting extend the landing gear in emergency situation.
In the event of a failure of the aircraft's landing gear extension mechanism a
backup is provided. This may be an alternate hydraulic system, a hand-crank,
compressed air (nitrogen), pyrotechnic or free-fall system(17). A free-fall or
gravity drop system uses gravity to deploy the landing gear into the down and
locked position. To accomplish this, the pilot release the up-lock by activates a
switch or mechanical handle in the cockpit. Gravity then pulls the landing gear
down and deploys it. Once in position the landing gear is mechanically locked
and safe to use for landing(18).

Figure 2.10: Forward retraction landing gear(19)

2.5: Landing gear arrangement

There are three basic type of landing gear arrangement had been used in
aircraft. The types of arrangement are as follows:
 I. Conventional landing gear
Conventional landing gear or also known as tail wheel landing gear
was used in early years before. The arrangement is the main landing
gear located at forward of the aircraft or forward of the center of the
gravity while the nose landing gear located at the tail or aft the center of
gravity. This arrangement gives the aircraft more angle of attack and
cause higher clearance of the forward fuselage. Back in early years this is
an advantage as they can use long propeller that compensate older and
underpowered engine design. Others advantage are such it give light as
the tail wheel is small and it is simple in design, the attachment of landing
gear easily to accomplished. The disadvantage of this type landing gear
arrangement are the violent braking tends to tip the aircraft onto its nose,
the braking force acts ahead of the center of the gravity.

Figure 2.11: Conventional landing gear(20)

II. Tricycle landing gear

Tricycle landing gear is the mostly used on aircraft. It consist of nose
landing gear and main landing gear. The arrangement is the nose landing
gear located at the forward of the aircraft or forward of the center of
gravity while the main landing gear located at aft of the aircraft or aft of
center of gravity. A free swivel or steerable nose wheel is mounted on the
center line in the forward section of the fuselage. The advantages of
tricycle landing gear are it give more stability during ground operation
 easy to control especially during takeoff and landing, give better pilot
vision, easier landing and prevent nose over. The disadvantages are the
nose wheel unit must take 20 % to 30 % of the aircraft’s weight in a
’steady braking’ condition. Therefore, it must be comparatively heavy.
The landing gear also must be fitted at a position where special structural
provisions have been made. If this type landing gear used on small or
light aircraft it may be difficult to find any stowage space at all in the
compartment.

Figure 2.12: Tricycle landing gear(21)

III. Tandem landing gear

Some aircraft are installed with tandem landing gear. This type landing
gear arranged the nose wheel and main wheel aligned on the longitudinal
axis of the aircraft. Multiple "tandem wheels" on an aircraft — particularly
for cargo aircraft, mounted to the fuselage lower sides as retractable main
gear units on modern designs — were first seen during World War II, on
the experimental German Arado Ar 232 cargo aircraft, which used a row
of eleven "twinned" fixed wheel sets directly under the fuselage centerline
to handle heavier loads while on the ground (22). Tandem gear
commonly used on sailplanes, few, B-74 military bombers such as B-52
and U2 spy plane. On second generation Harriers, the wing is extended
past the outrigger wheels to allow greater wing-mounted munitions loads
 to be carried, or to permit wing-tip extensions to be bolted on for ferry
flights (23). During landing, the forward gear must not touch the runway
first, otherwise the rear gear will slam down and cause the aircraft to
bounce off the runway (24).

Figure 2.13: Tandem landing gear(25)

Arrangement of landing gear can also be found as single type

landing gear, double type landing gear and multiple or bogie type landing gear.

Figure 2.14: Single type landing gear(26)

 Figure 2.15: Double type landing gear(27)

Bogie type landing gear is where the landing gear have more than
two tire installed. The number of wheel determined by the gross design weight of
aircraft and the surfaces on which the loaded aircraft may require performing
landing. Advantage of bogie type landing gear is multiple wheel used will spread
the aircraft weight over larger area of load distribution, and also it can act as
safety if one tire burst during takeoff and landing it can still be support by the
other tires.

