WHT IE

PAPER

AR
I CRAFT LANDNI G GEAR
DESGI N & DEVELOPMENT
How Advanced Technologies are helping
to meet the challenges?

Abstract
Landing gear is one of the critical subsystems of an aircraft.
The need to design landing gear with minimum weight,
minimum volume, high performance, improved life, and
reduced life cycle cost have posed many challenges to
landing gear designers and practitioners. Further, it is
essential to reduce the landing gear
design and development cycle time while meeting all the
regulatory and safety requirements. Many technologies have been
developed over the years to meet these challenges in design and
development of landing gear. This paper presents a perspective
on various stages of landing gear design and development,
current technology landscape and how these technologies are
helping us to meet the challenges involved in the development of
landing gear and how they are going to evolve in future.
 Introduction
Landing Gear system is one of the critical
subsystems of an aircraft and is often
configured along with the aircraft
structure because of its substantial
influence on
the aircraft structural configuration itself.
Landing gear detail design is taken up
early in the aircraft design cycle due to its
long product development cycle time.
The need to design landing gear with
minimum weight, minimum volume,
reduced life cycle cost, and short
development cycle time, poses many
challenges to landing gear designers and
practitioners. These challenges have to be
met by employing advanced
technologies, materials, analysis methods,
processes and production methods.
Various design and analysis tools have
been developed over the years and new
ones are still being developed.

The purpose of the landing gear in an

aircraft is to provide a suspension system
during taxi, take-off and landing. It is
designed to absorb and dissipate the
kinetic energy of landing impact, thereby
reducing the impact loads transmitted to
the airframe. The landing gear also
facilitates braking of the aircraft using a
wheel braking system and provides
directional control
of the aircraft on ground using a wheel
steering system. It is often made
retractable to minimize the aerodynamic
drag on the aircraft while flying.

The landing gear design takes into

account various requirements of strength,
stability, stiffness, ground clearance,
control and damping under all possible
ground attitudes of the aircraft. These
requirements are stipulated by the
Airworthiness Regulations to meet
operational requirements and safety. The
landing gear should occupy minimum
volume in order to reduce the stowage
space requirement in the aircraft. Further,
weight should be at minimum to increase
the performance of the aircraft. The
service life of the landing gears should
be same as that of the aircraft.
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A Landing Gear system comprises of Typical Main Landing Gear (MLG) and These include design, analysis,
many structural and system Nose Landing Gear (NLG) are shown in manufacturing and testing support for
components. The structural Figure 1. The nose gear will have landing gears. This paper presents a
components include Main fitting, Shock additional elements like steering actuator perspective on current challenges and
absorber, Bogie beam/ Trailing arm, and steering mechanism. how advanced tools, processes and
Axle, Torque links, Drag/ Side braces, technologies are supporting to meet
Infosys is providing various structural
Retraction actuator, Down lock these
and system product development
mechanism, Up lock, Wheel, Tire challenges in the life cycle of landing
services for various commercial and
etc. The system components are Brake gears.
military aircraft programs across the
unit, Antiskid system, retraction
globe.
system components.

Main Landing
Gear

Nose Landing
Gear

Figure 1 Aircraft Landing

Gears

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 Some of these Airworthiness
Regulations are given in Table 1.

Aircraft Regulations/
Type Specifications

Utility
and FAR 23, CS 23, CAR 23
Aerobatic
Airplanes
Civil
Transpor FAR 25, CS 25, CAR 25
t
Airplanes
Militar US MIL
y Specifications, DEF-
Table 1: Airworthiness
Aircraft STAN-970Regulations

A brief summary of various life cycle

stages of landing gear design and
development are described below:

