Module V

▪ GPS Basics
▪ Working principle of GPS
▪ Satellite Ranging
▪ Calculating Positions
▪ Ranging errors and Corrections
▪ GPS Surveying Methods
▪ Static, Rapid static, DGPS,
Kinematic method
▪ Real time and post processing DGPS
▪ Visibility diagram
▪ GAGAN
GPS Basics
The GPS is a space-based all weather radio navigation system that provides quickly, accurately and
inexpensively the time, position, and velocity of the object anywhere on the globe at any time.
➢The immediate Predecessors of today’s modern positioning system are Inertial Surveying System
(ISS) and the Navy Navigational Satellite System (NNSS) also called TRANSIT system was
developed by US and TSIKADA by Russia.
➢The main problem with TRANSIT was the large time gaps in coverage. The satellites (6) that it
uses are in very low orbit and there are not very many of them. So a user does not get a fix very
often. Also, since the system is based on low frequency Doppler measurements, even small
movements at the receiving end can cause significant errors in position.
➢It was these shortcomings that led to the development of the US Global Positioning System
(GPS), the European Satellite Based Navigation System (Galileo) and the Russian Global
Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)
➢In these systems the satellites are high enough that they can avoid the problems encountered by
land-based systems and they use technology accurate enough to really give pinpoint position
anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day.
➢GLONASS like GPS consists of three segments: the space, the control, and the
user segment. The operational space segment of GLONASS consists of 21
satellites in three orbital planes, with 3 on-orbit spares; making the total number of
24 satellites.
➢The three orbital planes are separated by 120° and the satellites within the same
orbit plane by 45°. Each orbital plane, therefore, has eight equally spaced
satellites, operating at an altitude of 19,100 km at an inclination angle of 64.8° to
the equator.
➢Each satellite will complete an orbit in approximately 11 hr 15 min. The spacing
of satellites is such that a minimum of five satellites are always in view round the
globe. The geometric arrangement gives a considerable better coverage than GPS
in Polar Regions above and below 50° latitude.
➢The satellites work in GLONASS System Time, checked and updated twice daily,
with a maximum time error of 15 ns. The ground control segment is entirely
located within former Soviet Union Territory. The ground control station is located
in Moscow. The user segment consists of antennas and receiver-processors that
provide positioning, velocity and precise timing of the user.
➢The current GPS is based on accurate ephemeris data on the real-time
location of each satellite and on a precisely kept time. It uses the satellite
signals, accurate time, and sophisticated algorithms to generate distances in
order to triangulate positions anywhere on earth.
➢The Global Positioning System is comprised of three segments: satellite
constellation called space segment, ground control/monitoring network
called operational control segment, and user receiving equipment called
user equipment segment.
➢The satellite constellation contains the satellites in orbit that provide the
ranging signals and data messages to the user equipment.
Space Segment (satellite constellation)
➢As stated earlier, one of the main problems with the TRANSIT System was the fact
that the six orbiting satellites were not able to provide continuous positioning. A
sufficient number of satellites, to ensure that (at least) four are always electronically
visible, are required for continuous global positioning capabilities.
➢The satellite constellation consists of the nominal 24-satellite constellation. The
satellites are positioned in six earth-center orbital planes with four satellites in each
plane.
➢The nominal orbital period of a GPS satellite is one-half of a sidereal day or 11h
58m. The orbits are nearly circular and equally spaced about the equator at a 60°
separation with an inclination relative to the equator of nominally 55°.
➢The orbital radius (i.e., the nominal distance from the center of the mass of the earth
to the satellite) is approximately 26 600 km. This disposition ensures that at least
four satellites can be observed from any point on the earth, and in fact six are often
visible. This satellite constellation provides a 24 h global navigation and time
determination capability.
➢The orbital plane locations with respect to the earth are defined by the
longitude of the ascending node, while the location of the satellite within the
orbital plane is defined by the mean anomaly.
➢Mean anomaly is the angular position of each satellite within the orbit, with
the earth’s equator being the reference or point with a zero value of mean
anomaly.
➢The longitude of the ascending node is the point of intersection of each
orbital plane with the equatorial plane. The Greenwich meridian is the
reference point or point where the longitude of the ascending node has the
value of zero.