Figure 2.16: Bogie type landing gear(28)

2.6: Landing gear main components

The system of landing gear is complex. However in understanding the

operation of the landing gear, there are a few main component in landing gear
that have their own function to make the landing gear operates well:
 Figure 2.17: Landing gear component(29)

a) Torque Links/Torque Arms/Torsion Link (Scissors Assembly)

 Hold ram of a piston in the struts
 Avoid piston extension during struts extension
b) Drag Link/Drag Struts
 Stabilizing the landing gear and support the aircraft structure
longitudinally
c) Side Brace Link/ Side Struts
 Stabilizing the landing gear and support the aircraft laterally

d) Overcenter Link/Downlock Struts/ Jury Struts

Pressure applied to center pivot joint in drag or side brace link so
that it hold the drag link and side brace in “down Locked’
e) Trunnion
 Supported at its end by bearing/bushing assemblies, which allow
the gear to pivot during retraction and extension (the struts form
the cylinder for the oleo pneumatic shock absorber)
f) Shock Struts
Runway roughness will, in general, produce both longitudinal and
lateral excitations(30). During the development of a landing gear system,
the force/compression characteristic is a significant contributor to the
absorption of vertical kinetic energy at touchdown(31). Despite the
generalization of multi-physical software dedicated to aircraft virtual
prototyping, the need for accurate models of landing gear shock struts is
still not met(32).
 Vertical member of the landing gear assembly that contains the
shock absorbing mechanism
g) Shimmy Damper
Shimmy vibration is a very important type of motion in the landing
gear system during either the takeoff or landing of an aircraft(33).
 Hydraulic snubbing unit that reduces the tendency of the nose or
tail wheel oscillate from side to side (rapid)
h) Actuator/Jack/Actuating Cylinder
 Raise and lowering the landing gear. May also used as a downlock
mechanism (continuous application of pressure)
i) UpLock Cylinder /UpLock Actuator
 Locking the landing gear in ‘UP’ and ‘LOCK’ position
j) DownLock Cylinder/DownLock Actuator
 Locking the landing gear in ‘DOWN’ and ‘LOCK’ position.
k) Indicator (micro-switches/ground safety switch/squat switch)
 To provide indication in the cockpit indication either the landing
gear is fully retract or extend
l) Centering Cam
  Make sure the wheel is in correct position before it being retract
into wheel well compartment
m) Steering Actuator
 For the pilot to be able control or steer aircraft from NLG wheel for
taxiing
n) Landing Gear Door Actuator
 Allowing the opening or closing of landing gear door (main and
nose landing gear)
o) Emergency Lowering Mechanism
 Four used in event of landing gear system malfunction

2.7: Landing gear issue

Throughout the operation of all aircraft in the world, there are several
cases were reported regarding to the landing gear failure. Some were due to
landing gear were not fully retract or extend, and some about landing gear
fatigue. Below are few cases reported regarding to landing gear failure:

1. Sabena Airbus A340-211

- On August 29, 1998 Sabena flight Airbus A340 was departed from
New York-John F. Kennedy International Airport to Brussel-Zaventem
Airport. The flight carried 11 crew and 248 passenger involved in
accident during landing. During landing the aircraft slipped from the
runway. This is because the main landing gear had separated
completely. The cause of the incident may due to the right landing
gear ruptured because of fatigue crack that developed at area of high
stress.

2. UPS Boeing MD-11

- On Monday 6 June, UPS freighter departed from Seoul Incheon
airport involve in accident due to nose landing gear collapse during
takeoff.
3. Southwest Airlines
- July 2013 flight from Southwest Airlines involve in accident at
LaGuardia airport. Report from the official stated that the nose wheel
of the flight collapsed right away after touched down.
4. Air Contractors B737
- On April 2014, the flight lost it main landing gear during landed at East
Midlands Airport. The main landing gear was detached from the
aircraft after landing and braking. The main landing gear detected
fractured through its chrome plated section. The fracture is due to
stress corrosion cracking and also fatigue propagation that lead to
overload failure.

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