HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1st Semester

LABORATORY (PCBI102L) A.Y. 2023 - 2024

Mr. Dennis Daniel Clemente
Schedule: Synchronous - Every Tuesday and Anatomical Position
Thursday (10:00 AM - 2:00 PM)
Face-to-Face Classes - Every Saturday (10:00AM
- 2:00 PM)

Module 1 E1. Pre-Lab :

Organization of the Body
standard anatomical position of the human body
• Facing towards the observer
• Legs hip-width apart
• Feet facing forward
• Arms out slightly at either side with palms
facing forward

Archetypal Body Planes

• Frontal plane splits the body into anterior • Prone - a face-down orientation.
and posterior halves. • Supine - a face up orientation.
• Sagittal plane splits the body into left and
right halves. Regional Terms
• Transverse plane splits the body into
superior and inferior (top and bottom)
The human body’s numerous regions have
halves.
specific terms to help increase precision.

Directional Terms
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Human
Body (Language of Anatomy) Anterior (or ventral) - the front or direction
toward the front of the body.
Anatomical Terminology Example:
The toes are anterior to the foot.
Anatomical terms are made up of roots,
prefixes, and suffixes. The root of a term often Posterior (or dorsal) - the back or direction
refers to an organ, tissue, or condition, toward the back of the body.
whereas the prefix or suffix often describes the Example:
root. The popliteus is posterior to the patella.

Superior (or cranial) - a position above or

higher than another part of the body proper.
Example:
The orbits are superior to the oris.
Inferior (or caudal) - a position below or lower
than another part of the body proper; near or
toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or
lowest part of the spinal column).
Example:
The pelvis is inferior to the abdomen.

Lateral - the side or direction toward the side

of the body.
Example:
The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits.

Medial - the middle or direction toward the

middle of the body.
Example:
The hallux is the medial toe.

Proximal - a position in a limb that is nearer to

the point of attachment or the trunk of the body. Body Planes
Example:
The brachium is proximal to the antebrachium. Section - two-dimensional surface of a three-
dimensional structure that has been cut.
Distal - a position in a limb that is farther from Modern medical imaging devices enable
the point of attachment or the trunk of the body. clinicians to obtain “virtual sections” of living
Example: bodies.
The crus is distal to the femur. Plane is an imaginary two-dimensional surface
that passes through the body.
Superficial - a position closer to the surface of
the body.
Example: three planes commonly referred to in anatomy and
The skin is superficial to the bones. medicine
Deep - a position farther from the surface of • Sagittal plane - plane that divides the body
the body. or an organ vertically into right and left
Example: sides.
The brain is deep to the skull. o Midsagittal or median plane -
vertical plane runs directly down the
middle of the body. Parasagittal
plane or longitudinal section - divides
the body into unequal right and left
sides.
• Frontal plane - plane that divides the body
or an organ into an anterior (front) portion
and a posterior (rear) portion. The frontal
plane is often referred to as a coronal
plane. (“Corona” is Latin for “crown.”)

KISHA R. GUILLEM 2
• Transverse plane - plane that divides the
body or organ horizontally into upper and
lower portions. Transverse planes produce
images referred to as cross sections.

Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior

(Ventral) Cavities
The posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral)
cavities are each subdivided into smaller
cavities.

posterior (dorsal) cavity has two main subdivisions:

• Cranial cavity houses the brain.
• Spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity)
encloses the spinal cord.

Just as the brain and spinal cord make up a

continuous, uninterrupted structure, the cranial
and spinal cavities that house them are also
Body Cavities and Serous Membranes continuous. The brain and spinal cord are
protected by the bones of the skull and
The body maintains its internal organization by vertebral column and by cerebrospinal fluid, a
means of membranes, sheaths, and other colorless fluid produced by the brain, which
structures that separate compartments. cushions the brain and spinal cord within the
• Dorsal (posterior) cavity and the ventral posterior (dorsal) cavity.
(anterior) cavity are the largest body
compartments. These cavities contain and Anterior (ventral) cavity has two main subdivisions:
protect delicate internal organ.
• Ventral cavity allows for significant • Thoracic cavity - more superior
changes in the size and shape of the subdivision of the anterior cavity, and it is
organs as they perform their functions. It enclosed by the rib cage. The thoracic
also includes the thoracic and cavity contains the lungs and the heart,
abdominopelvic cavities and their which is located in the mediastinum. The
subdivisions. diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic
cavity and separates it from the more
• Dorsal cavity includes the cranial and
inferior abdominopelvic cavity.
spinal cavities.
• Abdominopelvic cavity - largest cavity in
EXAMPLE the body. Although no membrane physically
The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for divides the abdominopelvic cavity, it can be
example, can expand and contract without useful to distinguish between the abdominal
distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of cavity, the division that houses the digestive
nearby organs.