Concept Design
The concept design starts with a study of
all design specifications and
airworthiness regulations. A concept is
then evolved while meeting the
functional and regulatory requirements.
Major design drivers are performance,
safety, cost,
time frame, technology and resources.
The landing gear location is arrived at
and type of landing gear is selected.
The landing gear geometry is defined
along
with kinematics. Steering concepts are
also identified in this phase. The ground
loads are estimated using dynamic
simulations for material selection and
preliminary sizing of components. The
actuation mechanisms and loads are also
An Overview of Landing The configuration design includes
worked out in this phase. Various tradeoff
choice of number of wheels, tire sizes,
Gear Design and studies are performed to enhance
pressures, type of shock absorbers,
Development weight, volume
landing gear layout, retraction
The landing gear design and integration Preliminary Design
and cost. Based on these trade-off studies
kinematics and bay geometry design.
process encompasses knowledge of a best
In concept is selected.
the preliminary design phase, dynamic
Airworthiness regulations play a crucial simulations are carried out for landing,
many engineering disciplines such as
role in arriving at the landing gear take off and retraction kinematics to
structures, dynamics, kinematics, fluid
configuration, such as sink rate, arrive at data required for sizing of
mechanics and runway flotation. The
allowable load factors and ground components and material selection.
geometry, flotation requirements,
maneuvering conditions, stipulated in Preliminary design of components is
mission requirements and operational
the applicable airworthiness performed and weight estimates are
requirements of the aircraft govern the
regulations. arrived at.
landing gear configuration.

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Detailed Design Quality, reliability and maintainability special rigs. Environmental tests
In this phase the detailed design of all are important to cut down including vibration, acceleration,
the landing gear components is operational temperature, altitude, salt spray, sand
performed and an integrated landing costs and to ensure aircraft availability for and dust etc. are performed.
gear system is defined with all service. The design aims at increased
mean time between failures (MTBF) and On- Aircraft Testing
interfaces and associated systems.
Component loads are estimated and reduced mean time to repair (MTTR). The final integration tests of the landing
material selection and sizing are done Periodic preventive maintenance gear are carried out after installation on
in this phase. Reduction in part count schedules and on- condition maintenance the aircraft followed by taxi tests, braking
by making closed die forgings requirements are specified as required. and steering tests. Fine tuning of certain
for complex shapes is done through 3D Various best practices evolved are design parameters are done during this
CAD modeling that enable computer followed in design to ensure good phase.
controlled 3D machining. Dynamic maintainability. This is followed by flight testing phase
analysis and simulation is carried out to where the capability of the landing gear
Health monitoring systems are being
fine tune certain design parameters for is evaluated.
evolved to move towards condition
energy absorption, shimmy suppression
In- service Evaluation
based maintenance practice from
and retraction/extension. In this phase scheduled maintenance practice, which In -service evaluation includes
digital mock-up of the landing gear is will lead evaluation in various types of airfield
developed which is essentially the virtual Manufacturing & and
to enhanced safety Assembly
reduction conditions
prototype The landing gearcosts.
in maintenance manufacturing involves and ambient conditions. Feedbacks on
of the landing gear. All lessons learned development of many closed die reliability and maintainability results
and best practices evolved over the years forgings, machined components from are taken for further improvements in
are utilized in the detail design to ultra-high strength steels, titanium and the system and data generation.
Stress
realize a& reliable
Fatiguedesign.
Analysis aluminum alloys. Precision tolerances
Finite element modeling and analysis are required for components like
and conventional hand calculation actuator cylinder,
methods are used for landing gear piston, shock absorber parts and axle.
stress analysis. Landing gear is designed Heat treatment of parts is performed
as a safe life structure and fatigue after rough machining followed by final
analysis methods are used for prediction machining, plating and painting.
of life. Safe life requirements demand as Reliability of the product is enhanced
high as 60,000 landings for a through stringent quality assurance
commercial aircraft landing Qualification
requirements. Testing
gear whereas military aircraft The qualification testing of landing gears
requirements are often not more than involves functional tests, structural tests
10,000 landings. Low cycle, high stress for strength, stiffness and fatigue life tests,
fatigue analysis is employed for landing and environmental tests. Platform drop
gear life evaluation. Damage tolerant tests are conducted on rigs with load cell
design is not practicable in most of the platform, wheel spinning facility and lift
landing gears because of the usage of simulation devices to verify shock
very high strength materials which have absorber performance. For structural
critical flaw sizes too small strength tests of the landing gear, loads
to be detected by present day are applied through loading actuators in
Reliability & Maintainability Analysis
NDT techniques. required directions and strain data is
Proper failure mode and effect and acquired through strain gauging.
criticality analysis (FMECA) is performed to
Fatigue tests including impulse fatigue
assess reliability. Data on failure modes
tests on actuators, are conducted by
and failure rate are collected from
block wise loading with sufficient
previous designs
instrumentation for data acquisition.
to conduct this analysis and reliability
Endurance cycling tests are conducted
is predicted before the design freeze.
in

