Volume 2 | Issue 2 | 2020

Technical Journal
Engineering excellence
around the globe
 Foreword
Welcome to the fourth edition of our SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal, established to
showcase the fantastic depth and breadth of our engineering expertise across a wide
range of disciplines and domains and to demonstrate that technical excellence is at the
heart of everything we do. This fourth edition highlights the impressive work we have
been doing from the improvement of existing design standards and development of new
concepts, to the development of innovative designs and construction methods which
enhance the environment and improve constructability, and the management of existing
assets to extend service life and improve performance. And at this strangest of times,
in the midst of a pandemic, we have run simulations to predict how to best manage the
Chris Hendy spread of COVID-19 whilst simultaneously preserving our global economies.
Editor-in-Chief SNC-Lavalin
Technical Journal
At concept design stage, we have produced the concept design for the most high-profle
Professional Head of Bridge
Engineering and Transportation
viaduct on the UK’s HS2 high speed rail line, which intentionally sets the benchmark for
Technical Director, EDPM quality and environmentally sensitive design for other structures to match across the
entire scheme. We have also driven improvements in bridge design standards for light
weight footbridges by enhancing the guidance and requirements for design to better
limit vibrations such that adequate comfort is afforded to pedestrians using footbridges
in a wide variety of common situations.

In design, we have signifcantly improved the effciency of bored pile design in Denmark
through our collaborative working with a piling contractor to correlate new design
methods with site testing. And on the Elizabeth Line of the UK’s Crossrail project we
have analysed the success of prototyping the GFRC tunnel cladding to de-risk
construction and improve quality, construction safety and whole-life performance.

In the feld of asset management, we have extended the life of the suspension cables on
the UK’s longest suspension bridge through an innovative selective-replacement and
testing regime which can be deployed on other suspension bridges around the world.
And in Florida, working with FDOT we have established a new tidal connection in an area
of Old Tampa Bay which dramatically improves water quality and creates ecological
conditions that are conducive to seagrass recovery and benthic habitat.

The above examples provide only a small insight into the wealth of innovative papers
presented in this journal and the far wider contribution that SNC-Lavalin makes day to
day.

I hope you enjoy the selection of technical papers included in this edition as much as we
have enjoyed compiling them.
Editor-in-Chief 2020 Editorial Board Members

Chris Hendy Ramy Azar Vinod Batta Donna Huey Matt Keys Adrian Lindon Navil Shetty Patrick Sikka
Editor-in-Chief Ph.D, Ing. Ph.D., P.Eng. GISP PhD BEng CEng BA(Hons) Dip. Arch, ARB, RIBA PhD, DIC, FIAM P. Eng
FREng, MA (Cantab) CEng FICE Eur Ing Vice-President of Engineering and CTO Vice President & General Manager, Atkins Fellow and Sr. Vice President, Fellow, Technical Director, Global Senior Technical Director - Atkins Atkins Fellow and Technical Chair for Vice-President
Technical Director, Atkins Fellow, - Grid Solutions & Renewables Power Solutions - Western Canada Client Technology Director Technical Authority – Offshore Fellow, Design and Engineering Asset Management Mining & Metallurgy – North America
Professional Head of Bridge Power, Grid and Industrial Solutions Power, Grid & Industrial Solutions Engineering, Design and Project Structures (Middle East and Africa) Centre of Excellence for Digital Asset Toronto, Canada
Engineering Infrastructure Infrastructure Management Oil & Gas Engineering, Design and Project Management & Operations
Engineering, Design and Project Montreal, Canada Vancouver, Canada Orlando, FL, USA Perth, Australia Management Bangalore, India
Management Dubai, UAE
Epsom, UK

Richard Moura Tim Milner Samuel Fradd Akshaye Sikand

P.Eng. CSci CChem MRSC MS, P.Eng.
Technology Manager
Director, Business Development Rail Atkins Fellow and Chief Technology Engineering, Design and Project Manager, Knowledge Management
& Transit Offcer Management Project Oversight
Global Business Development, Nuclear Epsom, UK Toronto, Canada
Transportation-Major Projects Columbia, SC, USA
Infrastructure
Toronto, Canada

Production Team

Dorothy Gartner Samantha Morley Cheryl Law Graphic Design Team About the Cover
MLIS CAPM MEng CEng MICE
Visualisation of the HS2 Colne Valley Viaduct crossing Harefeld Lake, UK. Image was produced by Hays Davidson Ltd in conjunction
Montreal, Canada
Librarian Operations Coordinator Associate Engineer, Infrastructure with Knight Architects as an output to the Atkins-led specimen design development work for High Speed 2 Limited.
Project Oversight Technical Professional Organization, Engineering, Design and Project
Montreal, Canada Atkins North America Management
Denver, CO, USA Epsom, UK
Volume 2 | Issue 1 | 2020

Bridge Engineering
01 New Rules for Design of Footbridges Susceptible to Lateral and Torsional Vibration 8
02 Humber Bridge Hanger Replacements and Testing 16
03 HS2 Colne Valley Viaduct – Developing a Successful Specimen Design 32

Digital Twins
04 Assessing Options for Getting Back to Work During the COVID-19 Pandemic 46

Building Structures and Architectural Design

05 A Hybrid Force/Displacement Seismic Design Method for Planar and Space Steel Building Frames 58

06 Benefts of Contractor Prototyping: GFRC Cladding on Crossrail 70

Environmental Engineering and Ecology

07 Biodiversity Net Gain: One Policy, Many Metrics – Comparing Different Metrics
Because the Maths Matters 82
08 Ecological Uplift Through Engineering – Tidal Circulation and Old Tampa Bay 90
09 Continuous Monitoring and a Statistical Approach to Ground Gas Risk Assessment
at a Substation Site 102

Geotechnical Engineering
10 New Piling Method in Denmark 114
 José L de la Cuesta
Padilla
Abstract
MReS, CEng, MICE, Eur Ing
Group Engineer Modern footbridges are typically slender structures, often with low
Engineering, Design and natural frequencies and low damping ratio. These structures are often
Project Management
Swansea, UK prone to vibrations induced by the actions of the pedestrians and
sometimes also wind. Recommendations for pedestrian comfort as well
as for safety are included in Eurocodes BS EN 1990 and also, in the UK,
within the UK National Annexes to BS EN 1990 [1] and BS EN 1991-2 [2],
and UK Published Document PD 6688-2 [3]. However, these design codes
have not been consistent in defning acceptance comfort criteria for the
situations when a dynamic analysis needs to be undertaken, resulting in a
high degree of ambiguity for UK applications. In particular, the treatment
of bridges with lateral and torsional vibration generated by vertical
Bridge Engineering 01 loading on the bridge is not adequately covered.
Benjamin Lau
This paper discusses the ambiguities and omissions in the UK suite of
New Rules for Design of Footbridges
BSc (hons), MSc PhD CEng
FICE MIStructE codes in the context of one particular half-through truss footbridge with
Associate Engineer
unexpectedly lively lateral and torsional vibration and proposes
Susceptible to Lateral and Engineering, Design and
Project Management amendments to the code requirements, which have now been
implemented in NA+A1:2020 to BS EN 1991-2:2003 Incorporating
Torsional Vibration
Swansea, UK
Corrigendum No. 1 [4].

Keywords
Lateral Torsional Vibration; Natural Frequency; Footbridges; Comfort
Criteria; Acceleration; Eurocodes

Ian Ward
Chris Hendy
BSc (hons), MSc CEng
FREng MA(Cantab) CEng FICE Eur Ing
FIMechE
Technical Director, Atkins Fellow,
Technical Director
Head of Bridge Engineering
Engineering, Design and
Engineering, Design and Project Management
Project management
Epsom, UK
Epsom, UK
 deck plate. The main span, which crosses a trunk road, is Before opening the footbridge to the public, concerns were
approximately 30.0 m long. The adjacent back spans are expressed regarding the magnitude of vibrations
each 6.5 m long. The walkway has a width of 2.0 m. experienced by construction workers in the course of
completing the works. A detailed review of the bridge
The bridge is on a vertical curve with varying height design was undertaken which identifed that the critical
(increasing in depth from supports to mid-span) and splayed lateral and torsional vibration mode being excited was not
outwards in plan. adequately covered by the standards and hence no limiting
criteria and had been applied in the design. Nevertheless,
the excitation was signifcant and so a modifcation of the
structure was designed and installed. The modifcation
included additional U-shape stiffeners welded to the
columns and changing the bridge deck condition from simply
supported to continuous deck over the main span supporting
Figure 1: Footbridge south elevation columns through connecting the bottom chords by welding;
see Figure 3. The purpose of the modifcation was to
increase the natural frequency for the excited lateral and
torsional mode and to reduce the lateral acceleration
causing the discomfort. The analysis that led to this action
is described in Section 3.

Figure 2: Typical section through deck

1. Introduction
Modern footbridges are typically slender structures, often This paper discusses the ambiguities and omissions in the
with low natural frequencies and low damping ratio. These UK suite of codes in the context of one particular half-
structures are often prone to vibrations induced by the through truss footbridge with unexpectedly lively lateral and
actions of the pedestrians and sometimes also wind. torsional vibration and proposes amendments to the code
Recommendations for pedestrian comfort as well as for requirements, which have now been implemented in
safety are included in Eurocodes BS EN 1990 and also, in NA+A1:2020 to BS EN 1991-2:2003 Incorporating
the UK, within the UK National Annexes to BS EN 1990 [1] Corrigendum No. 1 [4].
and BS EN 1991-2 [2], and UK Published Document PD
6688-2 [3]. However, these design codes have not been
consistent in defning acceptance comfort criteria for the 2. The Studied Bridge Figure 3: Column and bottom chord strengthening “with additional stiffening
situations when a dynamic analysis needs to be undertaken, installed”
resulting in a high degree of ambiguity for UK applications. The footbridge considered for the study is a three-span steel
In particular, the treatment of bridges with lateral and truss structure with spiral ramps at each end. The bridge
torsional vibration generated by vertical loading on the superstructure comprises three simply supported half-
bridge is not adequately covered. through warren truss spans, prefabricated in hot rolled
hollow steel sections with a longitudinally stiffened steel

New Rules for Design of Footbridges Susceptible to Lateral and Torsional Vibration 11
3. Analysis of the Footbridge As Initially Designed
> Eurocode 1990 and associated UK National Annex [1] natural frequency in the lateral and torsional mode is
> Eurocode 1991-2 and associated UK National Annex greater than 1.5 Hz and no explicit frequency limit is given
3.1 Determination of Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes Mode No. Natural Mode Shape for torsional modes.
[2]
Frequency Hz > BSI Published Document, PD 6688-2 [3]
The software LUSAS Bridge was used to idealise the
structure and determine natural frequencies and mode 1 1.9 Lateral torsional Vibration Mode Natural Frequency
However, these standards were found to be in confict during
shapes. Beam elements were used to model the truss 3 4.6 Longitudinal the study. Requirement - BS EN 1991-
members and the cross-girders. 4-node quadrilateral shell 1-2 UK NA [4]
elements were used to model the deck plate, longitudinal 5 5.9 Vertical
Eurocode BS EN 1990 Cl A2.4.3.2(2) [1] requires that a Vertical Vibration 5 Hz
stiffeners, columns heads and columns. The modelled fxity With Additional Stiffening Installed verifcation of the comfort criteria must be performed if the
of the columns was fully fxed at the base given the fundamental frequency of the deck is less than that Lateral Vibration 1.5 Hz
relatively high stiffness of the foundations in comparison Mode No. Natural Mode Shape described in Table 2. Torsional Vibration Not specifcally covered
with the columns. Frequency Hz
Table 4: Natural frequency UK National Annex to Eurocode BS EN 1991 [2]
1 2.6 Lateral torsional
For the case with the retroftted stiffening applied, the Vibration Mode Natural Frequency
additional columns stiffeners were also modelled with shell 2 6.0 Longitudinal Where frequency limits are not met, serviceability comfort
Vertical Vibration 5 Hz
elements. criteria need to be satisfed. Table NA.7 in the UK National
3 6.1 Vertical
Lateral Vibration 2.5 Hz Annex to BS EN 1991-2 [2] provides different loadings to be
Table 1: Natural frequency values Torsional Vibration 2.5 Hz considered for different bridge classes based on likely usage.
Three load models are described: a group of pedestrians
Table 2: Natural frequency criteria BS EN 1990 [1] walking, a group of people jogging and a crowd load model.
The footbridge in this paper is classifed as Class C (urban
route) and the three relevant load models to consider for the
In addition to the criteria included in Table 2, Eurocode BS analysis are given in Table 5.
EN 1990 cl A2.4.3.2 (1) [1] defnes comfort criteria in terms
of limits to the maximum acceleration that should be
Load Model Size
experienced in any part of the bridge deck. Table 3
summarises these maximum accelerations. The combined Load Model C.1 Group of 8 people walking
lateral and torsional mode for the bridge in this study had a Load Model C.2 Group of 2 people jogging
natural frequency below the value of 2.5 Hz from Table 2
and hence required a check of comfort criteria in accordance Load Model C.3 Crowd load of 0.8 persons/
with Table 3. m2

Table 5: Recommended crowd densities for design

Figure 4: Model as initially designed Vibration Mode Acceleration Limit
3.3 Dynamic Analysis
Figure 5: Lateral-torsional mode of vibration
Vertical Vibration 0.7 m/s2
To perform an evaluation of vibration performance under
Lateral Vibration 0.2 m/s2 To assess the discomfort actually experienced when using
pedestrian loading using Eurocode BS EN 1991-2 [2],
the bridge, a dynamic analysis was conducted using the
analysis of the structure must be performed to identify the 3.2 Requirements of the Existing Standards Relevant in the Exceptional Crowd 0.4 m/s2 loading specifed in the UK NA to EN 1991-2 [2] and the
relevant modes of vibration and associated natural UK Condition maximum accelerations were evaluated.
frequencies of the footbridge. These relevant modes are
vertical, lateral and torsional modes of vibration, and The standard way to evaluate footbridge performance is to Table 3: Maximum accelerations EC 1990 [1]
The accelerations were determined using a Generalised
combinations of these. The LUSAS models were used to compare natural frequencies of relevant modes to limiting The limiting values included in Table 2 are revised in the UK Single Degree of Freedom approach using DynamAssist [5].
determine relevant modes of vibration for both the as values of frequency. If all frequencies exceed the limiting National Annex to Eurocode BS EN 1991-2 within clause NA The equivalent single degree of freedom mass, Meq, spring
initially designed case and the retroftted stiffening case. A values then the bridge may be deemed to be unlikely to be 2.44.7(2) [2]. This changes the limiting natural frequency for stiffness, Keq, and driving force Feq are evaluated based on
summary is shown in Table 1 and the critical vibration mode excited by pedestrian loading and no further provision is transverse vibration to 1.5Hz, but this was intended to be the energy considerations using the actual distribution of mass
(mode 1) is illustrated in Figure 5 below. required. If these limiting values cannot be met, then it is limit to prevent synchronous lateral vibration caused by in the bridge and the critical vibration mode shape. The
necessary to determine the accelerations produced under lateral forces from footfall which occur at half the frequency system is provided with the specifed damping and then
The lowest mode, the lateral and torsional mode, is specifed pedestrian dynamic forces and compare them to of vertical footfall forces. It was not intended to cover the external dynamic force is applied.
associated with a low torsional stiffness of the open bridge limiting values of acceleration, known as comfort criteria. lateral and torsional mode relevant to the footbridge in this
cross-section and rotation about the bridge’s shear centre For design to Eurocodes in the UK, the follow standards paper, which can be excited by vertical loading. The limiting The excitation of the footbridge occurred when people were
which is located below deck level. This mode can be excited apply: frequency for torsional motion is not covered. Hence the walking on the structure. Hence Load Model 1 (group of 8
by the vertical loading from pedestrians walking with an
natural frequency limits in the UK National Annex can be pedestrians walking – see Table 5) was used for the analysis.
offset to the centreline of the footway.
summarised in Table 4. Application of these criteria could The travelling load for the analysis was applied eccentrically
incorrectly suggest that the footbridge in this paper need not from the centreline of the bridge with a path 500mm offset
be checked for lateral and torsional vibration as its lowest from the bottom chord along the full length of the bridge.