KISHA R. GUILLEM 3
 organs, and the pelvic cavity, the division • Right iliac - appendix, cecum
that houses the organs of reproduction. • Hypogastric - urinary bladder, sigmoid
colon, female reproductive
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants • Left iliac - descending colon, sigmoid colon

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f6rZw7QkG
Lw

Abdominal signs and symptoms represent

various pathologies:
• Vascular problems
• Infectious diseases
• Trauma
• Autoimmune
• Musculoskeletal
• Idiopathic
There are (a) nine abdominal regions and (b)
four abdominal quadrants in the peritoneal • Neoplastic
cavity. The more detailed regional approach • Congenital
subdivides the cavity with one horizontal line
immediately inferior to the ribs and one some diseases associated with the different
immediately superior to the pelvis, and two abdominal quadrants:
vertical lines drawn as if dropped from the
midpoint of each clavicle (collarbone). There • Right upper quadrant pain - gastric reflux,
are nine resulting regions. The simpler gallbladder disease, hepatitis, peptic ulcer,
quadrants approach, which is more commonly pancreatitis, kidney stones, retrocecal
used in medicine, subdivides the cavity with appendicitis, bowel obstruction
one horizontal and one vertical line that • Right lower quadrant pain - appendicitis,
intersect at the patient’s umbilicus (navel). cecal diverticulitis, ectopic pregnancy,
inguinal hernia, ovarian cysts, pelvic
inflammatory disease (PID), psoas abscess,
Clinical and Surgical applications
kidney stones
The abdomen is divided into 9 regions by two • Left upper quadrant pain - gastric reflux,
sagittal planes from the midclavicular lines to peptic ulcer disease, splenic infarction,
the mid inguinal lines, and two transverse pyelonephritis, bowel obstruction, aortic
planes. The center of the nine regions is the dissection
umbilicus. • Left lower quadrant pain - diverticulitis,
kidney stones, ectopic pregnancy, PID,
regions are associated with various organs and their irritable bowel syndrome, aortic aneurysm,
segments small bowel obstruction
• Right hypochondriac - liver, gallbladder
• Epigastric - stomach, liver, pancreas, Example of Case Studies:
duodenum, adrenal glands 1. A 25-year-old male patient comes to you with
the following complaints:
• Left hypochondriac - spleen, colon,
▪ Abdominal pain
pancreas ▪ Fever
• Right lumbar - ascending colon, right ▪ Upon examination, you observed the following:
kidney ▪ Severe pain in the right lower quadrant or in the
• Umbilical region - navel, small intestine area of right lumbar and right iliac regions,
• Left lumbar - descending colon, left kidney especially when pressure is applied.

KISHA R. GUILLEM 4
▪ Pain radiating to the right flank.
▪ Blood tests show elevated WBC count.

2. A 45-year-old male suddenly experienced blurry

vision and syncope after jogging at a distance
of 2km. He was rushed to the ER after 30 mins.
He was unconscious in the ER and underwent a
physical examination and CT scan. The CT
scan revealed that part of the left cerebral
hemisphere is covered with fluid. When he
regained consciousness, it was observed that
he had hemianopsia and hemiparesis.

Provide the following:

Signs
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Diagnostic procedures
Pathogenesis
Treatment and other procedures needed

CARDINAL SIGNS OF INFLAMMATION

• RUBOR (REDNESS)
• DOLOR (PAIN)
• TUMOR (SWELLING)
• PALOR (PALENESS)
• FUNCTIONA LAESSA (LOSS OF
FUNCTION)
• CALOR (HEAT)
Optical parts

M1 E2: MICROSCOPE
Microscope
- are instruments that are used in science
laboratories, to visualize very minute
objects such as cells, tissues,
microorganisms, giving a contrasting image,
that is magnified.

PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

KISHA R. GUILLEM 5
 Magnification Eukaryotic
- Total magnification is determined by - Eu (True), Karyotic (Nucleus)
multiplying the power of the ocular by the - has a true nucleus that is bounded by a cell
power of the objective in use. membrane
- DNA is enclosed in the nucleus

NOTES!
 Body temperature should be 37.8 degree
Celsius.
 Prophylaxis – preventing the progression
of the disease.
 Virulence – the capacity to cause diseases.