➢Each satellite sends a full description of its own orbit data necessary to
establish its location in space at any instant and an approximate guide to
orbits of other satellites. The other information transmitted includes health
of the satellite, parameters for propagation, error correction, etc.
Operational Control Segment (OCS)
➢The OCS has the responsibility for maintaining the satellites and their proper
functioning. The control segment tracks all the satellites, ensures they are
operating properly, and computes their position in space.
➢The computed positions of satellites are used to derive parameters, which in turn
are used to predict where the satellite will be later in time. These parameters are
uploaded from the control segment to the satellites and are referred to as broadcast
ephemeris, the prediction of current satellite position that are transmitted to the
user in the data message.
➢The OCS resolves satellite anomalies, makes pseudo-range and Delta-range
measurements to determine satellite clock corrections, almanac, and ephemeris. To
accomplish the above functions, the control segment is comprised of three
different physical components: the master control station (MCS), the monitor
stations (MS) and the ground antennas.
➢The computations of the satellite orbits (ephemerides) and determination of
satellite clock error are the most important function of control segment.
➢The monitor stations passively track the GPS satellites as they pass overhead by
making pseudo-range and Delta-range measurements. These measurements are
made using the two L-band frequencies: L1 at 1575.42 MHz (wavelength of about
19 cm) and L2 at 1227.6 MHz (wavelength at 24 cm).
➢The L1 signal is modulated with two codes and a navigation message: “short”
Coarse Acquisition (C/A) code and “long” Precise (P) code. The C/A-code has a
1-ms period and repeats constantly, whereas the P-code satellite transmission is a
7-day sequence that repeats every midnight Saturday/Sunday.
➢The C/A code is available to the public, whereas the P-code is designed for
military use. Only the P-code is modulated on L2 band. Each satellite transmits on
these frequencies, but with different ranging codes than those employed by other
satellites.
➢These codes were selected because they have low cross-correlation properties
with respect to one another. The navigation data provides the means for the
receiver to determine the location of the satellite at the time of signal transmission,
whereas the ranging code enables the user’s receiver to determine the transit time
of the signal and thereby determine the user-to-satellite time.
➢The message contains clock corrections and predicted orbital parameters, which
are used in computer programs to assist in positioning solutions
User Equipment Segment
➢The user receiving equipment, referred to as a GPS receiver, receives and
processes the L-band signals transmitted from the satellites to determine user
position, velocity and time (PVT).
➢Almost all GPS receivers have essentially the same basic components—an
antenna, an RF (radio frequency) section, a microprocessor, a control and display
unit (CDU), a recording device and a power supply.
➢These components may be individual units, integrated into one unit, or partially
integrated. Usually, all components, with the exception of the antenna, are
grouped together and are referred to as receiver.
➢The smallest sets today are those of wrist watch, while probably the largest is
naval shipboard unit with a foot print of 1550 cm2 and a weight of 31.8 kg.
Selection of the GPS receiver depends on user’s application.
➢The basic functional subsystems of a GPS receiver consist of following
Antenna and preamplifier, Radiofrequency section and computer processor,
Input/Output device, Power supply
Principle Of Position Determination (Via Satellite Generated Ranging Signals)
➢GPS employs Time of Arrival (TOA) ranging for user position determination. By
making TOA measurements to multiple satellites, three-dimensional positioning is
achieved.
➢Assume that there is a single satellite transmitting a ranging signal. A clock on-board
the satellite controls the timings of the ranging signal broadcast. This clock and others
on-board each of the satellites within the constellation are effectively synchronized to
an internal system time scale denoted as GPS time.
➢The user’s receiver also contains a clock that (for the moment) we assume to be
synchronized to the system time. Timing information is embedded within the satellite
ranging signal that enables the receiver to calculate when the signal left the satellite.