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 Challenges in Landing Volume The semi-active system works by
varying the viscosity of the fluid as
Gear Design & Space is one of the most important
required for the damping. In active
Development constraints within which an aircraft
component needs to be designed, control it is aimed to control the
The need to design landing gear with stiffness and damping characteristic so
especially in a military aircraft. A
minimum weight, minimum volume, as to control the ground loads.
retractable landing gear contains more
high performance, improved life and
components and mechanisms than a For higher performance of actuation
reduced life cycle cost poses many
fixed landing gear. By proper choice of systems for landing gear, nose wheel
challenges.
material and design of the geometry of steering and brakes, alternate systems
Further, the design and development
mechanism it is ensured that requirement are being evolved. Use of hydraulic
cycle time of landing gear should be
of retracted volume is brought down to a systems in place of mechanical
compressed to reduce costs and to bring
minimum. systems or use of electric systems in
the product
Performance place of
to market faster. These challenges
High performance of the landing gear is hydraulic systems is studied for
are met, while adhering to all
expected in order to reduce the ground optimizing performance. Use of
regulatory requirements of safety,
loads transmitted to the airframe. This is electronic control also enhances the
by employing advanced
Weight ensured by accurate dynamic analysis performance of control systems.
technologies, materials, processes,
Landing gearproduction
is heavily loaded and simulation to arrive at key Life
analysis and methods.
structure. Its weight varies from 3% of performance characteristics like orifice Long life and minimum maintenance
aircraft all- up weight for a fixed type sizing, air and oil volumes. Efficiencies as requirements are vital for reduction in
to about 6% for a retractable type high as 85% operating and maintenance costs
landing gear. The challenge is to to 90% are achievable in landing energy while minimizing the overall life cycle
reduce the weight of the landing gear absorption with passive orifice damping cost.
without compromising on its with proper metering pin or valve This dictates the choice of
functional, operational, performance, system. Further, the pursuit for high materials, its corrosion properties
safety and maintenance requirements. performance leads to semi-active or and fatigue properties.
This is made possible by using materials active control shock absorber systems. It Development Time
of higher strength, fracture toughness is found that substantial damage is The landing gear design is iterative
and fatigue properties and by making caused due to loads in taxi phase and involving trade-off studies between
correct choice for each application. These performance improvement during taxi various configurations and their impact
materials include ultra-high strength alloy phase requires either semi-active or on weight and cost benefits.
steels, corrosion resistant steels, titanium active damping systems.
alloys and high strength aluminum alloys.

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This usually takes substantial time and
effort. It is essential to reduce this
product development cycle time by
automating the design process using
CAD/CAE/
CAM tools. These tools help reducing
the development time through
virtual
prototyping which can be evaluated
before testing on actual prototypes.
Further, Knowledge Based Engineering
(KBE) concepts and tools are playing
Life cycle cost
important role in reducing development
Use
cycleoftime.
advanced technologies like
health management systems and
maintenance philosophies helps in
reducing the life cycle costs. Design for
condition based maintenance instead
of scheduled maintenance is one such
trend and is compatible with health Brake system The choice of material for a landing gear
management systems. component is decided depending on its
Electronically controlled antiskid brake
application and this requires trade off
management systems are replacing old
studies of strength, stiffness and cost to
Landing Gear mechanical or electric antiskid systems.
arrive at the optimal choice. Fatigue and
Technologies Electronic systems are more efficient
fracture toughness properties and
Landing gear technologies are and trouble free.
aspects like protection against stress
continuously evolving to meet the corrosion, wear, reliability in service etc.
Tires
challenges of functional and non- are other considerations in the selection
Radial tire is one of the advanced
functional requirements. Some of of material for the landing gear.
technologies employed in aircraft for the
these important technologies are
past 25 years. Landing gear radial tires Carbon composite brake disc offers
presented below:
Steering System offer lighter tires with longer life reduced weight, longer life and
Steering control systems are moving compared to bias ply tires. maintenance free wheel brakes
towards electronic control systems thereby reducing the cost per
replacing hydro-mechanical systems. The Up-locks landing.
main advantage with electronic control Hydro-mechanical locking systems Corrosion protection
system is its accuracy and its ability to and proximity switches are Good corrosion protection is important
incorporate changes in design replacing for the landing gear components as they
parameters like steering rate and mechanical locks and micro-switches. are susceptible for easy environment
steering ratio with ease.
They have higher reliability. attack. Apart from normal electrolytic
Materials finishes like cadmium plating, hard
Actuation System
Composites are being used in some chromium plating, HVOF etc. epoxy or
In actuation systems, more electric or
components of landing gear polyurethane primer and polyurethane
all electric systems are replacing the
because of their superior specific top coats are applied for the exposed
conventional hydraulic systems. The
electric systems offered today have strength and stiffness properties. landing gear parts. Use
become weight competitive with use Cost used to be one factor against of corrosion resistant materials is
of brushless high power motors. their favor, which is now being also becoming increasingly popular.
Further, electric systems help to overcome with improved
overcome problems of leakage and manufacturing techniques. Ultra-
fire hazard. high strength steels are used due to
its high strength to weight ratio
and size advantage.