CYTOLOGY
Electron Microscope
- Instead of using light, electron is used to get
the image.
EXAMPLE IMAGES

organelles
Ribosomes
- site of protein synthesis

Mitochondria
Prokaryotic - powerhouse of the cell
- has its own DNA, very similar to a
- Pro (Primitive), Karyotic/Karyo (Nucleus) prokaryotic cell
- Cell with the nucleus
- Smaller than eukaryotic (size of Respiration – exchange of gases
mitochondria)
- Doesn’t have a nucleus but it has a
nucleoid that contains DNA 2 types of respiration
- All bacteria belong to the prokaryotic group • Aerobic Respiration - energy production
- Cell wall, capsule, flagella, pilus/pili or metabolic process with the presence of
oxygen.
• Flagella is for locomotion. • Anaerobic Respiration - energy
• Pili is for genetic material transform production or metabolic processing in the
absence of carbon dioxide and a smaller

KISHA R. GUILLEM 6
 number of ATP molecules are produced at
the same time there’s a metabolic
byproduct.

NOTES
 Normal range of Blood is 7.35 – 7.45
 Cristae are the curves visible in the
mitochondria.

2 TYPES OF ACIDOSIS
• Metabolic (Hydrogen Ions) Acidosis –
less than 7.35 blood pH level so you need
to urinate more and rink more water. CELL MEMBRANE
• Respiratory Acidosis – less than 7.35 - Two layers / Double phospholipids layer /
blood pH level and high carbon dioxide so phospholipid bilipid layer
you need to exhale more for more oxygen. - 2 phospholipid molecules: Phosphate and
The presence of lactic acid and Lipids (Fats)
accumulation of carbon dioxide would cause
your blood become acidic 2 types of Lipids
Saturated -
Endosymbiont Theory Unsaturated -
- Free living bacteria
Hydrophilic head (Phosphate) – attracts water
- Need glucose and oxygen in order to
Hydrophobic tail (Lipids – oil based) – fears
produce energy
water
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
TYPES OF PROTEIN
- form of energy produced by your Channel Protein – tunnel in the middle
mitochondria based on several biochemical Integral Protein – in between the
reactions/metabolic pathways/reparation phospholipid’s molecules
Peripheral Protein – surrounds the
DEFINITION TERMS phospholipids
Adenosine – a type of organic molecule Alpha helix Protein -
Ribose – type of sugar, five carbon sugar Globular Proteins -
Phosphate groups (3) - each phosphate is
bonded by a high energy bond. DEFINITION OF TERMS
Metabolism – cleave the bond releasing the Glycoproteins – combination of CO2 and
energy which results ADP (Adenosine proteins
Diphosphate) Cholesterol – stability of your cell membrane
Cellular Respiration - mitochondria converts also serves as the glue
oxygen and glucose into ATP. Proteins – serves as the gates
Carbohydrates – serves as the lock
Semi-permeable – selective or certain
substances that can go in / out in the cell.
Water can pass through the cell membrane
easily.

2 Compartments of the Cell

KISHA R. GUILLEM 7
• Extracellular – outside of the cell - Depends on the concentration gradient but
▪ Extracellular Fluids (ECF) – fluid without energy
outside the cell. - Downhill transport
• Intracellular – inside of the cell
▪ Intracellular Fluids (ICF) – fluid inside - Difference of ions pumped caused the
the cell. production of an electric impulse/voltage
into the cell membrane.
2 types of Transport
2 TYPES OF ACTION POTENTIAL
Active Transport Depolarization – movement towards outside
Repolarization – movement towards inside
- Presence of ATP
- Uphill transport
3 TYPES OF SOLUTION
EXAMPLE Isotonic Solution
Sodium Potassium ATPase Pump - normal ICF is 0.9% NaCl Solution / body
- ATPase – type of enzyme that can cleave ATP, fluid / normal saline solution
breaking ATP bond into ADP (free inorganic
- No movement of water
phosphate) plus inorganic materials.
Hypertonic Solution
EXAMPLE - above 0.9%
Phagocytosis - direction of water is towards outside
- The whole process of engulfment the cell is shrinked/wrinkled
pathogens - solute is greater in the extracellular
2 processes of Phagocytosis Hypotonic Solution
• Endocytosis – engulfed the pathogens - below 0.9%
• Exocytosis – release wastes after - direction of water is towards inside
digestion - cell is bloated
- solute is greater in the intracellular

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Pseudopods – false feet like structure that
engulfs bacteria NOTES
Lysosomes – contains potent • Behavior of water is always the site towards
hydrolytic/compound enzymes that can a higher amount of solute.
dissolve anything that is enclosed in the food
vacuole. DEFINITION OF TERMS
Heamolysis – specific to blood, blood bursting
Passive Transport Cytolysis – cell bursting
Crenation- shrinking of cells