➢By noting the time when the signal was received, the satellite-to-user propagation time
can be computed. The product of this propagation time and the speed of light yields the
satellite-to-user range, R. As a result of this measurement process, the user would be
located somewhere on the surface of a sphere centred about the satellite, as shown in
Fig. 9.5(a).
http://youtu.be/8eTII19_57g
➢If a measurement was simultaneously made using the ranging signal of a second
satellite, the user would also be located on the surface of a second sphere that is
concentric about the second satellite. Thus, the user would then be somewhere on
the surface of both the spheres, which could be either on the perimeter of the
shaded circle in Fig. 9.5(b)
➢Repeating the measurement process using a third satellite co-locates the user on
the perimeter of the circle and the surface of the third sphere. This third sphere
intersects the shaded circle perimeter at two points (Fig. 9.5(d)), however, only
one of the points is the correct user position.
➢With the third measurement user narrows down its position to just two points in
all the universe.
➢For a user on the earth’s surface, it is apparent that the lower point will be the true
position. However, users that are above the earth’s surface may employ
measurements from satellites at negative elevation angles. This complicates the
determination of an unambiguous solution.
➢ Airborne/spaceborne receiver solutions may be above or below the plane
containing the satellites, and it may not be clear which point to select unless the
user has ancillary information.
Determining Satellite-to-user Range
➢The GPS satellites are configured, primarily to provide the
user with the capability of determining his position, expressed,
for example, by latitude, longitude, and elevation. This is
accomplished by the simple resection process using the
distances measured to the satellites.
➢It was presumed that the receiver clock was perfectly
synchronized to the system time. In actuality, this is generally
not the case.
➢The errors experienced from non-synchronized clocks are
considerably large as compared to some of the other errors
such as measurement noise, propagation delays, etc.
Therefore, in the development of basic concepts, errors other
than clock offset are omitted.
➢In Fig. 9.6, S denotes the position of a satellite in space at a
given instant. It is required to determine the vector u, which
represents a user receiver’s position on earth’s surface. The
user’s position coordinates xu, yu ,zu are considered unknown.
➢Vector r represents the vector offset from the user to the
satellite. xs, ys, zs are coordinates of the satellite location. The
position of the satellite with respect to the center of the earth
is represented by vector s.
➢Vector s is computed using ephemeris data broadcast by the satellite. The
satellite-to-user vector r is given as
r=s–u
➢The magnitude of vector r is || r || = || s – u || or R = || s – u ||
➢If the satellite clock and the receiver clock were perfectly synchronized, the
correlation process would yield the true propagation time t. By multiplying
this propagation time by the speed of light, the true (i.e., geometric) satellite-
to-user distance can be computed. However, the satellite and receiver clocks
are generally not synchronized.
➢The receiver clock will generally have a bias error from the system time.
Further, satellite frequency generation and timing is based on highly accurate
atomic clock, which is typically offset from the system time. Thus, the range
determined by the correlation process is denoted as pseudo range ρ, which
contains geometric satellite-to-user range, difference between the system time
and the user clock, offset between the system time and the satellite clock
Calculation Of User Position
➢Since the intersection of three spheres yields the three unknowns (e.g., latitude,
longitude, and height), hence, ranges to only three satellites would be needed.
Since the clock of the ground GPS receiver is offset from the GPS time, the
distance measured to the satellite is not the true range.
➢Therefore, in order to determine the user position in three dimensions (x’u, y’u,
z’u) and the offset t’u, pseudo-range measurements are made to four satellites
resulting in the system of equations:
➢After solving the above equations

➢Which can be written as

After equation 9.21

➢The true user-to-satellite measurements, however, are corrupted by uncommon
(i.e., independent) errors such as measurement noise, deviation of the satellite path
from the reported ephemeris, and multipath. These errors translate to errors in the
components of vector ∆x.
➢The error contribution ε𝑥 can be minimized by making measurements to more than
four satellites, which will result in an overdetermined solution set of equations.
GPS ERROR SOURCES
➢Inaccuracies in GPS signals come from the variety of sources like satellite
clocks, imperfect orbits and especially from the signal’s trip through the
earth’s atmosphere.
➢Since these inaccuracies are variable, it is hard to predict what they will be in
order to correct for them. Although, these errors are small, but to get the kind
of accuracies some critical positioning jobs require, all the errors, no matter
how minor, are to be minimized.
➢What is needed is a way to measure the actual errors as they happen. The error
sources can be classified into three groups, namely satellite-related errors,
propagation-medium related errors, and receiver-related errors. These are
known as systematic errors. However, sometimes errors are introduced
intentionally known as selective availability.