12 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [01] New Rules for Design of Footbridges Susceptible to Lateral and Torsional Vibration 13
The results of the acceleration checks are summarised in 3.4 Site Measurement These recommendations have now been implemented in in
Table 6. NA+A1:2020 to BS EN 1991-2:2003 Incorporating
Natural frequency was measured on the stiffened footbridge Corrigendum No. 1 [4].
using a smart phone App with accelerometer and gyroscope
Mode of Lateral Lateral
functions built in. The App called Vibration from Diffraction
Vibration Natural Acceleration
Frequency m/s2
Limited Design LLC was used to obtain the measurements 5. Conclusions
from the smart phone. The test was conducted under the
(Hz) This paper has highlighted ambiguities and inconsistencies
effect of a pedestrian walking randomly on the bridge deck.
(LUSAS) between Eurocode BS EN 1990 and the UK National
The measured natural frequency of the bridge was 2.45HZ
As Initially 1.96 0.43 and the computed natural frequency for the same lateral- Annexes to BS EN 1990 [1] and BS EN 1991-2 [2], and also
Designed torsional mode of vibration was 2.6Hz; the discrepancy UK Published Document PD 6688-2 [3]. It has shown that
Lateral between the computed and measured natural frequencies these inconsistencies can lead to important lateral and
With 2.57 0.23
Torsion was only 6%. A measurement of acceleration was not torsional vibration modes not being identifed as requiring
Additional
taken, but the stiffened bridge exhibited no signifcant evaluation against comfort criteria and has proposed
Stiffening
motion during the test. amendments to the code requirements to address this.
Installed
These proposals have now been implemented in
Table 6:- Maximum acceleration on the deck
NA+A1:2020 to BS EN 1991-2:2003 Incorporating
4. Recommendations Corrigendum No. 1 [4].
Based on the results shown on Table 6, the original design
without the additional strengthening exceeded the comfort This paper highlights that the current UK National Annex
criteria specifed in BS EN 1990 [1] for lateral accelerations. and Published Document are not adequate to assess the References
This helps explains why the vibration experienced during comfort of structures with low lateral and torsional vibration
fnalising construction was so noticeable and suggests that modes, such as half-through footbridges. Therefore, the 1. BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005 as modifed by UK National
a limit, as proposed in Table 3, is required for lateral following recommendations are suggested for the design of Annex, “Eurocode - Basis of structural design”.
acceleration caused by vertical loading and the UK National pedestrian bridges:
Annex to EN 1991-2 [2] and PD 6688-2 [3] requires 2. BS EN 1991-2:2003 as modifed by UK National Annex,
amendment to include this. A summary of natural frequency (i) All torsional and lateral modes of a type in Figure 2 “Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 2: Traffc loads on
requirements from the different design documents is listed should be checked for comfort criteria in accordance with bridges”.
in Table 7 below. Eurocode EN 1990 clause A2.4.3.2 (2) [1]. This requires
comfort criteria to be verifed if the vertical natural 3. PD 6688-2: 2011, “Background to the National Annex to
frequency is lower than 5 Hz or less than 2.5 Hz for lateral BS EN 1991-2, Traffc loads on bridges”
Code Cut-off Natural Comfort
Lateral Frequency Criteria
and torsional modes excited by vertical loading.
4. NA+A1:2020 to BS EN 1991-2:2003 Incorporating
Natural of the Check Corrigendum No 1, “UK National Annex to Eurocode 1:
Frequency Footbridge Required
(ii) The limiting lateral excitation for comfort should be
taken from Eurocode EN 1990 clause A2.4.3.2(1) [1] as 0.2 Actions on Structures - Part 2: Traffc loads on bridges”.
Limit (Hz) (Hz)
m/s² under the loading from a single pedestrian or group of
BS EN pedestrians in the UK NA to EN 1991-2 [2]. 5. DynamAssist. Structural dynamics software (www.
2.5 1.9 Yes
1990 [1] DynamAssist.com).
BS EN (iii)However, it must be noted that lateral excitations due to
As deliberate excitation may be far higher than above (with
1991 UK 1.5 1.9 No
Initially much larger defections). This could lead to the perception
NA [2]
Designed that the bridge is unacceptable dynamically. Therefore, if
PD
the lateral acceleration exceeds 0.2 m/s² under the vertical
6688-2 1.5 1.9 No
loading, then discussion should be held with the Technical
[3]
Approval Authority (TAA) about possible measures to
Table 7: Comfort test summary
reduce accelerations to 0.2 m/s² or to increase the natural
frequency of the structure. This may require the installation
After the structure was retroftted with the new elements of tuned mass dampers or stiffening of the bridge. In the
the comfort was markedly improved. The natural frequency absence of conversations with the TAA, where the
for the lateral-torsional mode increased to a value of 2.57 calculated fundamental frequency of the bridge is less than
Hz with a maximum acceleration of 0.23m/s2. This value 3 Hz for lateral and torsional vibrations, provision should be
improved the comfort criteria for the structure to the made in the design for the possible installation of dampers
borderline of tolerance. in the bridge after its completion.

14 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [01] New Rules for Design of Footbridges Susceptible to Lateral and Torsional Vibration 15
 Andrew Arundel
BEng (Hons), CEng, FICE
Chief Operating Offcer at
Humber Bridge Board, E
Riding Abstract
Yorkshire, UK
The Humber Bridge is an iconic Grade 1 Listed structure which remains
one of the longest single span suspension bridges in the world. It has a
main span of 1410 m and a total span length of 2220 m. The bridge deck
is connected to the main suspension cables by spiral wire rope hangers
with socketed end connections.

This paper discusses the global analysis of the bridge to identify the
predicted stresses in the hangers, which was complicated by the
Bridge Engineering 02 triangulation of the hangers. It then covers the selection of three trial
David Bishop hangers to be replaced, the specifcation of the replacement hangers and
MEng (Hons), CEng, the testing specifed to determine the residual life of the original hangers.

Humber Bridge Hanger

MIStructE, MICE The design, fabrication, and installation of the works involved in replacing
Principal Engineer
Engineering, Design and
the hangers is described and the paper concludes with a discussion of the

Replacements and Testing Project Management

Edinburgh, UK
results of the hanger testing and how this has informed the strategy for
management of the remaining hangers.

Keywords
Humber; Suspension bridge; Spiral wire

Dr. Chris Mundell

MEng (Hons), PhD, CEng
MICE
Chris R. Hendy Head of Civil Engineering
FREng, MA(Cantab), CEng, Structures
FICE, Eur Ing, Engineering, Design and
Head of Bridge Engineering, Project Management
Technical Director Bristol, UK
Engineering, Design and
Project Management
Epsom, UK
 superstructure comprises a stiffened steel box girder with
an orthotropic deck roadway and internal diaphragms at
4.525 m c/c. The box sections were erected in 18.1 m long
sections and are 22 m wide and 4.5 m deep, with 3 m wide
cantilever panels incorporated along each side of the boxes
to carry the walkways and cycle tracks.

Figure 2: Humber Bridge

Figure 3: Hanger deck connection
The suspension cables on the main span and Barton side
span are 0.684 m in diameter and each contains 14948
galvanised steel wires of 5 mm diameter, while the cables Each rope is composed of 105 No x 5 mm Ø wire, 5 No x 4
on the Hessle side span are 0.702 m in diameter and each mm Ø wire and 1 No x 2.5 mm Ø wire distributed as follows:
contain 15748 wires of 5 mm diameter. The tensile strength
of the wires varies between 1540 -1770 N/mm2 and have a
Layer 1 = 33 No. x 5mm dia. (outer layer)
0.2% proof stress of 1180 N/mm2. The cable anchorages on Layer 2 = 27 No. x 5mm dia.
both sides of the bridge are of a gravity type, with each cable Layer 3 = 21 No. x 5mm dia.
Layer 4 = 15 No. x 5mm dia.
anchored into a solid block of concrete. Layer 5 = 9 No. x 5mm dia.
Layer 6 = 5 No. x 4mm dia.
Layer 7 = 1 No. 2.5mm dia. (central wire).
The bridge deck is connected to the main suspension cables
by 484 spiral wire rope hangers (sometimes referred to as
suspenders) with socketed end connections. The hangers
are inclined, rather than vertical. The hangers were
manufactured by Bruntons of Musselburgh Limited from
62.3 mm diameter spiral strand bridge rope. The hanger Figure 4: Spiral wire rope
1. Introduction cables are attached to the deck via a welded stool with an
articulated socket. The shorter cables have double
articulation to permit rotation of the cable both The hanger ropes are internally lubricated with Bruntons
1.1. The Bridge Details
longitudinally and transversely which may be caused by “BM” compound and externally coated with Metalcoat,
The Humber Bridge is an iconic Grade 1 Listed structure thermal and wind-induced movement of deck and main supplied by Bridon of Doncaster. The individual wires are
which remains one of the longest single span suspension cables, together with vibration and misalignment of the galvanised. The minimum guaranteed breaking strength of
bridges in the world, connecting the East Riding of Yorkshire hangers themselves. each spiral rope hanger is 2900 kN and the Young’s Modulus
with North Lincolnshire. The suspension bridge carries the of the hanger based on its total cross-sectional area is 140
A15 dual carriageway over the Humber Estuary, spanning kN/mm2, the low value compared to an individual wire being
between Barton on the south bank and Hessle on the north due to the spiral arrangement of the wires in the rope.
bank (Figure 1). The bridge has a main span of 1410 m and,
unusually, two differing side spans of 280 m and 530 m on
Hessle and Barton sides, respectively.
Figure 1: Location of Humber Bridge
The towers are formed from two tapered reinforced
concrete hollow section legs with horizontal concrete cross
beams to form a ladder arrangement (Figure 2). The bridge

Humber Bridge Hanger Replacements and Testing 19

 BARTON
BARTON ANCHORAGE
TOWER BEARING
1410m 530m
MAIN SPAN BARTON SPAN

MAIN DAMPENERS TO CABLE ONLY HANGER DAMPENERS INSTALLED HANGER DAMPENERS INSTALLED
SPAN 76 82
74 84
72 86
70 88
68 TYPE C - DOUBLE
66 90
64 92
60
62 94 VERTICAL HANGER
58 96
56 98
52 54 100
50 102
46 48 104
44 106
40 42 108 110
36 38 112 BARTON
32 34 114 116
28 30 ANCHORAGE
20 22 24 26 118 120
10 12 14 16 18 122 124
4 2 2 4 6 8 126 128
130 132
134 136
138
3 1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 115 117
119 121 123 125 127 131
TYPE B - DOUBLE ARTICULATED HANGERS TYPE A - SINGLE ARTICULATED HANGERS TYPE A - SINGLE ARTICULATED HANGERS 135
129 133 137

WEST ELEVATION
1:4000

Figure 5: Hanger referencing and location - Barton and Main Span (symmetrical)

1.2. The Objective of the Hanger Replacement Project corrosion on the outside of the hangers. However, corrosion,
The two next longest-spanning UK suspension bridges, the fatigue damage, wire embrittlement or wire breaks in the
Severn Bridge (opened in 1966) and the Forth Road Bridge interior of the hangers could not be detected through visual
(opened in 1964), had all their hangers replaced after 23 to inspection and hence more detailed investigation was
24 years and 33 to 36 years of service life, respectively. This required to create a management plan for the hangers and
was driven by concerns over their deterioration and a wider to inform decisions on when and how many of the hangers
industry belief that the life of hangers was typically limited should be replaced.
to around 25 years. The Humber Bridge had 37 years of
post-opening service by 2018 with all but two of the original To gather more detailed information about the condition of
hangers still present. Therefore it was decided that a the hangers and their residual life and hence produce a Figure 7: Global analysis idealisation of bridge

programme of hanger investigation should be undertaken. hanger management plan, it was decided that three hangers
should be selected for trial replacement and testing.
Additional detailed visual inspections were carried out on 2. Global Analysis and Selection of Trial progressed from the centre of the span back towards the
the hangers which suggested that the condition remained Hangers to Replace and Test towers (Figure 8). In the side spans, deck erection started at
generally good. A few wires were seen out of lay (which the abutments and progressed to the towers. The sections
could indicate broken wires within a hanger), there was of deck were frst connected with rotational pins, allowing
some water seepage, and there were a number of cracks in 2.1. Global Analysis for Dead Loads for movement during the construction, with those units later
the Metalcoat paint system, but little evidence of signifcant In order to enable the identifcation of the most highly fully fxed once the catenary shape of the main cable had
stressed hangers and those with the greatest fatigue been achieved. In order to model the construction sequence,
demand, and also to prepare specifcations for testing geometrically non-linear staged-construction analysis was
existing hangers and procuring new replacement hangers, a undertaken to derive the forces in the hanger cables.
3D fnite element model of the bridge was created in the
LUSAS modelling software as shown in Figure 7.