KISHA R. GUILLEM 8
 2 TYPES OF DIABETES Telophase
• Type 1 Diabetes – Insulin Dependent - 2 daughter cells, each cell will now enter
Diabetes the interphase
• Type 2 Diabetes – Not Insulin Dependent
Diabetes Cytokinesis
- result of telophase where there is a
3 Cardinal Signs of Diabetes
separation of cytoplasm and cell membrane
• Polydipsia – excessive drinking
• Polyuria – excessive urinating DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Polyphagia – excessive eating Metastasis – migration of cancer to one place
to another
CELL CYCLE Dysplasia – distorted type of cells

Interphase HISTOLOGY – TISSUES

- Most active phase because of the
preparation for the cell like synthesis of EPITHELIAL TISSUE
DNA/enzymes for mitosis - organized and proper arrangement of
- Not part of mitosis but a part of the cell tissues
cycle
Depends on the arrangement
G0 G1 S G2
Simple – one row of cells
G0 – Stratified – 2 rows or layers
G1 – cells growing in preparation in order for Pseudostratified - false
the DNA to replicate
S – stands for synthesis which synthesizes the
DNA Depends on the shape
G2 – growth of cell before mitosis Squamous Cell – flat/scaley like
Cuboidal Cell – cube like
Prophase Columnar Cell – long
- Condensed chromosomes from chromatin Transitional – different cells that transitions,
because of interphase, they thicken/more different cells in one tissue.
condensed that they became
chromosomes. Simple Squamous Epithelial Tissue
Metaphase - Single layer / flat
- Usually found in alveoli
- Align the center in the mycotic plate/center
line. EXAMPLE
- Spindle Fibers attached to the centrosome
composed of cytoskeleton microtubules and
centrioles.

Anaphase
- Pulling each other that results to separation
in respective poles.

KISHA R. GUILLEM 9
 Stratified Squamous Epithelial Tissue
- protects the inner lining
- usually found in esophagus or skin /
Simple Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue
integumentary system
- usually found in the kidneys / excretory
system EXAMPLE
- nucleus in each cell ESOPHAGUS

- EXAMPLE

SKIN

Simple Columnar Epithelial Tissue

- found in your GIT, entire length of the
gastrointestinal tract

EXAMPLE

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelial

- kidneys or urinary tract

- EXAMPLE

KISHA R. GUILLEM 10
 TYPES OF MUSCLES
Skeletal Muscle
- String
- Striated
- Multinucleated
- Voluntary

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Stria – lines
Stria Gravidarum – stretched marks
Salivary Gland Gravidarum means pregnancy

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelial Tissue EXAMPLE

- usually found in the respiratory tract such
as in trachea or bronchi
- EXAMPLE

Smooth Muscles
- Uninucleated
Definition of a term - Spindle-shaped
- Involuntary
Basement Membrane/Basal Laminae –
- Usually seen in internal organs like GIT,
where they are placed.
urethra, uterus.
- Found in the blood vessels
MUSCLE tissue
EXAMPLE:

KISHA R. GUILLEM 11
Definition of a term - Fat layer/cells/tissue
Synergy – helping each other in contraction - Usually found in the hypodermis /
underneath your skin for protection of the
Cardiac Muscle internal organs

- Looks like striated Definition of terms

- Uninucleated
Vacuole – space that is composed by oil/fats
- Involuntary
Signet Ring because of the appearance of the
- In branches
cell
- Only found in the heart (Atrium and
Adipose Tissues – tissues found in the
Ventricles)
adipose tissues
Adipocyte – ceils found in the adipose tissue
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE:

Definition of a term
Intercalated disks – reason why the cardiac
muscles branch out so that it attached to
another muscle so that the electrical stimulus Blood
will spread to one point to another to ensure
that the entire muscle is contracting. Fluid Component
Blood Plasma – with proteins
Connective Tissue
Foreign Elements
- act as connections among various tissues
Erythrocytes – Red Blood Cell
6 TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES - Enucleated
- 120 days life span; dead RBC goes to
spleen (graveyard of RBC’s)
Loose Connective Tissue
- Fiber / thread-like Leukocytes – White Blood Cell
- Usually found underneath the skin - Nucleated

Definition of a term Thrombocyrtes / Platelets

Facia – composed of fiber connective tissues - Granules like
and for support and connection
EXAMPLES
Adipose Tissue

KISHA R. GUILLEM 12
Fibrous Connective Tissue / Loose Areolar 3 types of cartilage tissues
Tissue
Hyalin - tougher / more shiny
Elastic – usually found in ears / ears
EXAMPLE: ❖ Elastin – protein which makes it elastic
Fibrous – found in the intervertebral disc

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Partially movable joints – in between the
vertebral bones
Intervertebral Discs – composed of two parts:
Annulus Fibrosus – composed of fibrosus
cartilage
Nucleus Pulposus – composed of gelatinous
substance
Herniation – protrusion of a disc.
Laminectomy – remove the intervertebral disc
then clamp the two vertebrae.