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 CAX Technologies • Tools to compute axle Adequate torsional stiffness and
travels requirements damping are required to ensure a
Many commercially available CAD/
• Tools to analyze retraction shimmy free landing gear. Mathematical
CAM/CAE/CFD and Dynamic Simulation
actuation models are used to predict onset of
software tools are used in the design
• Shock absorber shimmy and to design damping devices
and development of landing gear.
performance optimization to control the shimmy oscillations.
These tools have helped in virtual
product tools
Health monitoring
development of landing gear before • Rake and Trail requirements
Landing gear is a maintenance intensive
actual prototype is being fabricated. analysis tools
system of the aircraft next to only
These help to improve designs with • Shimmy analysis tools
Dynamic Simulation engine. Health monitoring of landing
reduced cycle time and cost. Few of them
Dynamic simulation helps to gear is gaining importance as suitable
include CATIA V5, UG, Solid
CAD Tools predict the performance of a sensors and processing units are
works,
component or available
assembly. The results of these today. Wireless sensor network and
NASTRAN, ABAQUS,
CAE Tools
simulations will be more accurate RFID technologies are being employed
ANSYS, Hypermesh,
compared to hand calculations. These in health management of aircraft
Optistruct
simulations help in handling large systems and structures including

Dynamic MATLAB, SIMULINK, number of studies in short time. landing gear. Health monitoring not
only improves the safety and reduces
Simulation The landing gear shock absorber
both operational and maintenance
ADAMS Tools performance is evaluated by a dynamic
costs, but also helps in extending the
simulation of the landing and taxiing. This
Flow works, Ansys- life of the landing gear beyond
CFD Tools takes into account the hydraulic damping,
Fluent, Ansys- designed service life.
air spring characteristics and friction
CFX, Star –CD
effects and structural flexibility in the
landing gear.
CATIA V5, UG, Solid
Kinematics Using the computer models developed
works, for this purpose the shock absorber
Table 2: CAX parameters are enhance to maximize its
Tools efficiency and peak reaction behavior.
This helps in preliminary estimation of
Knowledge Based Engineering (KBE)
impact loads and taxi loads to arrive at
Many Knowledge Based Engineering the sizing of the landing gear elements
(KBE) tools and information intelligence for use in geometric modeling and
tools are being developed and used by kinematic analysis.
landing gear designers to automate
The retraction / extension kinematics and
many engineering processes while
actuation are also simulated by dynamic
retaining company specific knowledge.
modeling of the hydraulic actuation and
These tools leads to drastic reduction in
CFD analysis to arrive at the actuator
development cycle time, reduction in
sizing. The CFD analysis is used to arrive
human errors,
at the aerodynamic loads acting on the
ability to redesign iteratively and
landing gear during retraction /
capturing organizational knowledge. Few
extension process.
of these tools include
• Tools for selection of number of
Thus simulations helps to mitigate the
tires and pressures taking the
risk in the design and development
ground flotation requirement
process, which otherwise requires
• Wheel / Brake sizing tools iterations after extensive and expensive
• Ground load estimation tools testing.