The inclination of the hangers sets up a truss action in the

bridge under load, tending to put the deck into global tension
and reducing the tensile force in the main suspension cables
slightly. Adjacent hangers carry signifcantly different loads
due to the inclination and truss action, one tending to
increase its tension and one tending to reduce its tension.
For the complete bridge, this distribution of forces between
hangers under a given load case can be modelled with
confdence. However, the distribution of forces generated in
the hangers during construction is less certain and very
sensitive to the assumed construction sequence. The bridge
records show that the deck unit erection in the main span
Figure 8: Bridge during construction
Figure 6: Typical hanger defects

20 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [02] Humber Bridge Hanger Replacements and Testing 21
The construction sequence and the inclined cables had a noted to theoretically just be able to go slack under
very signifcant effect on the calculated cable forces as can maximum live load and so certainly had the lowest
be seen in Table 1, which compares the original designers’ minimum service load of all the hangers.
estimate for the cable dead load force, the dead load force
predicted by the current analysis, and the actual measured
jacking force ultimately required to release the pins 2.3. Fatigue Analysis
connecting the cable end sockets to the deck gusset plates To determine the hangers with the greatest fatigue demand,
during replacement. The table shows that the original simplifed fatigue loading based on Eurocode BS EN 1991-2
design did not consider the effects of the diagonal hanger (BSI 2003) fatigue load model FLM3 together with the
arrangement as the dead load forces are all the same. The damage equivalent factors in BS EN 1993-2 (BSI 2006) were
predicted dead loads vary signifcantly due to the push-pull applied. This resulted in the determination of an applied
nature of the forces generated by the inclined hangers, fatigue stress range which, if applied over 2 million cycles,
whilst the actual measured jacking loads followed the same would cause the same damage as the real traffc spectrum.
pattern but the loads were all higher. The higher jacking This approach is particularly useful in producing a fatigue
loads measured on site were expected because of the testing specifcation – see section 4. The maximum service
temporary works design which gripped the cable above the stress expected under normal operation was also
pin connection and therefore required a greater force than determined because fatigue testing would be carried out by
the actual cable force to reduce the reaction on the pin to cycling the stress down from the maximum value by an Figure 9: Hanger force variation due to FLM3 vehicle position
zero – see section 5. For hangers 10-9 and 16-17 this amount equal to the calculated fatigue stress range. Hanger
accounted for the majority of the difference to the predicted 18-17 was identifed as having the greatest fatigue stress
loads and the rest was attributed to variations in surfacing range which, based on the application of FLM3, was 78 MPa.
thickness and a small effect of the traffc running on the New cables/tension components are tested to Δσ = 150 The use of FLM4 requires signifcantly more analysis For 2 and 4, a convoy of FLM4 vehicles runs at regular
bridge during jacking. However, hanger 18-17 was found to MPa in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-11 (BSI 2006) with because of the need to traverse the bridge with a variety of intervals from one end of the structure to the other. Detailed
be signifcantly higher loaded than predicted which was an additional 1.25 additional safety factor, so this indicated different vehicles alone and in convoy and therefore is not guidance is not provided in either the UK National Annex or
caused by the original fabrication length of the hanger being that the actual fatigue demand on the bridge cables was normally used for design, but the approach can be clause 8.4.2.1 of BS5400 Part 10 (BSI 1980) on the
shorter than the adjacent hanger which was verifed by much less than that required to be demonstrated for a new advantageous for assessment of existing structures as it is simultaneous presence of vehicles or combination of
detailed pin to pin site measurements. cable. likely to demonstrate a greater life. The application of FLM4 vehicles in the load spectrum. For example, with the length
for bridge structures and elements subjected to fatigue is of infuence line shown in Figure 10, if the vehicles are
There is no obtainable detailed background to the λ1 damage outlined in Eurocode BS EN 1991-2 and the UK National applied as a continuous convoy with vehicles at 40 m
Table 1: Predicted and Actual Dead Loads in the equivalent factor for fatigue load model FLM3 provided in Annex. Four separate load cases are outlined in the National spacing, then there is very little fatigue stress range
Three Replaced Hangers BS EN 1993-2, and the fatigue assessment produced is Annex: generated as each vehicle departing the bridge is replaced
generally considered to be conservative. There is also some with one joining and a quasi-permanent load is generated;
uncertainty around the application to a cable element. EN 1. Lane 1 traffc only with 80% of lane 1 lorry numbers; the passage of a single vehicle alone creates a greater
Freeman Fox Predicted Actual
1993-2 proposes the use of a critical length of the infuence stress range. However, if the vehicles are applied in convoy
& Partners Nominal Jacking
line equal to twice the hanger spacing for arch bridges, but 2. Lane 1 traffc is to run in convoy with vehicles at 40 m until the infuence line is flled and then all the vehicles are
(kN) Dead Dead Loads Loads (kN)
this assumes that the majority of the load comes from the spacing, with 20% of lane 1 lorry numbers; allowed to leave the bridge before any more vehicles are
Load. (kN)
two adjacent bays between hangers. The infuence line for applied, then a cyclic load case is created which is greater
Hanger 10-9 410 793 950 the Humber hangers is very different to this because of the 3. Lane 2 traffc only with 80% of lane 2 lorry numbers; and, than the full characteristic live load, which clearly is
Hanger 410 137 290 triangulation of the hanger system; Figure 9 shows the unrealistic.
16-17 variation of a typical hanger force as the FLM3 vehicle 4. Lane 2 traffc in convoy with vehicles at 40 m spacing,
traverses the bridge, where it is clear that the infuence line with 20% of lane 2 lorry numbers
Hanger 410 774 1100 is much more extensive than the hanger spacing. However,
18-17 additional unpublished research by CEN/TC250/SC3/WG13 FLM4 in the UK National Annex comprises 23 different
(the group responsible for maintaining EN 1993-2) vehicles designations with a specifed number of cycles for
suggested that FLM3 is particularly inaccurate for large each vehicle, then used to calculate the damage
loaded lengths and could be unconservative in some cases. summation. The fatigue damaging stress cycles due to the
2.2. Live Load Analysis Therefore, an additional assessment was carried out using transit of Fatigue Load Model 4 lorries were assessed and
To determine the hangers with greatest maximum service fatigue load model FLM4, which uses a traffc spectrum counted using the rain fow counting procedure described in
stress, both Eurocode design live loading to EN 1991-2 and defned in the UK National Annex to BS EN 1991-2 (BSI BS EN 1993-1-9.
Bridge Specifc Assessment Live Loading, derived from 2020), for comparison to the fatigue stress ranges derived
weigh-in motion equipment, were applied to the bridge. from FLM3. For 1 and 3, one single FLM4 vehicle is run at regular
intervals across the full length of the structure in the Figure 10: Hanger force variation due to FLM4 vehicle convoy position
Hanger 10-9 was identifed as having the greatest maximum
service stress. respective lane until the whole spectrum has been
traversed.
Hanger 16-17, pre-selected based on its condition, was

22 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [02] Humber Bridge Hanger Replacements and Testing 23
Table 2: Selected Hangers and Outline Testing Proposed 2.4. Selection of Trial Hangers to Replace and Test
The choice of hangers to be replaced and tested were
Hanger Reference Testing Selection Criteria selected based on identifying cables with the greatest
maximum service stress, the greatest fatigue loading, and
H10-9 High fatigue load range amongst central span hangers but with the greatest maximum the worst physical condition. In addition, hangers were all
hanger load under permanent load + Fatigue loading out of the 5 maximum ranges identifed. chosen on the same side (west side) for construction
purposes and hangers with attached structural health
> 4.3 m long; monitoring were avoided. The selected hangers and their
reason for selection are summarised in Table 2. Their
> No visible signs of corrosion but appears to have wires out of lay (indicative of possible
locations are shown in Figure 11.
fractured wires);
Figure 12: Daytime DIC measurement with unrestricted traffc and night
> Hanger tested for its residual fatigue life and ultimate tensile strength (if suffcient measurement with 11 T vehicle
fatigue life). 3. Digital Image Correlation Measurement
of Hanger Service Stress Range and Hendy, 2016) and also specifcally to monitor hanger
H16-17 Hanger with the lowest permanent load and subjected to theoretical decompression under vibrations on the Great Belt Bridges (Winkler and Hendy,
live loading of the entire structure. As part of the project, Digital Image Correlation (DIC) 2018).
measurements were undertaken on the cable with the
> 7.7 m long; highest predicted stress range to check whether the
predictions made by the analysis model refected the true 4. Hanger Testing Specifcation
> In the worst physical condition whereby, it has corrosion and wires out of lay; behaviour. The outer layer of strands was exposed and a
> Hanger proposed to be tested to destruction; camera used to track the movement of pixels and thereby
measure strain, which could be converted to stress. This 4.1. Overview of Testing Requirements
> Fatigue testing was not initially proposed for this hanger as it is in the worst physical
was done both during the day with unrestricted traffc and A wide range of testing, both non-destructive and
condition and it may have had a limited fatigue life. Failure under fatigue testing alone
at night with an 11 T vehicle, for which the results were destructive, was specifed to be carried out on the three
would provide no information on the minimum tensile strength of all cables.
within +/-10% of those generated by the analysis model. extracted hangers in order to provide as much information
The technique is well-established and has been used to as possible on their condition and potential future life
H18-17 Greatest fatigue load range. determine live load stresses in a variety of bridges (Winkler expectancy to facilitate producing the optimal management
strategy. The testing schedule is shown in Table 3.
> 9.2 m long;
Table 3: Hanger Testing Schedule
> Hanger tested for its residual fatigue life and ultimate tensile strength (if suffcient
fatigue life). Hanger Information Test to be Conducted
Hanger Length of Visual Fatigue Test Ultimate Fracture Examination Individual Chemical
reference for hanger pin to Examination Tensile Surface of individual Wire Ultimate Analysis
As there is no guidance within the UK National Annex for the 1200 m length of the infuence line. Based on the West span of pin (mm) Strength Inspection wires Strength
derivation of a discrete vehicle convoy for load cases 2 and percentage of HGVs and observed traffc patterns, a convoy Main
4, the convoy was based on the recorded traffc data. The was formed from two vehicles running side by side with a Elevation
traffc data showed that between 2009 and 2016 the third vehicle considered with 40 m spacing. The three
9-10 4332 x
proportion of HGV’s within the traffc had risen from 4.52% vehicles were run across the structure, all clearing the
to 4.92%, so approximately 5%. Adopting 40 m vehicle infuence line before running the next convoy. This approach 16-17 7727 x x
spacing, there would be 30 vehicles maximum showed that the damage from FLM3 was greater than that
17-18 9199 x
(conservatively assuming zero vehicle length) in the entire from FLM4 and hence the stress range from FLM3 was
suitable for defning the fatigue testing requirements.
The properties of a hanger and its constituent wires are listed in Table 4 below.
HESSLE BARTON
ANCHORAGE HESSLE BARTON ANCHORAGE

Table 4: Hanger Properties

BEARING TOWER TOWER BEARING
280m 1410m 530m
HESSLE SPAN MAIN SPAN BARTON SPAN

SEE DETAIL '1'

HESSLE
ANCHORAGE
BARTON
ANCHORAGE
Type of Steel Diameter [mm] Tensile Strength Cross-section Minimum Nominal 95% of Minimum
[MPa] [mm²] Breaking Force Breaking Force Breaking Force
RIVER HUMBER

WEST ELEVATION FMUTS [kN] [kN] [kN]

1:4000

Figure 11: Locations of selected hangers Suspender 62.3 1416 2271 2900 3216 2755
(effective) (328000kgf)
MAIN

Rope
SPAN

24
AS BUILT DRAWING LENGTH 22
4.332m LONG. MEASURED 4.349m 20
18
16

- -
14

5 mm wire 5 19.63
10 12
6 8
2 4

To be To be
12.56 - -
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23

AS BUILT DRAWING LENGTH

7.727m LONG. MEASURED 7.742m
AS BUILT DRAWING LENGTH
9.199m LONG. MEASURED 9.213m 4 mm wire 4 determined by determined by
testing testing
KEY:
DETAIL '1'