Fibrous Bones

Cartilage
Definition of terms
Haversian System / Osteon - is the basic unit
Definition of a term / one circle.
Matrix – space Haversian Canal - is located in the middle and
Lacuna / Lacunae – entire thing, cradle of the passageway of blood vessels, veins, lymphatic
cell, the one protecting the cells. vessels
Chondrocytes – cells found in the cartilage. Matrix – space and composed of calcified
tissue (calcium deposition)
EXAMPLE: Lacuna - dark ones and where cells will be
found /
Osteocytes – bone cells.

EXAMPLE:

KISHA R. GUILLEM 13
 Myelinated Axon – electrical impulse will jump
to this point to this point.
Saltatory Conduction – instead of traversing,
jumping from one point to another, this action is
much faster than electrical conduction.

Dendrite soma axon axon terminal

effector organ

2 TYPES OF BONES INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

- Consists of the skin and accessory organs;
hair, nails, and cutaneous glands
Glandular Tissue - Inspection of the skin, hair, and nails is
- significant part of a physical exam
EXAMPLE - Skin is the most vulnerable organ
❖ Exposed to radiation, trauma, infection, and
injurious chemicals
- Receives more medical treatment than
any other organ system

Dermatology - scientific study and medical

treatment of the integumentary system.

The Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue Skin is body’s largest and heaviest organ
– Covers 1.5 to 2.0 m2 ; composes 15% of
body weight

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Appendages – visible in the skin
Subcutaneous – tissue under the skin

LAYERS OF THE SKIN

NERVOUS TISSUE
Epidermis - stratified squamous epithelium
- Dermis - deeper connective tissue layer
Hypodermis - connective tissue layer below
Definition of terms dermis (not part of skin, but associated with it)
Neurons – nerve cells
Dendrites – starlike appearance SKIN THICKNESS
Soma - - Thick skin covers front of hands, bottoms
Myelin Sheath – composed of Schwann cells of feet
Node of Ranvier – in between of myelin - Has sweat glands, but no hair follicles or
sheaths, junctions sebaceous (oil) glands • Epidermis 0.5
Axon - mm thick
- Thin skin covers rest of the body

KISHA R. GUILLEM 14
 - Possesses hair follicles, sebaceous - Mitosis
glands, and sweat glands • Keratinocytes
- Epidermis about 0.1 mm thick - Great majority of epidermal cells
- Synthesize keratin
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN • Melanocytes
• Resistance to trauma and infection - Synthesize pigment melanin that
- Keratin shields DNA from ultraviolet radiation
- Dermacidin and defensins – Acid mantle - Occur only in Stratum Basale but have
• Other barrier functions – Water branched processes that spread among
- UV radiation keratinocytes and distribute melanin
- Harmful chemicals • Tactile Cells
• Vitamin D synthesis - Touch receptor cells associated with
- Skin carries out first step dermal nerve fibers
- Liver and kidneys complete - In basal layer of epidermis
- Vitamin D – fat soluble vitamin to digest • Dendritic Cells
calcium - Macrophages originating in bone
• Sensation marrow that guard against pathogens
- Skin is an extensive sense organ - Found in Stratum Spinosum and
- Receptors for temperature, touch, pain, Granulosum
and more
• Thermoregulation LAYERS OF tHE EPIDERMIS
- Thermoreceptors • Stratum Basale (deepest epidermal layer)
- Vasoconstriction/vasodilation - lumiliit - A single layer of stem cells and
- Perspiration – drop of sweat has a lot of keratinocytes resting on the basement
calories membrane
• Nonverbal communication - Stem cells divide and give rise to
- Facial expression keratinocytes that migrate toward skin
- Importance in social acceptance and surface to replace lost cells
self-image - Also contains a few melanocytes and
tactile cells
EPIDERMIS • Stratum Spinosum
- Several layers of keratinocytes joined
- Keratinized stratified squamous together by desmosomes and tight
epithelium junctions
- Includes dead cells at skin surface - Named for appearance of cells after
packed with tough keratin protein histological preparation (spiny)
- Lacks blood vessels - Also contains some dendritic cells
o Depends on the diffusion of nutrients
• Stratum Granulosum
from underlying connective tissue
- Three to five layers of flat keratinocytes
- Contains sparse nerve endings for
- Cells contain dark-staining keratohyalin
touch and pain
granules
• Stratum Lucidum
FIVE EPIDERMAL CELL TYPES - Thin, pale layer found only in thick skin
• Stem Cells - Keratinocytes packed with clear protein
- Undifferentiated cells that give rise to eleidin
keratinocytes • Stratum Corneum (surface layer)
- In deepest layer of epidermis (Stratum - Several layers (up to 30) of dead, scaly,
Basale) keratinized cells

