Quantum gases

hnk i
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Fermi - Dirac distribution:

1
〈𝑛! 〉 =
𝑒"($! % ') +1
Maxwell-Boltzmann
Bose - Einstein distribution:
)
〈𝑛! 〉 =
Bose-Einstein * "($! % ') %)

Fermi-Dirac Maxwell - Boltzmann distribution:

〈𝑛! 〉 = 𝑒 %"($! % ')

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(✏k µ)

Fermi gas (ideal case)

The average number of particles can now be written as

1
〈𝑁〉 = * %) "$
𝜍 𝑒 ! + 1
!

As we approximated for Bosons, 〈𝑁〉 can be expressed as

4 𝜋 𝑉 0 𝑝,
〈𝑁〉 = 0 ) 𝑑𝑝
ℎ+ 1 𝜍 %) 𝑒"- /(,/) + 1
Choosing a new variable 𝑡 = 𝛽𝑝, /(2𝑚), we get

0
2 𝑉 +/, √𝑡
〈𝑁〉 = (2𝜋 𝑚 𝑘2 𝑇) 0 %) 3 𝑑𝑡
√𝜋 ℎ +
1 𝜍 𝑒 + 1
Where 𝜆 = ℎ/>2𝜋 𝑚 𝑘2 𝑇 and the integral is defined as
0
1 𝑡 4%)
𝑓4 (𝜍) = 0 %) 3 𝑑𝑡
Γ(𝜈) 1 𝜍 𝑒 + 1
Here, Γ(𝜈) is the gamma function. Thus, number of particles per unit volume can be written as

〈𝑁〉 1
= 𝑛 = + 𝑓+/, (𝜍)
𝑉 𝜆
Where n is particle density.

Equation of state (Fermions)

𝑃𝑉
= * lnE1 + 𝜍 𝑒 %" $! F
𝑘2 𝑇
!
0
𝑃𝑉 4 𝜋 𝑉 )
= + 0 𝑝, lnE1 + 𝜍 𝑒 %"- /(,/) F 𝑑𝑝
𝑘2 𝑇 ℎ 1
0
𝑃𝑉 2 𝑉 +/,
= (2𝜋 𝑚 𝑘2 𝑇) 0 √𝑡 ln[1 + 𝜍 𝑒 %3 ] 𝑑𝑡
𝑘2 𝑇 √𝜋 ℎ +
1

The integration can be done by parts to obtain

𝑃𝑉 2 𝑉 1 𝑡 +/, %3 ]
2 0 𝑡 +/, 𝜍 𝑒 %3
= I ln[1 + 𝜍 𝑒 − 0 𝑑𝑡L
𝑘2 𝑇 √𝜋 ℎ+ 𝜆+ 3/2 3 1 1 + 𝜍 𝑒 %3

5
𝑃 1 1 0
𝑡 , % )
= 0 𝑑𝑡
𝑘2 𝑇 𝜆+ Γ(5/2) 1 𝜍 %) 𝑒 3 + 1

𝑃 1
= + 𝑓5/, (𝜍)
𝑘2 𝑇 𝜆

Alternative expressions for 𝑔4 (𝜍) and 𝑓4 (𝜍)

0
𝜍!
𝑔4 (𝜍) = * 4
𝑘
!6)
0
𝜍!
𝑓4 (𝜍) = *(−1)!7)
𝑘4
!6)

Energy density

〈𝐸〉 = * 𝜖! 〈𝑛! 〉
!

The general expression is

〈𝐸〉 1 𝜖!
= * %) "$
𝑉 𝑉 𝜍 𝑒 ! ±1
!

Where + symbol corresponds to fermions and - symbol corresponds to bosons.

 〈𝐸〉 4 𝜋 0 , 𝜖(𝑝)
= + 0 𝑝 %) "$(-) 𝑑𝑝
𝑉 ℎ 1 𝜍 𝑒 ±1
This can be shown as, solving the integrals as above,
〈𝐸〉 3
= 𝑃
𝑉 2
Implies,
2 〈𝐸〉
𝑃=
3 𝑉

This expression is true for both fermions and bosons.

Comparison between bosons and fermions

Bosons Fermions
〈𝑁〉 1 〈𝑁〉 1
= + 𝑔+/, (𝜍) = + 𝑓+/, (𝜍)
𝑉 𝜆 𝑉 𝜆
𝑃 1 𝑃 1
= + 𝑔5/, (𝜍) = + 𝑓5/, (𝜍)
𝑘2 𝑇 𝜆 𝑘2 𝑇 𝜆
〈𝐸〉 3 〈𝐸〉 3
= 𝑃 = 𝑃
𝑉 2 𝑉 2
〈𝐸〉 3 𝑔5/, (𝜍) 〈𝐸〉 3 𝑓5/, (𝜍)
= 𝑘2 𝑇 = 𝑘2 𝑇
〈𝑁〉 2 𝑔+/, (𝜍) 〈𝑁〉 2 𝑓+/, (𝜍 )

Equation of state (Virial expansion)

At low densities, i.e., 𝜍 ≪ 1, the equation of state can be expressed as

𝑃 1 𝑓5 (𝜍)
= + S , T
𝑘2 𝑇 𝜆 𝑔5/, (𝜍)

Where 𝑓* (𝜍) corresponds to fermions and 𝑔5/, (𝜍) corresponds to bosons. Using the alternative
)

expressions 𝑔4 (𝜍) and 𝑓4 (𝜍), the equation of state can be written as

𝑃 −1 𝜍,
= + U− 𝜍 ± 5 ± … … W
𝑘2 𝑇 𝜆
2,
Here + symbol corresponds to fermions and - symbol corresponds to bosons. Similarly,