2.5 mm wire 2.5 4.90 - -

HANGERS TO BE
1:500
REMOVED FOR TESTING

BRIDGE/HANGER BRIDGE
CONNECTION HANGERS DECK HANGERS

24 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [02] Humber Bridge Hanger Replacements and Testing 25
Table 5: Fatigue Axial Test Stress Range Per Hanger As per BS EN 1993-1-11 Appendix A4, the ultimate tensile that the loads were not exceeded and to ensure that when
test results of fatigue tested hanger was deemed to be the hangers were replaced this was at the correct load.
Hanger reference Upper load limit [kN] Upper stress limit Lower load limit [kN] Lower stress limit Stress range satisfactory if it reached:
σsup* [MPa] σinf* [MPa] (MPa) The assessment identifed that existing welds within the
9-10 1,118 (39% of 493 849 374 119 > A force of at least 95% of the minimum ultimate hanger supporting stool would be overstressed during
minimum breaking tensile strength FMUTS of the cable, defned from the jacking and over-running the welds to adequately transfer
load) characteristic strength of the strand and its nominal loads form the jacking equipment to the orthotropic deck.
cross-sectional area from Table 4; and,
17-18 883 (30% of 388 705 310 78
> A strain under the maximum load not less than 1.5%, Due to the nature of the hanger replacement, the tolerance
minimum breaking on hanger length was tighter than industry standards for
load) allowing for deformation inherent to the operation of
the anchorages (such as working-in of jaws). new construction and, therefore, allowances for wedge
Note: *Stresses are derived from the calculated wire rope effective area of 2271mm² draw-in were required during fabrication. Details of the new
For hanger 16-17, which was not frst subjected to fatigue hanger can be seen in Figure 15 below.
testing, the test was deemed satisfactory if the measured
4.2. Residual Fatigue Life Testing and Tensile Testing another with 145 MPa at 2 million cycles. It was again
breaking force, Fm, reached or exceeded the minimum
Two original, complete fully assembled hanger specimens considered that the existing hanger could not tolerate the
breaking force, FMUTS given in Table 4.
were identifed for fatigue testing as specifed in Table 5. higher stress range, so the lower was chosen, noting that
Each specimen was fully representative of the actual this achieved a factor of safety greater than the specifed
UTS testing of the complete hanger assembly was followed
system and the conditions of use, including the actual 1.25 as 1.25 x 78 = 98 MPa < 119 MPa.
by examination of the fracture surface to determine type of
anchorage systems of the hangers with the pin connection failure (i.e., brittle or ductile).
and corrosion protection. The tests were performed at
ambient temperature between 10°C and 35°C, with a test
frequency of 0.67 Hz, which was the fastest test speed 5. Temporary Works for Replacing the
practical. Hangers
Figure 15: Fabrication of replacement hanger
Each specimen was subjected to two million cycles of the The hangers were removed and replaced without
following coexisting effects: installation of temporary works to support the deck, under
two lane traffc management. This required verifcation of 6. Results of the Testing for the Removed
> Sinusoidal variation of the axial stress between σsup the existing structure, deck, and adjacent hangers to Hangers
and σinf as given in Table 5. accommodate the additional loads during the removal
> Coexisting fexural loading induced by wedge-shaped process.
6.1. Overview and Visual Inspection
shim plates introducing a 0.6° or 10 mrad
misalignment of the terminations with the axis of the Hanger releasing equipment was provided by the contractor, After removing from the bridge, the hangers, including their
hanger. Hanger reference 9-10 was tested under Spencer Group, jacking up the deck to release the load from sockets, were transported to Norway where inspection and
confguration 2 and hanger 17-18 was tested under the hanger locking pin (Figure 14). The pin was removed and testing was undertaken by DNV.GL.
confguration 1 as shown in Figure 13 below. the deck was lowered gradually to remove the load from the
hangers. Hanger 16-17 was generally in good condition with a few
The stress range of 78 MPa specifed for hanger 17-18 was wires out of lay and breaks in the paint coating at several
that derived from the use of FLM3 as described in section Load monitoring was conducted using proprietary vibrating locations.
2.3. It was considered unlikely that the cables would be able Figure 13: Fatigue test set-up wire strain gauges attached to adjacent hangers to ensure
to withstand anywhere near the same levels of stress as
required for a new cable (typically 150 MPa) because of the
The fatigue test result was deemed to be satisfactory if:
fatigue damage likely to have occurred in service to date and
due to corrosion. Due to this concern, the 1.25 factor
> The specimen survived two million cycles of fatigue
mentioned in section 2.3 was not applied to the 78 MPa
loading without detected breakage of more than 2% of
stress range. The specifed stress range for hanger 9-10
the wires of which the hanger is made; and,
was initially derived and specifed the same way. However,
as discussed in section 7.2, the fatigue test for hanger 17-18 > No failure occurred in the anchorage material or in any
easily demonstrated adequate fatigue performance at the component of the anchorage during the fatigue test.
specifed stress level, so the opportunity was taken to An ultimate tensile-strength (UTS) test was also carried out
increase the stress range for the test of hanger 9-10 so that after the fatigue test on each specimen. It was carried out in
the test would give information at a different point on the accordance with BS ISO 2408:2017 method 1 with the
S-N curve. A value of 119 MPa was chosen because a draft existing pin sockets used to support the hangers during the
second generation version of EN 1993-1-11 was, at the time, testing.
considering specifying two possible S-N curves, one with a
stress range requirement of 119 MPa at 2 million cycles and
Figure 14: Hanger replacement – temporary access and removal

26 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [02] Humber Bridge Hanger Replacements and Testing 27
 6.2. Fatigue Testing Hanger 16-17 was tested frst and had not undergone prior Hanger 17-18 was tested after fatigue testing. Failure again
Hanger 17-18 was tested frst in accordance with the stress fatigue testing. Failure occurred adjacent to the cable top occurred adjacent to the cable top anchorage at 3.2%
range of 78 MPa and setup as described in section 4.2. The anchorage (see Figure 21 and Table 6) at 3.4% average average strain which was greater than the minimum value
rig is shown in Figure 18. A fabricated adaptor tool with a strain, which was greater than the minimum value specifed specifed of 2%. The measured breaking load also exceeded
threaded bar was used to maintain the required of 2%. The measured breaking load also exceeded the 95% the 95% minimum breaking load as required. All wire
misalignment of the upper and lower hanger sockets such minimum breaking load as required. failures were ductile and no other wire failures were visible
that this force was not transmitted to the hydraulic system. away from the anchorage but, on dismantling, fve wire
The test rig was set to a nominal 58kN (2% of minimum All wire failures were ductile and no other wire failures were breaks were found in layer three. These wire breaks were
breaking load) to allow fnal inspection and measurement visible away from the anchorage. Upon dismantling hanger subject to fracture surface investigation as discussed in
prior to the test starting and acoustic monitoring was 16-17, the socket was cut through by laser and the condition section 6.5. Only one potential wire break was detected in
installed to detect wire breaks occurring during the test, of the socket and wires inside were studied (Figure 20). the fatigue test, so it was concluded that the other breaks
which took 35 days to complete. One possible wire break There was no visible corrosion and the condition of individual had either occurred in service or had occurred during the
was detected by the monitoring system after approximately wire strands was very good. There were some minor air tensile test.
89,000 cycles, but no wire break was evident on visual pockets within the zinc fller in the socket, but these had
inspection after the test until subsequent dismantling as clearly not adversely affected the corrosion protection or the Hanger 9-10 was also tested after fatigue testing. Failure
described in section 6.3. structural adequacy of the connection. The free length of once more occurred adjacent to the cable top anchorage at
the cable itself had isolated corrosion in wire layers 2 and 3 2.9% average strain (greater than the minimum value
only, with two wire breaks noted away from the location of specifed of 2%) and the measured breaking load exceeded
failure in the ultimate tensile test. These wire breaks were 95% of the minimum breaking load as required. All wire
assumed to have occurred in service. It was also noted that failures were ductile and no other wire failures were visible
the lubrication introduced when the cable was away from the anchorage.
manufactured was absent in the three outer layers, but
present in the inner four. A summary of all the tensile test results is shown in Table 6.
All failures occurred near the top anchorage and it was
Figure 16: Testing hanger 16-17 suggested that this was due to bending stresses during
service near the upper anchorage for bending in the plane of
Hanger 17-18 was in good condition. It was noted that the the pin combined with a lack of lubrication at the top of the
Figure 18: Fatigue test rig (hanger 17-18)
average thickness of the Metalcoat paint was thicker in the cable since it had fowed down to the bottom of the cable.
lower section of the cable at around 600 microns, probably There is also a trend indicating that greater fatigue cycling
because more maintenance painting had been conducted at Hanger 9-10 was tested second with the greater stress may reduce ductility as measured by the average strain at
the lower level of the hanger. The coating was cracked at range of 119 MPa, greater maximum stress in the cycle and failure, but this is not pronounced.
one location but the wires below the Metalcoat appeared set-up described in section 4.2. The test was completed to 2
undamaged and free from any corrosion. The sockets million cycles with no wire breaks detected.
appeared to be in good condition with no visible damage
observed. 6.3. Ultimate Tensile Testing Figure 20: Cut socket for hanger 16-17

Hanger 9-10 was visually in a worse condition than hanger All hangers were tested in a 2,900 T tensile test machine
17-18 with areas of exposed wires and corrosion, as shown (as shown in Figure 19) before the protective mat was
in Figure 17 below. In addition, individual wires could be seen placed over the hanger. Table 6: Tensile Test Results
out of lay in several locations. Hanger Nominal Breaking Minimum Braking Actual Breaking Failure Location Strain
Force (kN) Load (MBL) (kN) Load (kN) (Approximate
from Load
Graphs)
16-17 3216 2900 3016 Close to upper 3.4%
socket (~60mm)2
17-181 3216 2900 3070 Close to upper 3.2%
socket (~60mm) 2
9-101 3216 2900 3025 Close to upper 2.9%
socket (~60mm) 2
Note:

Figure 17: Testing hanger 9-10 1. Tensile test results following fatigue testing.
Figure 19: Tensile test rig (hanger 16-17)
2. Failure location for all hangers tested in 2019/20 were close to the upper socket. No specifc measurements were taken. However, from photographic records, it appears to be approximately 60
mm from the socket.

28 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [02] Humber Bridge Hanger Replacements and Testing 29
 6.5. Fracture Surface Investigation As a result, the hangers will be managed by an increase in tension components. BSI, London, UK
After the tensile test, fve single wire breaks were found in inspections of those in the worst visual condition, the
the third layer of the hanger cable 17-18. These single wire painting regimen will be increased and a further set of BSI (2020) UK National Annex NA+A1:2020 to BS EN 1991-
failures are remote from the main breakage, which occurred hanger replacements and testing is recommended to be 2:2003: Eurocode 1: Actions on structures – Part 2: Traffc
close to the upper socket. These individual wire failure carried out in 10 years to understand the nature and Loads on bridges. BSI, London, UK
surfaces were subjected to a fracture surface investigation consequences of any further deterioration. The cost-beneft
which suggested that, in three out of fve wires, the breaks of this approach, compared to wholesale replacement of BSI (1980) BS 5400:1980: Steel, concrete and composite
had occurred due to brittle fracture following fatigue crack hangers at present, is very substantial. Assuming a Net bridges. Part 10. Code of practice for fatigue. BSI, London,
propagation from a corrosion pit that generates a crack-like Present Value (NPV) of 4%, the comparable whole life costs UK
defect. A typical wire surface is shown in Figure 23. As over a 20-year period for carrying out the replacement now
Figure 21: Tensile test failure in hanger 16-17 (other hanger failures similar) mentioned in section 6.4, this phenomenon is usually linked is £20.5 million compared to delaying the replacement by BSI (2011) BS EN 13411-4:2011: Terminations for steel wire
with wires in corrosion stages 3 and 4 10 years of £14.5 million. ropes — Safety - Part 4: Metal and resin socketing. BSI,
6.4. Examination of Wire Surfaces Upon Completion of London, UK
Testing
8. Conclusion Hendy C., Mundell C., and Bishop D. (2014) Management of
Following completion of the ultimate tensile testing of the 1. Corrosion/pitting defect
the Severn Suspension Bridge, Bridge Maintenance, Safety,
and point of weakness
complete hanger system in section 6.3, the ropes were The Humber hanger replacement and testing scheme has Management and Life Extension, Taylor & Francis Group,
dismantled into their constituent wires, keeping a record of 2. Probable fatigue
developed the detailed and repeatable methodology for London, ISBN 978-1-138-00103-9
which layer the wires came from. The wires were crack propagation
hanger replacement through an increased understanding of
categorized visually by corrosion stage (as defned in the 3. Breakage due stress
the bridge behaviour and has justifed extending the life of National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP)
NCHRP report 534 (2004)) for which the four corrosion concentrations and
remaining strength in
the existing hangers through adoption of a detailed (2004), Mayrbaurl and Camo, Report 534, Guidelines for
stages are characterized by the presence of the following: cable overloaded. management strategy. The minimal structural intervention Inspection and Strength Evaluation of Suspension Bridge
adopted is both environmentally and economically Parallel Wire Cables, Transportation Research Board of the
1. New/spots of zinc oxidation on the wires; Figure 23: Typical fracture surface of broken wire from hanger 17-18, away advantageous. This paper provides guidance to other bridge National Academies.
from tensile test failure zone owners wishing to pursue a similar reduction in structural
2. Zinc oxidation on the entire wire surface; intervention. Winkler J., Hendy C. (2016), Improved Structural Health
7. Future Hanger Management Strategy Monitoring of Bridge Infrastructure using Digital Image
3. Spots of brown rust covering up to 30% of the surface of Correlation, IABMAS June 26th – 30th 2016, Maintenance,
a 75 mm to 150 mm length of wire; and, The implications of the test data obtained to date are that Acknowledgements Monitoring, Safety, Risk and Resilience of Bridges and Bridge
the Humber hangers may generally have signifcantly more Networks, Brazil. ISBN 978-1-138-02851-7
4. Brown rust covering more than 30% of the surface of a The authors would like to thank Humber Bridge Board for
residual life than initially anticipated. All the tensile test
75 mm to 150 mm length of wire. the support provided throughout the project. The Principal
failures, after fatigue in service and after an additional Winkler J., Hendy C. (2018), Monitoring of the Great Belt
Contractor who removed the hanger was Spencer Group
fatigue loading simulating 120 years more service, were Bridge hanger vibrations and expansion joint movements
Previous experience on the main cable assessments of who were responsible for preparing the temporary works
ductile and reached the minimum required test load. This using Digital Image Correlation, IABSE Conference 2018 –
Humber, Severn (Hendy C., Mundell C., and Bishop D., 2014), design. Replacement hangers and sockets were fabricated
means that the cables are suitable for monitoring because Engineering the Past, to Meet the Needs of the Future June
and Forth bridges has shown that the likelihood of brittle by Bridon-Bekaert The Ropes Group. The testing of the
they currently have been shown to have adequate strength 25-27 2018, Copenhagen, Denmark, ISBN 9781510892088
fractures of wire increases signifcantly once stage 3 and hangers was carried out by DNV.GL and report prepared for
and ductility by testing but future reductions in strength will
stage 4 corrosion conditions are present as crack Humber Bridge Board by Ole Kristian Støylen Project
permit load shedding to adjacent hangers and the bridge has
propagation is initiated at corrosion pits which behave as Engineer, Andreas Tjørve Project Engineer Mads Arild Eidem
redundancy to accept failure of any one hanger.
crack-like defects. Figure 22 below shows the change in Head of Section.
tensile strength of a wire for each corrosion stage. Were it possible to freeze the corrosion in the hangers at
current levels, the fatigue testing has indicated that
References
replacements could be deferred for a very substantial period
as it simulated the fatigue effects of 120 years of usage. BSI (2003) BS EN 1991-2:2003: Eurocode 1: Actions on
However, corrosion has advanced in a small number of wires structures – Part 2: Traffc Loads on bridges. BSI, London,
to the point where corrosion pitting may now begin to UK
develop if the wires are not adequately protected by the
paint system and the fatigue life of individual wires will start BSI (2006) BS EN 1993-2:2006: Eurocode 3: Design of steel
to reduce and the overall hanger strength will start to structures – Part 2: Steel bridges. BSI, London, UK
reduce. Given that the Metal Coat paint system is unlikely to
be fully effective at preventing further corrosion, no matter BSI (2006) BS EN 1993-1-11:2006: Eurocode 3: Design of
how often and how well applied, it is likely that further steel structures – Part 1-11: Design of structures with
deterioration will occur and this very high residual life
Figure 22: Extract from the management of the Severn Bridge Suspension cannot be achieved in practice without a different fully-
Bridge paper
effective corrosion protection system being installed, such
as dry air.