KISHA R. GUILLEM 15
 - Resists abrasion, penetration, water • Papillary Layer
loss - Upper layer
- Thin zone of areolar tissue in and near
The Life History of a Keratinocyte the dermal papilla
Keratinocytes are produced by mitosis of - Allows for mobility of leukocytes and
stem cells in stratum basale or mitosis of other defense cells
keratinocytes in deepest part of stratum - Rich in small blood vessels
spinosum • Reticular Layer
- Mitosis requires abundant oxygen and - Deeper and thicker layer of dermis
nutrients, so once cells migrate away - Mostly collagen
from blood vessels of the dermis, - Consists of dense, irregular connective
mitosis cannot occur tissue
- New keratinocytes push older ones
toward the surface and this is example
continuous process Stretch marks / Striae - tears in the collagen fibers
caused by stretching of the skin due to pregnancy
or obesity.
The dermis Brown Fats – for infants
- Connective tissue layer beneath
epidermis The hypodermis
- Composed mainly of collagen
- Fats (under the skin / cutaneous fats)
- Well supplied with blood vessels, sweat
- Subcutaneous tissue
glands, sebaceous glands, and nerve
- Has more areolar and adipose than
endings
dermis has
- Houses hair follicles and nail roots
- Pads body and binds skin to underlying
- Is the tissue of the facial skin to which
tissues
skeletal muscles attach and cause
- Common site of drug injection since it
facial expressions of emotion
has many bloods vessels
- Has a wavy, conspicuous boundary
- Protective function is it’s a shock
with the superficial epidermis
absorber insulator
DEFINITION OF TERMS
SKIN COLOR
Collagen – type of protein in connective
tissues
Basement Layer – active mitosis • Melanin
Furuncle (Pigsa) – caused by a bacterium, - pigment
Staphylococcus Aureus - most significant factor in skin color
Pus (Nana) – dead WBC with protein - Produced by melanocytes, accumulates
Sebaceous Glands – oil glands / where is in keratinocytes
your hair follicle is attached
High levels of Androgen mean more pimples. different skin colors
• Darker skinned people
• Dermal papillae are upward, finger-like - Produce greater quantities of melanin
extensions of dermis - Melanin breaks down more slowly
• Epidermal ridges are downward waves of - Melanin granules more spread out in
epidermis keratinocytes • Melanized cells seen
• Prominent waves on fingers produce throughout the epidermis
friction ridges of fingerprints • Lighter skinned people

KISHA R. GUILLEM 16
 - Melanin clumped near keratinocyte • Hemangiomas (Birthmarks) – patches of
nucleus discolored skin caused by benign tumors of
- Little melanin seen beyond stratum dermal capillaries
basale
SWEAT GLANDS
EXAMPLE
Clamped Melanocyte – results to mole (Nevi) /
freckles Two kinds of sweat (sudoriferous) glands

REASON/PIGMENTS THAT CAN INFLUENCE SKIN COLOR • Apocrine Sweat Glands

• Exposure to UV light stimulates melanin - Locations: groin, anal region, axilla,
secretion and darkens skin areola, beard area in men, inactive until
- this color fades as melanin is degraded puberty
and old cells are exfoliated - Produce sweat that is milky and
• Hemoglobin - pigment in red blood cells contains fatty acids
- Adds reddish to pinkish hue to skin
EXAMPLE
• Carotene - yellow pigment acquired from
Bromhidrosis - disagreeable body odor produced
egg yolks and yellow/orange vegetables
by bacterial action on sweat from apocrine glands
- Concentrates in stratum corneum and
subcutaneous fat
• Merocrine (Eccrine) Sweat Glands
- Watery perspiration that helps cool the
Colors of diagnostic value body especially dense on palms, soles,
• Carotenoderma – orange skinned due to and forehead
high levels of Vitamin A
• Cyanosis - blueness due to oxygen EXAMPLE
deficiency Diaphoresis - sweating with wetness of the skin
• Erythema - redness due to increased blood
flow to skin Ceruminous Glands
• Pallor - paleness due to decreased blood Ceruminous glands are simple, coiled, tubular
flow to skin glands in external ear canal.
• Albinism - milky white skin and blue-gray • Their secretion combines with sebum and
eyes due to genetic lack of melanin dead epithelial cells to form earwax
synthesizing enzyme (cerumen)
• Jaundice - yellowing due to bilirubin in - Keeps eardrum pliable
blood (can be caused by compromised liver - Waterproofs the canal
function) - Kills bacteria
• Hematoma - bruising (clotted blood under - Makes guard hairs of ear sticky to help
skin) block foreign particles from entering
auditory canal
SKIN MARKINGS
• Freckles & moles - tan to black Mammary Glands
aggregations of melanocytes
o Freckles - flat, melanized patches Mammary Glands are milk-producing glands
o Moles (Nevi) - elevated, melanized that develop only during pregnancy and
patches often with hair lactation
- Modified apocrine sweat glands