Shimmy oscillations are a

perennial problem in design and
operation of landing gears and
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Summary of Future design, ‘more electric’ or ‘ all electric’ smart sensors that are more durable and
concepts are gaining momentum to energy efficient and will drive towards
Landing Gear
replace hydraulic actuation, which is condition based maintenance
Technologies
known for its problems of leaks and philosophy.
In future landing gear design and flammability. Electric actuation systems Big Data technologies, advanced
development will use high strength are becoming weight competitive analytics techniques and tools will help
materials, active damping systems and enough to displace the old hydraulic in capturing and reusing the
accurate load estimation techniques. actuation systems. Carbon composite operational and maintenance data
Active damping system aims at reducing brake materials have become a mature providing greater insights. This will
taxi loads which are known to be a very technology like the radial tires and will help in reducing the maintenance and
significant contributor of fatigue failure. be used widely in future landing gears. operational costs drastically.
It is found that taxi damages are close to CAX and KBE will be used more Crashworthy landing gears for use on
50% of total damages in a commercial effectively. In addition, integrated helicopters pose additional
aircraft. Future is also expected to health management systems for challenges in absorbing large quantities
witness increased use of composite diagnostic and prognostic analysis will of energy resulting from a crash. This
materials for many components. In employ next generation includes fuse orifices and additional
actuation system chambers in the oleo.

Table 3: How Technologies Help to meet

Challenges?

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 Design Life Cycle Technology
Stage Trend
Material Selection Ultra high strength metallic materials, advanced composites, Radial tires, Carbon composite brake
discs

Design 3D modeling and design, Simulation, virtual prototyping, KBE

Systems All electric actuation, Electronic control

Analysis FEA, Fatigue and Damage Tolerance Analysis

Testing More Accurate systems for strain gauging and data acquisition

Maintenance Health monitoring, Wireless Sensor Networks, RFID technologies

Reliability Accurate failure rates based on feedback data from field

Table 4: Technology trends for future landing

design

Conclusions
The need to design landing gear with These technologies have matured over materials, analysis methods, processes
minimum weight, minimum volume, the years and widely used in the and production methods. By applying
high performance, improved life and current functional simulation and developing
reduced life cycle cost have posed landing gear system and new design tools, the development time
many challenges to landing gear technologies will continue to evolve in and cost are reduced considerably.
designers and practitioners. Further it future. Use of
is essential to reduce the landing gear higher strength materials, composites,
The future landing gear design for
design and and technologies like active damping
aircraft poses many new challenges in
development cycle time while meeting control, electric systems, along with CAX,
configuration design, use of materials,
all the safety and regulatory KBE and health monitoring technologies
design and analysis methods. These
requirements. Many technologies have will steer the landing gear design in the
challenges can be met, while adhering
been developed over the years to meet days to come.
to all regulatory requirements of safety,
the challenges of landing gear design
by employing advanced technologies,
and development.
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank senior management of engineering services practice of Infosys for their continuous support
and encouragement.

About authors

Divakaran V.N.
is a Consultant with Infosys since December, 2006. Prior to this, he was Head of Design (Mechanical Systems) at
Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd in its Aircraft Research and Design Centre. At HAL he has over 35 years of experience in
design and development of landing gears and other mechanical systems, working in military aircraft programs like
Light Combat Aircraft, Advanced Light Helicopter, Intermediate Jet Trainer and civil Light Transport Aircraft. He has
two patents
in mechanical design. He obtained degree in mechanical engineering from NIT, Calicut and underwent 9
months of institutional training in Aeronautics at Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.

Dr Ravikumar, G.V.V.
is Senior Principal and Head Advanced Engineering Group (AEG) brings together 21 years of research and industrial
experience in Aircraft Industry. His areas of interest include Aircraft Structures, Knowledge Based Engineering,
Composites and Structural Health Monitoring. He authored more than 30 technical papers in various
journals/conferences/white papers and filed a patent. He worked on various prestigious engineering design and
development, KBE tool development projects for both military and commercial aircraft programs including Indian light
combat aircraft (LCA). He obtained his doctoral degree in Applied Mechanics from IIT Delhi. He worked in Tata Research
Design and Development Center (TRDDC), Pune and Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) Bangalore prior to
joining Infosys.

Srinivasa Rao Patnala

is a Practice Manager brings about 23 years of industry experience with focused aerospace experience for about 20
years. His technical area of expertise is in the stress analysis of metallic aero structures and finite element analysis. He
led several projects on design and development of structural systems for global commercial aircraft prorams. He has
the distinction of perfoming a technical signatory role in one of the European Aircraft type certification program. He
obtained his masters degree in Mechanical Engineering from Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. He has worked on
missle structures during his initial 8 years of stint at Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL),
Hyderabad.

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