30 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [02] Humber Bridge Hanger Replacements and Testing 31
 David A Smith
BEng CEng FICE
Technical Director
Abstract
Engineering, Design and
Project Management
The HS2 Phase One route passes through a diverse and continuously
Epsom, UK
Lead Discipline Engineer, changing British landscape. Structures along the route should be
HS2 Ltd designed and constructed to respond to this diversity, becoming
London, UK harmonious, memorable, and ftting additions to their sites. This is
particularly true for the Colne Valley Viaduct, which, due to its scale,
visibility, and the sensitivity of its site, forms one of the most important
structures along the route. As such, it will become a beacon of HS2 Ltd’s
design-quality to onlookers and passengers alike. Colne Valley Viaduct
offers an opportunity to celebrate the exceptional character of its
surroundings and demonstrate how HS2 structures can combine local
Bridge Engineering 03 distinctiveness with route-wide identity.

This paper describes how HS2 Ltd chose to develop a specimen design
HS2 Colne Valley Viaduct – Developing Louisa S Man for Colne Valley Viaduct, following the deposition of the Phase One hybrid
Bill and before the subsequent granting of Royal Assent and award of a
a Successful Specimen Design
MEng CEng MICE
Formerly Senior Bridge main works civil contract. It describes the reasons why such an approach
Engineer was undertaken and what key aims were achieved.
Engineering, Design and
Project Management
Epsom, UK
Keywords
Concept design; Aesthetics’ Local context; Bridges; Stakeholder
engagement

Héctor Beade Pereda Tomás García

ICCP MEng CEng MSpICE Head of Civil Structures
Associate HS2 Ltd
Knight Architects London, UK
High Wycombe, UK
 Figure 1: Virtual image of CVV crossing Harefeld No. 2 Lake

2. Engaging with communities and making the most of

the time to design. These represent points two and nine of
At the time the main Phase One civil engineering works the HS2 Design Vision[2], respectively, and were seen as
contracts were being procured, the design development of being vital to address ahead of detailed design. It was
all structures along the route was limited to just the initial expected that HS2 was unlikely to achieve the same depth
maturity necessary for parliamentary design. By nature, of design development if concept design of the viaduct didn’t
these designs were concerned more with space-proofng commence until the main works construction contract
and ensuring suffcient land was made available within the procurement process had concluded. Once appointed, the
HS2 Act for construction and operation, without being overly contractor’s designer was likely to be working under greater
1. Introduction restrictive on structural forms or potential construction timescale and cost pressure, potentially compromising the
The HS2 Phase One route passes through a diverse and structures can combine local distinctiveness with route- methods, than specifying the precise quality aspirations for ability to engage with affected communities to fully inform
continuously changing landscape. Structures along the wide identity. a preferred option. HS2 chose to develop a specimen design the early design development.
route should be designed and constructed to respond to this (Figure 1) for Colne Valley Viaduct for a number of reasons
diversity, becoming harmonious, memorable, and ftting Aspirations for the viaduct were set high as stated by the following the deposition of the Phase One hybrid Bill and 3. An early test of HS2’s previously published standards
additions to their sites. High Speed Rail (London – West Midlands) Bill Select before the subsequent granting of Royal Assent and award and requirements. For viaducts, these included the Bridge
Committee of the House of Commons[1]: of a main works civil contractor. These key aims included the Design Requirements[3], Aesthetic Approach[4] and
This is particularly true for the Colne Valley Viaduct, which, following: Technical Standards[5, 6] to confrm that an appropriate
due to its scale, visibility and the sensitivity of its site, forms “181. …the Colne Valley viaduct will be the most signifcant solution could be achieved in response to the technical and
one of the most important structures along the route. As visible engineering feature of the HS2 Phase One route. It will 1. Setting a design quality benchmark. When completed, aesthetic requirements and location specifc constraints. It
such, it will become a beacon of HS2 Ltd’s (HS2) design- have international signifcance and its design should refect Colne Valley Viaduct will be the longest viaduct in the UK in was hoped that the specimen design approach and some of
quality to onlookers and passengers alike. It will portray the that. Having argued against a viaduct, local people deserve a highly environmentally sensitive area in close proximity to the conclusions might be suitable for use in other contexts
national scale of HS2’s infrastructure whilst expressing its that its design be respectful and respectable… several settlements. The Parliamentary Select Committee throughout Phases One, 2a, and 2b.
sensitive integration within the landscape. Colne Valley Sympathetically and imaginatively designed, the viaduct can recognised that this would therefore be a viaduct of
Viaduct offers an opportunity to celebrate the exceptional become a suitable symbol for the country’s future high-speed international signifcance and that it should be a beacon 4. Developing a specimen design based on a tangible
character of its surroundings and demonstrate how HS2 railway network.” structure for HS2, to be designed and delivered as an asset. Work and design aspirations to date were inevitably
exemplar to the project. based on a subjective understanding of design intent.

HS2 Colne Valley Viaduct – Developing a Successful Specimen Design 35

Developing a design based on a tangible asset allowed this through a series of meetings, presentations, and workshops The immediate surroundings of CVV can be broadly divided
to be framed in a clearer context and allowed direct throughout the work. Such an approach ensured the key into two key landscape character areas: water and
comparison for further design guideline development. external stakeholders were involved in shaping the direction woodland. In order to successfully integrate within this
of the design development with the intention to ease landscape, it is important that the viaduct responds
5. Continuous stakeholder engagement. Progressing a subsequent planning consent ahead of construction. specifcally to the varied characteristics of these two areas.
specimen design ahead of the main works contract award
allowed time to gather and process local knowledge using The CVV specimen design was developed between July The water area is located above the reservoirs and covers
an appropriate assessment approach. The time was used 2016 and March 2017 whilst the HS2 Phase One main works the majority of the length of the viaduct (Figure 3). Whilst
constructively to share information with all relevant contracts were being tendered, evaluated, and procured. the bodies of water are fragmented with roads, canals, and
stakeholders, to receive inputs, and to process them as part Consequently, release of developing aspirations, images, and the River Colne, visually, they combine to create a
of the design. conclusions into the pubic domain was supressed until the consolidated character which infuence the design of the
main works contract was awarded in July 2017. The viaduct. Expanses of water provide open views to the
6. An opportunity to inform stakeholders about specimen design work was commissioned to make the best surrounding vantage points.
technical issues of a structure of this scale. The use of the time available between deposition of the Phase
development of a specimen design maximised the One hybrid Bill, the subsequent granting of Royal Assent,
opportunity for stakeholders to consider the essential and the award of a main works civil contractor.
technical aspects alongside environmental, aesthetic, and
emotional ones. The nature of high-speed railway traffc
constrains the work of the designer. High-speed rail viaducts 3. Site Analysis
are subjected to heavier vertical and horizontal loads than
road or conventional rail bridges and must comply with The Colne Valley Regional Park is located to the northwest
strict defection and vibration limits to guarantee passenger of London, spanning Berkshire, Hertfordshire, Surrey and
comfort and traffc security. Due to these particularities, Hillingdon and is the frst large green area (111 km2) to the
high-speed rail viaducts have a more robust appearance and west of London. It is formed predominantly from parkland,
shorter spans than the average of those carrying other types farmland, and woodland, yet contains large reservoirs which
of traffc, which makes the design of elegant structures surround the River Colne and the Grand Union Canal. The
Figure 4: Woodland character area
challenging. This challenge can be even higher if additional site of the Colne Valley Viaduct itself sits alongside the
elements, such as noise barriers, need to be included in the existing Chilterns railway line which runs into London
the Grand Union Canal all permit axial views of the
design. Marylebone. The viaduct crosses several reservoirs, the
structure, predominantly framed by trees. CVV must
Grand Union Canal as well as the A412 North Orbital Road
respond to these wide range of viewpoints. The best vantage
The ultimate aim of the process was to design a viaduct that and Moorhall Road. The site’s heritage stems from quarrying
point is afforded from the existing railway, which will be both
responds to both the technical requirements of HS2 and the and agriculture, which have now given way to mainly
at speed and a reasonable distance away. By contrast, the
unique and sensitive nature of its location. It was important recreational uses surrounding the reservoirs. The
low-level views from the footpaths and trails surrounding
to stress throughout that the specimen design was combination of water courses, lakes, meadows, and woods
the water will permit a closer, and comparatively “slower”
developed as one potential solution that best satisfed the makes the area highly valuable and environmentally
experience of the viaduct at a primarily pedestrian-scale.
numerous requirements and aspirations, not necessarily the sensitive in terms of landscape and wildlife (Figure 2).
fnal solution. A key characteristic of a well-integrated structure is how it
responds to the infrastructure beneath it. Beyond the
challenge of responding to the axial views created at the
2. Contractual Arrangements, Scope, and Figure 3: Water character area road, canal, and river crossings, the viaduct must formally
Programme address these crossings in its structural arrangement too. In
By contrast to the openness of the water, the woodland order to form a positive addition to the site, as the CVV
Through an existing framework contract with Atkins, HS2 character area is defned by enclosure, with tree-lined roads crosses over this range of existing infrastructure, its design
appointed Knight Architects to develop a specimen design permitting only restricted views of the structure which will must respond to the constraints that they create. The
for Colne Valley Viaduct. Atkins remained closely involved in pass through it (Figure 4). Whilst the woodland character viaduct should “tread lightly” across this sensitive
the design development, ensuring engineering robustness to area surrounds all edges of the water, it is primarily focused landscape: a signifcant challenge given that the range of
the emerging concepts and advising on the array of relevant to the northwest of the water, with the viaduct entering the typologies, alignments, and context of these crossings varies
information already available and studies already woodland after it has crossed the River Colne. dramatically beneath the viaduct.
undertaken as well as administering the framework contract
and sub-consultancy contract. CVV will be most visible as it crosses the water character Most crossings are lined with trees (even in the water
area. Here, the key viewpoints are from the elevated position character area) which serves to restrict views to the axis of
In addition to evaluating a range of structural options to fulfl Figure 2: Aerial view of Colne Valley and the viaduct alignment
of the existing railway line, as well the lower viewpoints the crossing itself. Alignments range from the perpendicular
the location-specifc demands of the Colne Valley, a major surrounding the water’s edge. Denham Green and Harefeld arrangement at Moorhall Road to the high skew of the A412.
aspect of the scope for the specimen design development are the nearest settlements, but views from these locations Whilst the visibility of crossings within the woodland
was to positively engage with the Colne Valley Regional Park are restricted by woodland. The A412, Moorhall Road, and character area is limited (often to viewpoints on the road
Panel (CVRPP) and the HS2 Independent Design Panel (IDP)