Satellite Error
GPS satellites are equipped with very accurate atomic clocks. But as good as these clocks are,
they are not perfect. Slight inaccuracies in their timekeeping ultimately lead to inaccuracies in
our position measurements.
The satellite’s position in space is also important equally because it is the starting point for all
of the GPS calculations.
GPS satellites are placed into very high orbits and so are relatively free from the perturbing
effects of the earth’s upper atmosphere, but even so they still drift slightly from their predicted
orbits contributing to the errors.
Signal propagation errors
GPS satellites transmit their timing information by radio, and that is another source of error
because radio signals in the earth’s atmosphere (ionosphere and troposphere) do not behave as
predictably desired.
It is assumed that radio signals travel at the speed of light, which is presumably a constant.
However, the speed of light is not constant. It is only constant in vacuum. In the real world,
light (or radio) slows down depending on what it is travelling through.
As a GPS signal comes down through the charged particles in the ionosphere and then through
the water vapor in the troposphere, it gets delayed a little. Since calculation of distance
assumes a constant speed of light, this delay results into a miscalculation of the satellite’s
distance, which in turn translates into an error in position
Receiver errors:
The receivers are also not perfect. They can introduce their own errors which usually
stem from their clocks or internal noise, multipath and antenna face center variation
➢As the GPS signal arrives at the surface of the earth it may get reflected by local
obstructions and gets to the receiver’s antenna via more than one path. This form of
error is called multipath error because, in a sense, the signal is getting to the antenna
by multiple paths. First, the antenna receives the direct signal it being the fastest, and
then the reflected signals arrive a little later.
➢These delayed signals can interfere with the direct signal giving noisy results.
Secondary effects are reflections at the satellite during signal transmission.
➢The elimination of multipath signals is also possible by selecting an antenna that
takes advantage of the signal polarization. GPS signals are right-handed circularly
polarized, whereas the reflected signals are left-handed polarized.
➢A reduction of multipath effect may also be achieved by digital filtering, wideband
antennas, and radio frequency absorbent antenna ground planes.
Antenna phase center offset and variation:
The phase center of the antenna is the point to which the radio signal measurement is referred
and generally is not identical with the geometric antenna centre.
The offset depends on the elevation, the azimuth, and the intensity of the satellite signal and is
different for L1 and L2 codes. Also, the true antenna phase centre may be different from the
manufacturer indicated center.
This antenna offset may simply arise from inaccurate production series. Further, the antenna
phase center can vary with respect to the incoming satellite signals. The variation is systematic
and may be investigated by test series.
Selective Availability
The errors described above are called the natural errors, systematic errors or biases1. Sometimes
noise2 is introduced intentionally into the GPS satellite clocks ( -process3), which reduces their
accuracy. When implemented, it is the largest source of error in the GPS system. S/A is also
known as intentional error. This error is created intentionally for selective availability, for
example, for civil and military purposes.
DIFFERENTIAL GPS
➢Differential GPS is a system in which differences between observed and computed
coordinates or ranges called differential corrections, at a particular known point called the
reference station, are transmitted to users to improve the accuracy of the user’s receiver
position.
➢In fact, DGPS is a way to make GPS even more accurate. It can yield measurements good
to a couple of meters in moving applications, and even better in stationary situations.
➢That improved accuracy has a very profound effect on the importance of GPS as a resource
and it becomes a universal measurement system, capable of positioning things on a very
precise scale.
➢DGPS is mainly a navigation method in which there is a fixed reference station and
coordinates of moving platform or rover are determined in real time.
➢DGPS is based on the concept that bias error in position of the location is similar to those
for all locations in a given local area (say within 100 km). Unfortunately, a user can not just
figure out the error once and use it to correct all the measurements made for the rest of the
day, because the satellite errors are continuously changing
➢A user needs to have two receivers working simultaneously to do the job. The
reference receiver stays put and continuously monitors the errors and then transmits
or records corrections for those errors so that the second receiver (the one that is out
roving around doing positioning work) can apply these corrections to its
measurements, either as it is making them or some time later.