KISHA R. GUILLEM 17
 SKIN CANCER
• Skin Cancer in most cases is caused by
UV rays of the sun damaging skin cell DNA.

3 types of skin cancer

• Basal Cell Carcinoma

- Most common type

Burns
Burns - leading cause of accidental death

Classified according to depth of tissue involvement

• First-degree burn (epidermal layer)
• Second-degree burn (entire dermis)
• Third-degree burn (involves epidermis,
all of dermis, and often some deeper
• Squamous Cell Carcinoma tissues / muscles)

DEFINITION OF TERM
Skin Graft – transplant of skin

SKELETAL SYSTEM
• 206 bones that compose the adult skeleton
are divided into five categories based on
their shapes.
• Malignant Melanoma
BONE TYPE
based on their shape and function

• Long Bone
- Cylinder-like shape, longer than it is
wide
- Has diaphysis, metaphysis, and
epiphysis
- Its function is for leverage

KISHA R. GUILLEM 18
 - Its function is for points of attachment for
GROSS ANATOMY OF A LONG BONE muscles; protectors of internal organs

EXAMPLE
Sternum, ribs, scapulae, cranial bones

• Irregular Bone
- Complex shape
- Its function is to protect internal organs

EXAMPLE
Vertebrae and facial bones

• Sesamoid Bone
- Small and round; embedded in tendons
- Triangular
- Its function is to protect tendons from
compressive forces

EXAMPLE
Patellae

2 TYPES OF BONES

• Compact Bone is the denser, stronger of

the two types of bone tissue. It can be
found under the periosteum and in the
diaphysis of long bones, where it provides
support and protection.

Examples
Femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, humerus, ulna,
radius, metacarpals, phalanges

• Short Bone
- Cube-like shape, approximately equal in
length, width, and thickness
- Its function is provide stability, support,
while allowing for some motion.

EXAMPLE
• Spongy Bone, also known as cancellous
Carpals and Tarsals
bone, contains osteocytes housed in
lacunae, but they are not arranged in
• Flat Bone
concentric circles.
- Thin and curved
- Pores (Porous – maraming pores) which
become a part of the osteon.

KISHA R. GUILLEM 19
 - Numerous osteons for enough blood SKULL
supply to the compact bone
- Trabeculae (singular = trabecula) - a • Frontal and Lateral
lattice-like network of matrix spikes • Suture joints anchor the skull bones
where the lacunae and osteocytes are
found.

The skeleton is subdivided into two major divisions — The primary cranial suture joints
the axial and appendicular. 1. coronal: up & down
2. sagittal: front to back
3. squamous: sideways
AXIAL SKELETON 4. lambdoid: along the back
- Central axis of the skeleton

primary divisions of the skeleton system

• Head including the bones of the skull
(cranium), face, auditory ossicles, and
hyoid bone.
• Thorax, including the rib cage and
sternum.
• Vertebral column

GROSS ANATOMY OF AXIAL SKELETON

KISHA R. GUILLEM 20
 FACIAL BONES
Fontanelle – soft
spot of a baby’s
skull because it is
filled with hyalin
cartilage. Its
functions are for
brain development
and flexible to birth
giving / parturition.

2 TYPES OF FONTANELLES
• Anterior Fontanelle – top of the middle
head
• Posterior Fontanelle - back of the middle
head

REGIONS OF THE SKULL

OTHER BONES IN THE SJULL

KISHA R. GUILLEM 21
 Vertebral column
- also known as the backbone or spine), is a
tall, thin organ located dorsally that extends
from the base of the spine to the pelvis. It
protects the spinal cord and provides a key
attachment point for numerous muscle
groups.
- 33 vertebrae in the human spine

Note!
Foramen – passageway of the blood vessels.
V – Vein
A – Artery
N – Nerves
Most superior – inferior
Most superficial - deeper

• Atlant Occipital Joint Connection from

the Skull (up and down, vertical)
• Atlanto Axial Joint – connecting the C1
(Atlas) & C2 (Axis), horizontal movement