36 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [03] HS2 Colne Valley Viaduct – Developing a Successful Specimen Design 37
itself) the crossings of the canal and river within the water maintenance routes must be arranged at both edges of the 5. Design Aspirations create interference patterns that create a cluttered
character area can be viewed from a variety of surrounding deck. Overhead lines are used for electrical power appearance. As such, piers should be singular in their design,
vantage points. At these locations, the span arrangement, transmission to the trains, which means that overhead Colne Valley Viaduct is one of the most important structures either “leaf” style elements or “V” piers. In doing so, their
pier form, and alignment are of critical importance in catenary system (OCS) masts will be arranged at certain on the HS2 Phase One route, set within one of the most arrangement and rhythm will be more easily read from the
establishing a structure which actively responds to the longitudinal intervals (typically between 40 m and 60 m) at sensitive landscapes. As such, it must represent the very variety of surrounding viewpoints, and the viaduct will
specifc features of the site below it. both sides of the track area. Their spacing and design should best in contemporary design. It will form a “beacon” of HS2, appear to “tread lightly” across this sensitive landscape.
be consistent and co-ordinated across the viaduct, as and therefore must convey the route-wide aspiration to
changes in either disrupt the rhythm of the structure below. create a ftting, elegant, and long-lasting piece of national An elegant viaduct, particularly one with a low vertical
4. HS2 Constraints Noise barriers are required along most of the length of the infrastructure. alignment, must be well proportioned. The proportions of
viaduct, at least on one side of the deck, with heights varying CVV should address the following three constraints:
The main constraint on the design of CVV is arguably its from 3 m to 4 m depending on receptor proximity and noise There are broadly two design methodologies that can be
vertical alignment. The low, relatively consistent alignment model input parameter assumptions. A protection barrier is used to achieve an aspiration for the design of a “beacon 1. Span to Depth Ratio. It is important that CVV appears to
creates a challenging relationship between the structure needed on the edges of the deck. structure” – prominence or elegance. A prominent viaduct be “working” but without appearing to be an ordinary
and the ground below it. Proportions, span length, and would take the form of a tall, eye-catching design, usually structure. This visual perception is usually based on the
structural profles all must be carefully considered to with above-deck structure. High vertical alignments such as span to depth ratio, with overly short spans detracting from
produce a ftting, elegant solution. This challenge is eased those across deep valleys lend themselves to this approach, the drama and elegance of a structure. Whichever structural
somewhat over the water, as refections serve to increase where massive forms can remain aesthetically pleasing due system is used, it must appear to be keen and effcient, even
the perception of height, allowing more light, transparency, to the proportions offered by the vertical scale of the with an extraordinary design which positively portrays the
and even views through the structure. In the woodland crossing itself. Achieving a beacon structure through forces running through it.
areas, the low vertical alignment places the deck within the elegance requires careful detailing, slender proportions, and
treeline, which masks large portions of the structure from keenly designed components via a reductive rather than an 2. Deck Depth to Clearance Ratio. A low viaduct must
the majority of viewpoints. This alignment results in the additive approach. This elegance approach is best suited to strive to maximise the clearance that remains underneath it.
viaduct passing through rather than over the woodland, the low vertical alignment of Colne Valley Viaduct, where Views, landscape permeability, and light all beneft from
which a successful design must respond to. issues of deck depth, span length, structural proportions, greater clearance. This distance will be viewed against the
and transparency are valued over height. structural depth. A well-proportioned ratio between the two
By contrast to the challenges of the vertical alignment, from will ensure the viaduct delicately and respectfully crosses
an aesthetic standpoint, the effect of the gently curved plan A low vertical alignment leaves less room for elaborate the landscape.
alignment is generally positive. However, the curve design. Where tall, prominent structures can readily
eliminates “pure” elevational views, with neighbouring piers Figure 5: HS2 cross section requirements accommodate elaborate eye-catching designs, low-lying 3. Width to Clearance. Visually, structures which are wide
presenting different angles to most viewpoints. Combined solutions should strive for understated simplicity if they are in the transverse direction need to have more clearance.
with a low alignment, this can often produce a “forest of Having just exited a tunnel from London, CVV offers an to be considered elegant. A high viaduct can be easily visible This is to the same end as a good depth to clearance ratio –
columns” effect, which must be avoided. As such, pier exciting opportunity to provide dramatic, open views to HS2 and legible. It also may offer more options in terms of height light, views, and permeability are worsened by structural
shaping and arrangement must carefully consider the plan- passengers, allowing the diverse changes in the landscape versus span ratio choice. It is much easier to get an width. Moreover, the width dramatically impacts the bearing
curve so as to achieve a well-co-ordinated, deliberate to be perceived. Across the route, these elevated vantage internationally recognised “beacon structure” with a high locations, and, in turn, the pier size. Wide piers block views
appearance. points are relatively rare and great care must be taken to alignment than with a low one. A low viaduct is less likely to and increase the visual mass. Split piers increase the
not unnecessarily obstruct them with noise barriers. The be visible and legible (especially in woodland areas). It offers transparency but at the cost of adding clutter.
If a successful pier arrangement is achieved, the eye will be location, height, and design of the barriers must seek to less design versatility in terms of height versus span ratio.
drawn to lines of the deck. From most viewpoints, the plan combine functional performance with transparency; to Achieving an internationally recognised beacon structure In response to the character areas described previously,
curvature will generate a dynamic form, creating fuid, free- reduce noise whilst maximising views. In addition to the with a low alignment is challenging. longer spans are suited to the comparative openness of the
fowing lines that sit well within this natural setting. The consideration of the view from the viaduct, the consideration water areas with the enclosure provided by the woodland
viaduct’s combination of length and plan curvature may also of noise barrier impact on views of the viaduct is of critical Given the low alignment, the aspiration must be for an areas permitting shorter spans. Refections over the water
result in views of the structure for the passengers upon it. importance. The fowing, understated lines that could be “extraordinary” viaduct. This is intended both in the require careful consideration to be given to the deck sofft,
Even if only a brief glimpse is achieved, this will greatly achieved in the primary structure can all too easily be hyperbolic sense of achieving an exceptional structure, but which will be readily visible from many vantage points. Pier
enhance the passenger experience of the railway. CVV broken with poorly designed barriers placed on top of it. also in the very literal sense of designing something out-of- form may also beneft from changing to suit the specifc
provides one of the best opportunities along Phase One for the-ordinary. An “ordinary” structure will not be specifc to characteristics of each area. Whilst other elements of the
views of the open countryside for HS2 passengers. The As many of the viewpoints of the viaduct are from below, the the Colne Valley, nor will it be commensurate with the structure will change across the landscape character areas,
experiences of speed, scale, and “journey” are all further transverse position of the barriers is just as important as the importance of this scheme. the deck edge will likely beneft by remaining consistent.
enhanced if the structure (and even the train itself) can be a longitudinal. Barriers which are placed in close proximity to This will give continuity across the viaduct, providing a
part of that view. the rail have less impact on the appearance of the structure. One of the primary infuences on an elegant design is what steady datum, against which other structural changes can
Once the broad position, height, and design of the barriers is happens below the deck level. The curved plan alignment of be read.
There are certain constraints to be taken into account when established, its components must also be carefully CVV requires careful alignment of the piers in order to
defning the sectional design (Figure 5). The viaduct cross co-ordinated so that the noise barrier appears as a logical, ensure that their arrangement is logical, simple, and ftting. CVV will be viewed at a variety of distances and speeds and
section must accommodate two high-speed rail tracks with integral element of the viaduct design. Twin piers, which each support a bearing at a single cross the quality of materials and detailing must respond to this.
a cant due to the curved horizontal alignment and the slab section, will read as two separate objects. This is not An understated, elegant solution must be exceptionally well
track system. A derailment containment system must be suitable to a curved alignment where their rhythm will detailed if it is to be perceived as an extraordinary structure.
used at both sides of the track area, and two evacuation/

38 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [03] HS2 Colne Valley Viaduct – Developing a Successful Specimen Design 39
It must be long-lasting, of the highest quality, and provide a (such as over roads) this desire is reinforced with a
material fnish that is suited to the close proximity that can functional clearance constraint.
be achieved from many of the viewpoints on and surrounding
the water.

Particularly below-deck, the structure must be designed

with a “pedestrian-scale” in mind. Whilst CVV is indeed a
large piece of railway infrastructure, it will form a critical
component of the pedestrian environment beneath it. Piers
will touch the water, provide access around them for
walking routes, and the relatively low height of the deck
sofft will make it easily visible. As such, all elements that
face the pedestrian environment must be of a quality, scale,
and texture commensurate with the up-close and low-speed
scrutiny it will be subject to. Quality in this sense is related
to overall geometric design, choice of materials (light grey
concrete for the structure, and transparent acrylic sheets
and stainless steel for noise barrier, as an example), use of
texture for some of the surfaces (some areas of deck and
piers with recessed patterns), how these materials are
treated during construction (concrete fnish, welding
smoothness in steelwork, etc.), and the design of details
(recessed stripes to direct water in a controlled way on the
deck sides, or drainage conduit-pier coordination, for Figure 8: Virtual image of CVV crossing Korda Lake
example).
For CVV to be considered a ftting structure that has been
sensitively designed with the landscape in mind, it must
directly address the features which it crosses. This is
achieved to some extent by responding to the specifc
characteristics of the woodland and the water. However, the Figure 6 (a to d): Alternative deck cross-section and substructure forms
existing infrastructure also must be referenced. The Grand considered
Union Canal, the River Colne, as well as the different roads
and pathways crossed should be acknowledged in the A traditional arrangement would position the vast majority
design. This could be as simple as ensuring that these of the structure below the level of the deck (Figure 6(a)).
structures are positioned centrally within spans, or could This reduces the clearance and also “stacks” elements such
extend to having their presence highlighted by “feature” as derailment containment kerbs, noise barriers, parapets,
spans. and OCS structures on top of the structural depth, which
leads to a further increase in the total perception of deck
6. Option Appraisal depth. Using a “through” structure arrangement has the Figure 7 (a to h): Options evaluated to cross the main water bodies
beneft of moving a proportion of the structure above the
Having established the design aspirations, concept design deck. This improves the clearance below and also allows
options were then assessed against them. In order to best certain elements (noise barriers, kerbs, walkways, etc.) to clutters the appearance of the viaduct and as such are not (Figure 7(a)) to a multi-span cable-stayed viaduct (with 350
address the separate constraints and opportunities of the exist within or behind this structural makeup, further suitable for CVV. The proposed solution is shown in Figure m typical spans, Figure 7(b)) that was used to explain the
woodland and the water character areas, options focussed reducing the visual depth of the “total” deck build-up. Of 6(d), which combines above- and below-deck structure with drawbacks of the design many people had in mind at the
on them separately. Many of the proportional constraints course, if this structure rises to the point where it begins to enough torsional stiffness in order to maintain a close beginning of the work stage (inappropriate scale and
(span to depth, depth to clearance, etc.) are most restrictive block the views of the passengers, any beneft achieved in bearing proximity beneath the deck. The result is a structure conficting with the close Denham aerodrome).
in the woodland character area. As such, the cross-sectional views of the structure is eliminated with a negative effect on with a good “total depth” to clearance ratio, which masks
design of the deck and piers was designed with a focus on views from the structure. certain elements behind the structure, and permits Structural forms considered included the following, as
this area so as to address the most constrained sections of
transversely slender piers beneath. illustrated in Figure 7(a) to (h):
the viaduct. Next, is the deck’s infuence on the transverse distance
between bearings. Traditional through-structures force the Having established a deck cross-section preference, a a) Multi-span continuous beam with a box girder with
Within this area, the cross-section of the deck, its infuence bearings to the edge of the deck, which results in either wide number of general layout options were then tested against cantilevers (or U-shaped) constant depth cross-section;
on the bearing location and, in turn, the pier width is of leaf piers (Figure 6(b)), twin-piers (Figure 6(c)) or the site and HS2 constraints, ranging from a very
critical importance; there is a visual aspiration to increase cantilevered piers. These piers either appear overly large conventional viaduct with 50 m to 60 m long typical spans b) Multi-span cable-stayed viaduct;
the clearance underneath the deck. At several locations and block views or produce an irregular pattern which

40 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [03] HS2 Colne Valley Viaduct – Developing a Successful Specimen Design 41
c) Extradosed Spans Over Main Lakes responding Large perforations in the deeper areas of the deck maintain of adding clutter. As such, the proposal is for a holistic edge The piers of the viaduct have an elegant, subtly tapered, and
separately to the woodland and water character areas; views and landscape fows through them. The deck sofft condition, which – with a single system – incorporates the faceted design. Since every support is made up by a single
and the internal faces of the triangular cells are faceted, noise barrier, parapet, fowl and bat protection, and the OCS body, instead of the two columns that would be typically
d) Multi-span beam with variable depth spans (above rail) increasing the visual slenderness without noticeably masts. As opposed to large “frames” which abruptly start used together with U-shaped cross sections, they will be
over main lakes; reducing their mechanical properties (Figure 9). and stop and may thus disrupt the rhythm of the structure compact and cast in shadows, avoiding the “forest of
below, the proposal developed for the CVV specimen design columns” effect. Facets break their volume and create
e) Multi-span beam with constant depth tubular cross Concrete was chosen as the main material for the bridge was for a series of vertical elements which subtly modulate attractive shade contrasts varying with the daytime, season,
section over main lakes; due to its appearance, natural ageing, benefts from a across the viaduct (see Figure 10). Their triangular cross- and position of the viewer. These are key features of the
maintenance point of view, and to the mass and damping section gives the system a transparent appearance when design, defning a high quality that suits the viaduct design
f) Multi-span beam with variable depth spans (below rail) provided (that is, in general, benefcial to a high-speed rail seen from distance by CVRP visitors, and their arrangement aspirations. This general design approach can be further
over main lakes; viaduct with long spans). The typical construction-related and slenderness will make them almost invisible for HS2 enhanced in specifc areas by improving the material fnish
drawbacks aren’t a discouraging aspect in the case of CVV, users looking through the train window. The envelope with the addition of texture when they can be seen in close
g) Multi-span beam with variable depth truss spans (below due to accessibility of the site, the proximity of the deck to created by the system is consistent regardless of whether a proximity by pedestrians. The texture approach defned in
rail) over main lakes; and, ground level, and the shallowness of the lakes (average noise barrier is needed or not, with its angle dividing the the specimen design complements the pier design, with
depth of approximately 5 m). external face of the deck into two, increasing its visual simple vertical recessed lines on the triangular faces whose
h) Multi-span variable depth arched spans with v-shaped slenderness. bases are located at ground level. This adds a balanced
piers over main lakes. The woodlands offer enough areas with lower visitor degree of complexity and interest to the untextured design
accessibility to place the required special substructure while enhancing its natural geometric features, intensifying
Based on previous design assumptions, all the options had elements to create fxed points for stretches of the viaduct, facet contrast.
common features: a typical constant hybrid box girder- or to allow room for expansion joints.
trough deck forming circa 50 m spans in the woodland area, Figures 1, 8, 11, and 12 show key views of the viaduct
complemented by other structural forms to achieve longer crossing Harefeld No.2 Lake and Korda Lake. The key
100 m to 115 m spans over the lake areas, keeping as 7. Specimen Design Features features of the CVV specimen design can be appreciated in
continuous a deck edge as possible. these images: elegance, subtlety, legibility, harmonious and
The combination of some above-deck structure and sculpted concrete shapes, respect for the water bodies
The selected design (Figures 1, 7(h), 8, 11, and 12) is a multi- torsional stiffness creates a deck that actively responds to being crossed (minimum concrete volume in contact with
span concrete structure whose typical deck arrangement in the HS2 constraints, whilst maintaining good clearance the water), transparency, use of refection, care for detail,
the woodland areas smoothly turns, when crossing the below, as well as offering an opportunity for a consistent and the holistic design of viaduct and edge conditions. The
lakes, into a series of 105 m spans with variable-depth, an design element across the varied conditions of the viaduct. images show an extraordinary contextual structure,
arched sofft and triangular voids in the deepest areas Applying a subtle taper to the piers, as well as simple Figure 10: Concept of multi-purpose parapet noise barrier and fying fauna perfectly suited to the Colne Valley, which will become a
“creases” to their face, creates a standard form which is protection
(which can be seen as part of the V-shaped piers in Figures beacon through its elegance.
8, 9, 11, and 12). This solution is the one that better well suited to the Colne Valley. The cross-sectional distance
responds to the different character areas and obstacles between the deck edge and the bearings also serves to cast
being crossed. It successfully uses the refection on the the pier into shadow, drawing attention to the crisp edge of
water as a relevant feature of the design thanks to the the deck, adding lightness to the appearance of the
sequence of arches, narrowing when closer to the water structure in both the water and woodland areas.
(Figure 7(h)). This arrangement also minimises the area in
contact with the water, so as to tread lightly across this Whilst the general aim of achieving long spans on the water
sensitive landscape and visually links the deck to the piers, section is desired, it was found that a slight reduction in
adding clarity to the arrangement when viewed from oblique span, from 115 m to 105 m, resulted in a much better
angles. arrangement. The proposed 105 m spans formally address
both the lakes and the canal below and create a structure
which is both more legible and more deliverable.