〈𝑁〉 1 𝑓+ (𝜍) −1 𝜍,
= + S , T = + U− 𝜍 ± + ± … … W
𝑉 𝜆 𝑔+/, (𝜍 ) 𝜆
2,
 8 〈;〉
This implies, the ratio of ! and will give us
+9 =

𝜍,
X− 𝜍 ± 5 ± … … Y
𝑃 〈𝑁〉 2,
=
𝑘2 𝑇 𝑉 𝜍,
X− 𝜍 ± + ± … … Y
2,
%)
𝑃 〈𝑁〉 𝜍 𝜍
= U− 1 ± 5 W U− 1 ± + W
𝑘2 𝑇 𝑉
2, 2,
𝑃 〈𝑁〉 𝜍 𝜍
= U− 1 ± 5 W U− 1 ∓ + W
𝑘2 𝑇 𝑉
2, 2,
𝑃 〈𝑁〉 𝜍 𝜍
= U 1 ± + ∓ 5 W
𝑘2 𝑇 𝑉
2, 2,
𝑃 〈𝑁〉 𝜍
= U 1 ± 5 W
𝑘2 𝑇 𝑉
2,
In the above expression, ± 𝜍/25/, term is the quantum correction to the classical ideal gas. Here, +
symbol corresponds to fermions and - symbol corresponds to bosons.

〈;〉 > 〈;〉

For small 𝜍, we can write = . This implies, 𝜍 = 𝜆+ . So, in this limit the equation of state
= ?, =

reads,
〈𝑁〉 𝜆+
𝑃 𝑉 = 〈𝑁〉𝑘2 𝑇 X 1 ± Y
𝑉 25/,

Electrons in a conductor

The average occupation number of fermions, in a particular energy level, is given by the expression

1
〈𝑛〉 =
𝑒"($% ') +1

In the 𝑇 ⟶ 0, limit

∞ 𝜖 > 𝜇
1 𝑒 "($% ') = ] 0 𝜖 < 𝜇
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hni
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0 𝜖 > 𝜇
〈𝑛〉 = b
1 𝜖 < 𝜇

µ
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✏
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All the states with 𝜖 < 𝜇 are filled and all the states 𝜖 > 𝜇 are empty. This is the 𝑇 = 0 ground state
of the fermi gas. We there see that 𝜇 (𝑇 = 0) is the highest occupied energy state. One calls this energy
the “Fermi - energy” 𝜖@ = 𝜇 (𝑇 = 0).

The total occupation number,

1
〈𝑁〉 = * "($ % ' (961))
𝑒 - +1
A3B3*C DE3F
$ G $-

Here, 𝜖@ − 𝜇 (𝑇 = 0) = 0. So,

〈𝑁〉 = * 1
A3B3*C DE3F
$ G $-

This can be simplified using the integral

4 𝜋 𝑉 H, / $- ,
〈𝑁〉 = 0 𝑝 𝑑𝑝
ℎ+ 1
4 𝜋 𝑉
〈𝑁〉 = (2 𝑚 𝜖@ )+/,
3 ℎ+
〈𝑁〉 4 𝜋
= 𝑛 = + (2 𝑚 𝜖@ )+/,
𝑉 3 ℎ
4 𝜋 2 𝑚 𝜖@ +/,
𝑛 = c , d
3 ℎ
Thus, the fermi energy is given by
3 𝑛 ,/+ ℎ,
𝜖@ = c d
4 𝜋 2 𝑚
The corresponding fermi temperature is
𝜖@
𝑇@ =
𝑘2
For electrons in a metal 𝑇@ ≈ 10,000 𝐾. So, electrons in a metal always in degenerate limit,
i.e. 𝑇 < 𝑇@ .

Finite temperature

In the limit, 𝑘2 𝑇 ≪ 𝜖@ , we get

3 𝑛 ,/+ ℎ,
𝑘2 𝑇 ≪ c d
4 𝜋 2 𝑚

After re-arranging the terms,
 2𝜋 𝑚 𝑘2 𝑇 3 𝑛 ,/+
≪ 𝜋 c d
ℎ, 4 𝜋
2𝜋 𝑚 𝑘2 𝑇 +/, 3 𝑛
c ,
d ≪ 𝜋 +/,
ℎ 4 𝜋
+
>2𝜋 𝑚 𝑘2 𝑇 3 𝑛 √𝜋
X Y ≪
ℎ 4
1 3 √𝜋
+
≪
𝑛 𝜆 4
4
𝑛 𝜆+ ≫
3 √𝜋
This implies, 𝑛 𝜆+ ≫ 1 is called the low T or high-density limit. Similarly, 𝑛 𝜆+ ≪ 1 is called the high
T or classical limit.

Energy in the degenerate limit (T = 0)

Consider the expression for the number density,

4 𝜋 2 𝑚 𝜖@ +/,
𝑛 = c , d =
3 ℎ
Using this relation, we can define the density of state, i.e. number of states with energy 𝜀 per unit
I
energy per volume 𝑔(𝜀). The density of states, 𝑔(𝜀) = J
= 𝐶 √𝜀. Where the constant

2 2 𝜋 𝑚 +/,
𝐶 = c , d
𝜋 ℎ
Now, we will calculate the following quantity,
〈𝐸〉 J-
= 0 𝑑𝜀 𝑔(𝜀) 𝜀
𝑉 1
J-
= 𝐶 0 𝑑𝜀 √𝜀 𝜀
1

〈𝐸〉 2 𝐶 5/,
= 𝜀
𝑉 5 @
In terms of the constant 𝐶 the density of particles is
〈𝑁〉 2 𝐶 +/,
𝑛 = = 𝜀
𝑉 3 @
This implies, the energy per particle is
〈𝐸〉 3
= 𝜀@
〈𝑁〉 5