KISHA R. GUILLEM 22
• C1 down intervertebral disc

REGIONS OF THE SPINE

• Cervical – 7
- C1 (Atlas) – C7
• Thoracic – 12
- TH1 – TH12
• Lumbar – 5
- L1 – L5
• Sacrum – 5 (fused)
• Coccyx - 4 (fused)

Central gravity is at the

lumbar area. 3 MAIN TYPES OF VERTEBRAE
Fused – no
intervertebral disc.
Whiplash – dislocated
joints / nerves are being
pinched
• S1 is attached to L5,
with intervertebral
disc.
Anastomosis – meet /
combine

• Intervertebral
Foramina - openings
between the
vertebrae that allow
for the passage of
spinal nerves and
goes out in the
peripheral nerves

• Intervertebral Discs - act as shock

absorbers between the vertebrae
(fibrocartilage) and the discs are for flexing
and extending.

THORACIC CAGE

• Sternum – also known as breastbone is a

long, flat, bony plate connected to the rib

KISHA R. GUILLEM 23
 bones via cartilage that forms the anterior
section of the rib cage.

PARTS OF STERNUM
• Manubrium
(most inferior
region)
• Gladiolus (body
of thorax)
• Xiphoid process
(most superior)

• Ribs - are long, curved bones that form the

rib cage surrounding the thorax.

3 kinds of ribs
• True Ribs:
(1 - 7) - attach to
the sternum with
costal cartilage
• False Ribs
(8 -10) – lack the
sternal 2 GROUPS OF APPENDICULAR SKELETONS
attachment, but • Pectoral Girdle – attachment for your arm /
connect to the upper extremities
costal cartilage of
the rib 7.
• Floating
Ribs (11 - 12) –
no anterior
attachment

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
- side / extremities
- locomotion and manipulation of objects in
the environment

KISHA R. GUILLEM 24
 o Clavicle (collarbone), 1. Fleshy - muscle fibers attached directly
o Scapula, Humerus (funny bone), to bone
o Ulna (olecranon), 2. Tendon - cord-like white fibrous CT
▪ Ulnar Nerve – kuryente sa siko 3. Aponeurosis - broad sheet of white
o Radius (shorter), fibrous CT (=broad tendon) attaching to
o Carpals (Carpals – Metacarpals – coverings of adjacent muscles
Phalanges)
• Insertion - point of attachment to movable
• Pelvic Girdle – legs and the rest below bone (usually farther from midline of body,
o Hip bone or distal)
o Femur (longest and strongest bone)
o Patella (kneecap) • Belly (=body, gaster) - fleshy portion
o Tibia (thicker) between origin and insertion.
o Fibula (thinner)
o Tarsals (Tarsals – Metatarsals – Muscle groups
Phalanges) Intrinsic - move parts of structure with respect
to the structure itself (e.g., muscles controlling
iris of eye)
Extrinsic - move an entire structure with
respect to body itself (e.g., muscles controlling
movement of eye itself)
Prime mover - major muscle involved in
contraction
Synergists - minor muscles aiding in
contraction of prime mover
Fixators - stabilize one or more joints crossed
by a prime mover

Important generalities about muscle action

A. Muscles work only by contraction
B. Origin and insertion are never on the
same bone
C. Origin and belly are generally on one
side of a joint, with the insertion on the
other side
D. During contraction, the insertion is
pulled toward the origin
E. Muscles work in pairs
1. Agonist - first mover, one doing the
action then one counterattacks
2. Antagonist
MUSCULAR SYSTEM • Relaxed when agonist contracts
• When contracted, agonist relaxes
Structure of typical skeletal muscle
SELECTED SKELETAL MUSCLES
• Origin (=head) - point of attachment of
muscle to the stationary (=fixed) bone Naming (=nomenclature)
(usually nearer midline of body, or proximal)

KISHA R. GUILLEM 25
 For location
• Intercostals - between ribs;
• Brachii – in arms;
• Tibialis posterior - behind tibia

 For direction (=orientation) of fibers

• Rectus straight - (up and down body)
• Transversus – across body
• Obliquus - at an angle (=obliquely)
across body

 For action
• Adductor
• Flexor
• Levator

 For shape
• Deltoid - Greek letter (=Delta, Δ)
• Trapezius - trapezoid

 For size
• Maximus - large
• Minimus – small
• Longus – long
• Brevis - short

 For number of heads of origin

• Biceps – 2
• Triceps – 3
• Quadriceps - 4

 For points of attachment (i.e., origin and

insertion)
• Sternocleidomastoid – sternum,
clavicle, mastoid process

 Various combinations of the preceding

NOTES
Superficial Muscle are major muscles of the
body
Deep Muscles are muscles beneath the
superficial muscle

KISHA R. GUILLEM 26