For this elegant structure to become a beacon, it must be

exceptionally detailed. Part of this is to ensure that its key
features are refned designs which add to the interest and
quality of the crossing. The parametrically refned forms
facet the deck sofft and the internal faces of the triangular
cells, increasing the visual slenderness without reducing
their mechanical properties.

Figure 9: Detail of one of the triangular cells of the main span crossing the For any viaduct to be considered elegant, it must provide a
water bodies holistic solution, which addresses the requirements of both
the rail and the landscape. Even if the structure itself is
beautiful, additional elements placed on top of it run the risk Figure 11: Virtual image of CVV crossing Harefeld No. 2 Lake

42 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [03] HS2 Colne Valley Viaduct – Developing a Successful Specimen Design 43
8. External Stakeholder and Panel 9. Conclusions
Engagement
The process of developing a specimen design for Colne
The CVV specimen design was developed interacting with Valley Viaduct highlighted a number of positive aspects and
the Colne Valley Regional Park Panel and the HS2 its successful delivery was down to a number of key
Independent Design Panel at different stages of the work. principles established from the outset. These included:
Both panels provided very valuable input that was taken into
account to produce the specimen design. Both panels > Setting a clear defnition of scope and outcomes from
offered strong support for the content of the specimen the start;
design and especially the design approach. Specifcally, both > The appointment of appropriate specialists – both
panels highlighted: engineering and architectural – collaborating
harmoniously to develop the design;
> The engagement and transparency with stakeholders
> Engagement with relevant local stakeholders
throughout the process;
throughout the process, actively involving them in the
> The sensitivity to the context of the overall design; design development and exploring what their key
> How the viaduct changes in span and geometry issues were and what compromises they would be
depending whether it is above water, woodland or more willing to make to achieve a structure capable of
roads, keeping design coherence and elegance at the satisfying the numerous high-speed railway
same time; constraints;
> How the “hybrid” cross-section successfully balances > Always being cognisant of the need to develop a
noise reduction with views from the train; design that is respective and respectful of the location
through which it runs;
> The elegantly proportioned shapes of the main spans Figure 12: Virtual image of CVV crossing Korda Lake
over water bodies and the variable depth span over the > Establishing a well-defned and structured approach to
A412; the overall design process with clear milestones,
articulated appropriately to all parties; and,
> Having used the refective properties of the water
bodies as a relevant design parameter; > Ensuring an openness with panels, members, and
wider communities to explain design approach,
> The design considerations of the parapet and noise
technical challenges, and specifc constraints of high- Acknowledgements 3. High Speed 2 (HS2) Limited. Bridge Design Requirements,
barrier and how the system becomes a fowl and bat Project document HS2-HS2-BR-STD-000-000004, HS2 Ltd,
speed railway viaducts.
protection barrier in the areas noise protection isn’t This paper is published with the permission of HS2 Ltd. The London, 2015 (not publicly accessible)
needed; and, Developing a specimen design for Colne Valley Viaduct authors acknowledge Billy Ahluwalia, HS2’s senior project
successfully made the most of the time available between manager for Colne Valley Viaduct, for his valuable input 4. High Speed 2 (HS2) Limited. Open Route Design
> The intent to use ribbing to control water fow and
hybrid Bill and award of a main works design and build throughout the specimen design development. The fnal Approach, Project document HS2-HS2-AR-
staining and to add texture.
contract. It enabled the diverse, sometimes conficting visualisation images were produced by Hays Davidson Ltd in GDE-000-000005, HS2 Ltd, London, 2016 (not publicly
Both panels encouraged the design team to consider the requirements to be interpreted and the constraints and conjunction with Knight Architects. The authors would also accessible)
user experience of the Colne Valley Park visitors when opportunities that are placed upon the viaduct to be like to acknowledge the contributions to a successful
designing the viaduct. Some aspects of the design are explored. The work turned the design aspirations into a high- specimen design approach from the Colne Valley Regional 5. High Speed 2 (HS2) Limited. Technical Standard – Bridge
directly consequences of this input including: the use of quality concept that meets HS2’s technical standards and Park panel, chaired by Jim Barclay, and the HS2 Design Basis, Project document HS2-HS2-BR-
longer spans with arched shapes in the more visible areas; environmental requirements, capturing the views of the Independent Design Panel, chaired by Sadie Morgan and STD-000-000001, HS2 Ltd, London, 2015 (not publicly
having an uncluttered pier arrangement with a single CVRPP and the HS2 IDP. The CVV specimen design received Tony Burton. accessible)
concrete body (instead of two columns) with refned shapes exceptionally positive support from both panels and the
and dimensions; using textured surfaces when piers can be individual stakeholders and formed a reference and 6. High Speed 2 (HS2) Limited. Technical Standard –
potentially in close proximity with pedestrians; and allowing benchmark for the subsequent design stages. References Viaducts, Project document HS2-HS2-BR-STD-000-000002,
the possibility of locally creating apertures to allow visitors
HS2 Ltd, London, 2015 (not publicly accessible)
to cross the piers when they are close to towpaths. The proposed viaduct responds to the scale and visual 1. The Stationery Offce, House of Commons Select
character of the different areas of the Colne Valley park, to Committee on the High Speed Rail (London – West Midlands)
the user experience along and below the structure, and to Bill, Second Special Report of Session 2015–16, The
the environmental sensitivity of the location. What began Stationery Offce, London, 22 February 2016 (accessible via:
being envisaged by many as an eye-catching, prominent https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cmhs2/129/129.pdf)
structure, ended up being a beacon through its elegance.
The combination of subtle, elegant arches, structural 2. High Speed 2 (HS2) Limited. HS2 Design Vision, HS2 Ltd,
lightness, and exceptional proportions created a structure London, 2015 (accessible via: https://www.hs2.org.uk/
which would be a ftting addition to the landscape. documents/hs2-design-vision/)

44 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [03] HS2 Colne Valley Viaduct – Developing a Successful Specimen Design 45
 Abstract
The recent COVID-19 pandemic and its resulting economic impacts have
Stephen Bourne made clear the need for communities to fnd ways to continue to operate,
P.E. even as outbreaks occur. Atkins has adapted its City Simulator tool – a
Atkins Fellow, Project
software focused on climate change - to allow communities to explore
Director
Engineering, Design and their options in terms of coping with COVID-19. With City Simulator, a
Project Management digital twin of the community is created and then simulated as the
Miami, FL, United States community evolves from present day to mid-century. An initial
experiment is described where an infection strikes a virtual city, Optima,
of 95,909 people. The base run shows that 79% of the population is
infected in a massive frst outbreak that reduces the engaged workforce
Digital Twins 04 of the city from 33,000 to fewer than 500 people. A social distancing
measure is then simulated to explore the effcacy of such measures.
The study shows that three factors impact effcacy of the measure:
Assessing Options for Getting Back to introduction time relative to initial infection, duration of implementation,
and compliance of the population. The results show that it may be
Work During the COVID-19 Pandemic possible, with the application of mitigating and adapting measures, to
continue to operate and avoid community shutdown and keep the working
population productive.

Keywords
City Simulator; COVID-19; Pandemic; Social distancing
 Optima – A virtual City

= 95,099 people
= 31,129 workers
= 20,030 buildings
! Commercial – 3,125 buildings(single
and multi-business)
! Residential – 16,905 buildings
100 km2
(single and multi-family) 10km 38 mi2
= Central Business District
in SW Quadrant
= Daily Commutes to work

10km
Figure 1: Optima is a virtual city generated within City Simulator to run the epidemic model

modeling the spread and recession of an epidemic. on real cities, and there are many examples of it being used
Moreover, given the capability within the framework to add around the world. Optima was created to help the Atkins
adaptation/mitigation actions and simulate their infuence team focus on infection dynamics and ensuring they are
on agent activities, testing options for epidemic mitigation, being simulated correctly. In future runs, real communities
actions like social distancing, stay-at-home directives, will be simulated, which will add complexity to the
regular disinfection of surfaces, and so on can be tested in simulation and provide valuable insight to those
terms of their effectiveness. communities.

This paper will describe the recent development of an

1. Introduction epidemic modeling capability within City Simulator and a
frst application to a virtualized city called Optima. 3. Simulating Spread of Infection Through
The resulting impacts to community property and Travel Modeling
The recent COVID-19 pandemic and its resulting economic productivity are simulated and measured as key
impacts have made clear the need for communities to fnd performance metrics. Stakeholders use these metrics as a
ways to continue to operate, even as outbreaks occur. 33.0%
2. Optima The simulation was based on the so-called SIR model,
basis for decision making in terms of any mitigation and where buckets of susceptible, infected, and recovered
and 20.4% drops in year-on-year GDP in the US and UK, adaptation actions they will take to become more resilient. populations are accounted for explicitly (Weisstein 2020).
respectively, point to devastating economic impacts of A virtual city called Optima was created with City Simulator
Given each building in the community is modeled as an
shutting down society to avoid infection (USBEA 2020, Though initially focused on climate change and the disaster to act as a test bed for epidemic model. This 95,099-person
object, a building-level SIR model was applied to each
UKONS, 2020). Atkins has adapted its City Simulator tool to types that it infuences, through its agent-based design, the city covers 100 sq km (38 sq mi) as a great square, 10 km on
structure. Community-scale estimates of susceptible,
allow communities to explore their options. Initially framework for City Simulator enables the ability to include a side. There are 20,030 buildings in the city, 3,125 of which
infected, and recovered individuals are therefore a sum of
developed to provide clients with a means to measure how other disasters such as cyber threats, terrorist attacks, and are commercial. The workforce is 31,129 people, each of
the SIR models results at each building across the
resilient their communities are to climate change and sea epidemics. The term “agent-based” refers to the fact that whom commute to work each day.
community.
level rise, City Simulator is a map-based software tool used each individual person in a community is modeled as an
to create a digital twin of the community and then evolve avatar. Activities like commuting, shopping, stopping to get It should be noted that City Simulator was designed to work
The transfer of individuals from S to I to R was tracked
the community day-by-day into the future. Over the course gas, etc. are all captured in the model daily. As these through simulating infection occurring during explicit
of the simulation, the community is hit with projected contact points are explicitly modeled within the context of a contacts between individuals as they traveled through the
disasters like storms, heat waves, and rises in sea levels. real community, the framework lends itself naturally to

Assessing Options for Getting Back to Work During the COVID-19 Pandemic 49
community. The contacts were tracked through City Other assumptions made included:
Simulator’s built-in travel model, which maps out the > The virus enters the community as a single infection
commute path of every worker in the community. Typically, case every 10 days. The person infected is selected at
these paths are used to understand the level of disruption random from the pool of susceptible people. These are
felt by the community when, for example, a culvert or bridge people that haven’t had the virus yet at the time of
is damaged due to fooding and the residents are not able to infection.
take their normal commute. In the case of epidemic > Infection lasts 14 days. This is from the time the
modeling, the commute paths help to simulate how the person is infected until they recover and become
infection spreads through daily travel. The fgure below immune. Note that no deaths were modeled in the
shows an example of a “commute footprint” for an individual initial model. All infected residents were assumed to
commercial building in the central business district of recover.
Optima. The building, indicated by the white arrow, has 18
workers. Collectively, they live in homes that are reached by > Each infected person is asymptomatic for fve days.
the set of highlighted road segments on the map. Given the During this time, they continue to go to work and
City Simulator model has a commute footprint for every spread disease.
commercial building in the city, it can effectively map the > 50% of people remain asymptomatic. This means they
spread of infection from building to building each day. never stop going to work and continue spreading
disease. The individuals are selected at random. The
remaining 50% are assumed to stay at home or be
admitted to the hospital.
> Probability of contact and transmission on any given
day is:
> Among family members: 25%.
> Workers to close colleagues: 5%
> Workers to others in building: 5% to 1%, depending Figure 3: The base run shows a large peak in infected cases (blue line) impacting 75,000 of the 95,000 people in the city. Those immobilized by the infection
(red line) remain asymptomatic for the frst fve days and then are confned to their homes and hospitals. The engaged workforce (green line) drops to nearly
on size of commercial building zero as almost all of the city’s workers are impacted by infection.

Note that the assumptions made are intended to enable

exploring the model performance. As such, the model was
not calibrated exactly to the parameters of the current
Coronavirus outbreak, particularly because those
parameters are only starting to be known with accuracy as causing further infection. The peak of the infection is 4. Using Social Distancing to Mitigate the
the epidemic plays out. reached on January 20 and then the infections cases drop Impacts of the Epidemic
quickly as the infected recover and immunity builds among
Further note that, in future runs, the commutes will be more the community.
realistically as “journeys,” where avatars make stops, Using City Simulator’s scenario-based framework, a social
contact infected surfaces - fomites – and carry the disease The green line in the Figure 3 shows the engaged workforce, distancing measures was added to evaluate the degree to
with them. The model will also include contacts with which starts out at 31,129 (see right axis) and drops to which Optima’s vulnerability could be reduced. Social
Figure 2: Each of the 3,125 commercial buildings in Optima has a commute surfaces at the workplace and residence and be calibrated nearly zero as the infection impacts nearly the entire distancing is the practice of separating yourself physically
footprint, which shows the road segments (white lines) used by workers in workforce, an enormous economic impact.
the building to get from home to work. to refect the length of time each surface type remains from others. Generally, a minimum distance guideline is
infectious. provided to the public. For the current Coronavirus
pandemic, it is often 6 ft (1.82 m). The experimental set up is
3.1 Measuring Vulnerability With the Base Run 3.2 Base Run Results described in Figure 4.