➢Thus, by having a reference receiver at a fixed location, the user can tune up the
accuracy of a roving receiver, or for a whole fleet of roving receivers.
➢In basic GPS, a single receiver can wander around and make pretty good
measurements by itself, using the GPS satellites as its reference. DGPS on the other
hand, involves cooperation between two receivers, one that wanders around and
another that is stationary. The stationary receiver is the key to the accuracy of DGPS. It
ties all the satellite measurements into a solid local reference.
➢The satellites are so far out in space that the little distances we travel here on earth are
insignificant. Since both receivers will have virtually the same errors, the user can have
one receiver (reference receiver) measure those errors and provide that error
information to the other receiver (roving receiver) via telemetry (i.e., controlled radio
link).
➢The reference receiver is put on a point that has been very accurately surveyed. This
reference station receives the same GPS signals as the roving receiver but instead of
working like a normal GPS receiver, i.e., instead of using timing signals to calculate a
position, it uses its known position to calculate timing.
➢Since the reference station knows where the satellites are supposed to be in space, and
it knows exactly where it is, it can compute a theoretical distance between itself and
each satellite. It divides that distance by the speed of light and gets a time, that is, how
long the signals should have taken to reach it.
➢It compares that theoretical time with the time they actually took. Any difference is the
error (or delay) in the satellite’s signal.
➢Now all the reference receiver has to do is give this error information to any
roving receivers in the area so that they can use it to correct their measurements.
➢Since the reference receiver has no way of knowing which of the many available
satellites a roving receiver is using to calculate its position, it must go through all
the visible satellites and compute their instantaneous errors.
➢Then it encodes this information into a standard format and transmits it to the
roving receivers. The roving receiver receives the complete list of errors and
applies the corrections for the particular satellites they are using.
➢There are a number of techniques to transmit correction factors from the
reference receiver to the roving receivers, but the radio link technique is the most
common.
GPS SURVEYING TECHNIQUES
➢The position of stationary or moving object can be determined through GPS. When
the position of a stationary or moving object is determined with respect to a well
defined coordinate (x, y, z) by using a single GPS receiver and by making
observations to four or more satellites, it is called point positioning or absolute
positioning.
➢However, if the coordinates of an unknown point are determined with respect to a
known point (taking this as origin of a local coordinate system), it is called relative
positioning.
➢In other words, relative positioning aims at determination of the vector between the
two points, by observations to four or more satellites by two receivers placed at the
two points simultaneously.
➢In case the object to be positioned is stationary, it is termed as static positioning,
while if the object is moving, it is called kinematic positioning.
➢GPS surveying implies the precise measurement of the vector between two GPS
instruments. The GPS surveys may be classed as static surveys the traditional static
surveying; dynamic surveys the rapid-static surveying & pseudo-static surveying,
and kinematic surveying.
Dynamic survey technique
➢Dynamic surveying implies some sort of motion. It allows user to move during
surveying and to collect data on move.
➢The modelling of the orbit for GPS satellites is a dynamic procedure. As soon as the
positions of the satellites are assumed to be known and given, positioning of a moving
vehicle can be considered as kinematic procedure.
Following are the various methods of this surveying technique
1. Rapid static surveying:
This technique, also known as fast-static technique, is much like static surveying except
that the occupation times are shorter. Typically, the receivers need only occupy a base
line for about 5–30 minutes to determine the components (∆x, ∆y, and ∆z) between the
stations. Rapid static technique ideally requires one receiver to be positioned on a
station of known coordinates while the others move from station to station. With this
technique, there is no need to maintain lock on satellites while moving rover receivers.
Accuracy of a few millimeters (10–30) are possible using this technique.
2. Pseudo-static surveying:
This is also known as pseudo-kinematic technique or intermittent static or
snapshot static. It is more flexible than kinematic technique, since lock on
satellites need not be maintained while travelling between stations, but it is not as
quick. Also, it is faster than using static technique, but it is not as accurate.
However, it is slower as well as less accurate than using the rapid static technique.
This technique falls between static and kinematic techniques in terms of
productivity. In this technique a pair of receivers occupies a pair of points for a
small period (2–5 min) that are separated in time by 30–60 minutes.