To understand how vulnerable Optima is, a base run was The base run results are shown in the video and chart below. The impacts of social distancing are assumed to be:
frst conducted where no mitigation actions were taken. After an initial period of about 8 days, the infection (blue > Probability of contact and transmission on any given
line) explodes, jumping to more than 75,000 cases out of the day is:
The contact model used was very simple. It only included 95,000 people in Optima. The video shows the spread > Among family members: Would drop from 25% to
commutes from home to work and back. At home, workers across the city day by day. Each blue dot is a building that 1%
were assumed to make contact with their family members, contains at least one infected person. The red line in the
one of whom may be a working spouse. At work, each > Workers to close colleagues: Would drop from 5%
chart shows the number of “sick” people as the infection
worker was assumed to make contact with two sets of to 0.5%
plays out. These are people who have passed the initial fve-
people in their building: close colleagues (up to six people day asymptomatic period and are now assumed to be > Workers to others in building: Would drop from a
they interact with regularly) and others within the building. staying at home or admitted to the hospital and are not maximum of 5% to a maximum of 0.5%
Video 1: Base-run

50 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [04] Assessing Options for Getting Back to Work During the COVID-19 Pandemic 51
Figure 4: Experiment set up for social distancing

Figure 5: Minimum social distancing, where the public is 50% compliant and the social distancing is only in place for 14 days, results in a drop in peak cases
from 75,000 to 63,000

It should be noted the distance required for social distancing > Duration of Epidemic – the number of days until the
levels. The top of the bar in each case represents the peak The chart shows clearly that:
to achieve this level of reduction in infection probability is number infected drops to one.
found using the 50% compliance level, whereas the bottom
not specifed within the experiment. It is assumed that this Each variation of the three parameters was tested, creating of the bar represents the peak found using the 100% > The minimum peak occurs when social distancing
distance can be achieved in all interactions between agents. 3 start times x 6 durations x 3 compliance levels, or 54 runs. compliance level. The 75% compliance level is indicated by started at 100 cases with a 70-day duration and 100%
The specifc distance would ideally be found through
the X in each bar. compliance.
physical experiments.
4.1 Impact of Social Distancing > In general, peak infections drop with duration of the
The experiment explored three parameters: measure; the longer the better.
Figure 5 compares the base run to a run that starts at 10
cases, has a 14-day social distancing duration, and includes > Somewhat non-intuitively, peak infections drop more if
> Start Time: The number of cases detected that you start social distancing later, after a small
50% compliance. This was defned as the “minimum
triggers the social distancing measure. The values population of infections have been established. This is
measure,” as it had the lowest values of the three
used were 10, 50, and 100 cases. due to allowing some of the population to develop
parameters. The measure is effective to some degree, with
> Duration of Measure: The length of time in days that peak cases dropping from about 75,000 to about 63,000. immunity.
the measure would be in place. Values used were 14, About 10,000 of the engaged workforce remain working. > With 50% compliance, the 14- and 28-day measures
28, 42, 56, 70, and 84 days. Finally, and ominously, a second peak starts to form. This is starting at 10 infection cases are ineffective, resulting
> Compliance of Individuals: The percentage of due to the single “drip” of new infections every 10 days. The in peak infections that are similar to the base run.
individuals that complied with the directive and kept peak drops off rapidly due to the herd immunity that has
> The lowest peak found across all runs is approximately
their distance. Values used were 50%, 75%, and 100%. been established in the frst peak, but the trade-off of the
35,000 people, or about 36% of Optima’s population.
lower initial peak to additional outbreaks in the future is
Finally, the following key metrics were used: clear.

> Peak Infection Cases – the maximum number of cases 4.2 Can Social Distancing Be Used to Allow Workers to
detected on a given day Continue Working?
> Time to Peak – the number of days since the frst To explore the degree to which the peak can be reduced, all Figure 6: The highest peak infection metric ranges from around 75,000
detected case and the day with peak cases 54 runs were conducted and summarized in Figure 6. The
cases to 35,000 cases depending on when the social distancing starts, how
long it is enforced, and how compliant the population is. The height of the
> Second Peak Cases – the maximum number of cases chart shows the range of peak cases across the varying bars indicates the range of effectiveness that compliance has, with the upper
edge of the bar representing the peak cases when 50% of the public are
detected after the initial peak occurs. combinations of start triggers, duration, and compliance compliant and the lower edge for when 100% are compliant.

52 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [04] Assessing Options for Getting Back to Work During the COVID-19 Pandemic 53
Figure 7: Social distancing for 84 days with 100% compliance gives the lowest initial peaks in cases. The high peak in the end results from stopping the social Figure 8: Extending social distancing to 365 days and assuming 100% compliance results in a more manageable series of outbreaks, which diminish in number
distancing at 84 days. of cases over time as the population builds immunity.

5. Caveats and Places to Enhance the each key metric, allowing identifcation of best- and worst-
Model cases scenarios.
4.3 Social Distancing for the Long Run The video below shows the evolution of the infection under
Focusing on the best-case, Figure 7 shows how the infection this long-term social distancing approach. Note that, While the result for social distancing is encouraging, it would Finally, while social distancing could be a powerful tool, it
plays out for the 70-day social distancing, 100% compliance compared to the base run video, the infection is managed require signifcant, and even impossible, levels of control certainly should not be the only one that communities
run which starts at 100 cases. The chart clearly shows that and appears and disappears quickly as each successive peak (100% compliance) to execute. Further, it is important to should explore. To help, a toolbox of measures is being
peaks of 5-10,000 cases occur regularly but are stopped occurs. take results like those laid out above with a grain of salt. The developed like stay-at-home directives, regular disinfection
before they reach the large numbers shown in the base run. model applied is quite simple and does not capture non- of gas pump handles, wearing protective masks, and many
This is due to social distancing managing the spread. The work-related travel and stops residents make along the way. more. Using this toolbox, communities can replicate the
engaged workforce experiences equivalent drops of 2-5,000 Nor does the model capture infection spread from surfaces. measures they’ve implemented to date and add more to
as these managed outbreaks occur. Finally, as the process being modeled is probabilistic in future weeks and months as a single scenario. The results
nature, the results are uncertain, and should be treated as will allow them to fnd the best management plan to
The chart above shows that a large peak occurs in April. estimates of the metrics involved, at best. Still, the navigate restarting their economies.
This is due to social distancing being lifted after 84 days and dynamics of infection displayed in the results are expected,
contact and transmission probabilities returning to normal. the results give a valuable picture of how measures like
The next question explored concerned extended social social distancing can empower communities to act.
distancing until a vaccine is found. The result is shown in
Figure 8. The chart shows that indeed the peaks of infection As Atkins matures the model, it is addressing all of these
can be managed to reduce infections to a much smaller items. For example, journey-type trips will be added, which
percentage of Optima’s population than the base run (from include stops along the way to work and back. Further, a
75,000 to 13,000 cases), and a comparable drop in Video 2: Social distancing run person-to-surface-to-person contact model is being added
disruption to the engaged workforce is achievable. Most that will capture the impact of surfaces and their varying
favorably, as time progresses, the peaks begin to drop more levels of infectiousness over time.
and more, refecting the steady increase in immunity across
the community over time. To tackle uncertainty, cloud-based parallel processing is
being employed to do thousands of runs and use the
resulting ensemble prediction to estimate error bars around

54 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [04] Assessing Options for Getting Back to Work During the COVID-19 Pandemic 55
6. Further Information
Please visit the City Simulator web page at http://
atkinsglobal.com/citysimulator or contact Stephen Bourne
at stephen.bourne@atkinsglobal.com for more information
on City Simulator Epidemic modeling and other City
Simulator research and development underway.

References
UK Offce for National Statistics (2020). GDP frst quarterly
estimate, UK: April to June 2020. https://www.ons.gov.uk/
economy/grossdomesticproductgdp/bulletins/
gdpfrstquarterlyestimateuk/apriltojune2020#:~:text=3.-
,Headline%20GDP,previous%20quarter%20(Figure%20
1).&text=Compared%20with%20the%20same%20
quarter,UK%20economy%20fell%20by%2021.7%25.

US Bureau of Economic Analysis (2020). Gross Domestic

Product, 2nd Quarter 2020 (Advance Estimate) and Annual
Update. https://www.bea.gov/news/2020/
gross-domestic-product-2nd-quarter-2020-advance-
estimate-and-annual-update

Weisstein, Eric W. “SIR Model.” 2020. From MathWorld--A

Wolfram Web Resource. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/
SIRModel.html

56 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [04] Assessing Options for Getting Back to Work During the COVID-19 Pandemic 57
 Abstract
Angelos S.Tzimas A main aspect to consider in seismic design of building structures
PhD according to EC8 is the selection of the behaviour factor, q, which is
Civil/Structural Engineer
directly related to the energy dissipation capacity of the structure. The
Engineering, Design and
Project Management prescribed values of q (1) are referred only to one limit state; (2) depend
Epsom, UK on the structural system and on the ductility class; (3) are constant; and
(4) are not directly related to structural and non-structural demands. This
paper proposes a preliminary performance-based seismic design method
for planar and space steel building frames within the framework of EC8.
Dimitri E. Beskos The proposed hybrid force/displacement (HFD) method incorporates
Building Structures and Architectural Design 05 Emeritus Prof., Department deformation-controlled q factors to better control the structural and non-
of Civil Engineering structural damage, expressed in terms of drift and ductility demands. The
University of Patras
main advantages of the HFD method over the EC8 method is that it
A Hybrid Force/Displacement Seismic
Patras, Greece
achieves target performance for more than one seismic event, controls
deformation and therefore damage, and requires fewer design iterations.
Design Method for Planar and Space A realistic design example serves to demonstrate the advantages of the
proposed method over the seismic design procedure of EC8.
Steel Building Frames
Keywords
Steel frames; Seismic Design; Behaviour Factor
 substantial material savings without compromising safety. co-workers on planar and spaced steel frames with different
After the ULS strength-based design, one checks the mechanical and geometrical characteristics, taking into
adequacy of the structural stiffness to limit the deformation consideration plan and elevation irregularities. A comparison
under specifc target values that satisfy serviceability of the FBD, DDBD, and HFD methods for planar steel MRF
requirements for the frequent earthquake (95 years return carried out by Bazeos (2009) yielded favourable results for
period). If this is not the case, the structure is re-designed the HFD. The HFD method has been studied in association
for increased stiffness. with far-fault ordinary ground motions. The main advantage
of the HFD seismic design method over the FBD and DDBD
methods is the ability to directly control both structural and
non-structural damage at various levels of seismic intensity
with fewer design iterations without the use of a substitute
SDOF structure (Tzimas, et al., 2013). The HFD starts by
using both IDR and local ductility target values and
transforms them to a target roof displacement in order to
obtain a behaviour factor q. HFD then determines seismic
design forces by utilizing an acceleration design spectrum
along with response spectrum analysis; similarly to the FBD
method. Therefore, the engineer works with familiar
concepts and tools, uses a deformation-controlled q factor
(and not a constant value of q adopted by EC8 (2004)), and
avoids the employment of a highly damped displacement
design spectrum, which is used by the DDBD.

2. Steps of the Proposed Design Procedure

Figure 1: Type 1 elastic and inelastic design spectrum of EC8 (2004).

With a view to better control the seismic damage in a The proposed hybrid force/displacement (HFD) seismic
structure, displacement-based design (DBD) methods have design procedure can be summarized in the following steps:
also been developed (Priestley et al., 2007). Out of the
various DBD methods, the direct displacement-based design (1) Defnition of the basic building attributes
(DDBD) method (Priestley et al., 2007) is the most widely
With reference to the types of frames depicted in Figure 2,
used. The DDBD method is based on the equivalent
defnition of the number of stories, ns, number of bays, nb,
linearization approach, in which the inelastic behaviour of a
bay widths and storey heights, presence of setbacks
structural system is accounted for by considering the
(geometrical irregularity), accidental eccentricity, and use of
response of an equivalent linear system with lower
a specifc foor differing to the adjacent ones (mass
equivalent stiffness and higher viscous damping (Priestley et
irregularity).
al., 2007). In this way, the multi degree of freedom (MDOF)
1. Introduction structure is substituted by an equivalent single degree of (2) Defnition of the performance level
freedom (SDOF) structure. The method starts with the
Current seismic design codes for building structures, such the inelastic design spectrum, which is derived from the target inter-storey drift ratio (IDR) and in conjunction with a Every pair of seismic action and damage level constitutes a
as EC8 (2004), use the force-based design (FBD) method, corresponding elastic one by dividing its ordinates with the displacement design spectrum and the substitute SDOF performance level, while the whole set of performance
which employs the seismic force as the basic design behaviour factor q. EC8 (2004) gives constant values of q for structure, determines the seismic base shear force required levels comprise the performance objective or design goal.
parameter. EC8 (2004) adopts two limit states, the ultimate different structural systems. Use of the inelastic spectrum for the structure to experience the desired deformation. The For example, immediate occupancy (IO) under the frequently
limit state (ULS) and the damage limit state (DLS). The in conjunction with a response spectrum analysis leads to method controls both structural and non-structural damage occurring earthquake (FOE), life safety (LS) under the design
design of the structure is frst performed with respect to the the lateral design forces and member dimensioning in a trial by imposing limits only on IDR. basis earthquake (DBE) or collapse prevention (CP) under
ULS by using the design seismic action (475 years return and error fashion. The shape of the inelastic design the maximum considered earthquake (MCE). The
spectrum for a specifc value of q is illustrated in Figure 1. It The purpose of this paper is to present the hybrid force/ earthquake intensity level is represented by the appropriate
period). At the ULS, the main intent of EC8 (2004) is to
should be noted that the adoption of high values of q factor displacement (HFD) design method for planar and space elastic acceleration response spectrum, as shown in
ensure the development of a ductile plastic mechanism in
can result in stiffer and heavier structures, in the case of regular and irregular steel building frames, which has been Figure 3.
case of a major seismic event with the aim being the
moment resisting frames (MRF). This is due to the need to recently proposed by the present authors and co-workers
protection of human life. This is achieved through the
comply with the limits specifed in EC8 (2004) for the inter- (Tzimas, et al., 2013, 2017, 2020). The HFD method
application of capacity design principles. According to such
storey drift sensitivity coeffcient θ, which is used to control combines the advantages of both the FBD and DDBD in a
an approach, strategic dissipative regions are defned to
the level of second-order (P-Δ) effects in the structure. hybrid force/displacement design scheme. The method has
undergo inelastic behaviour during the occurrence of a
Thus, a more rational selection of the q factor can lead to been evolved from previous works of the authors and
seismic event. The design seismic action is represented by

A Hybrid Force/Displacement Seismic Design Method for Planar and Space Steel Building Frames 61
 Table 1: Target Values of Performance Metrics for MRF in Accordance With ASCE 41-13 (2014)
Immediate Occupancy Life Safety Collapse Prevention
Inter-storey Drift Local Ductility Inter-storey Drift Local Ductility Inter-storey Drift Local Ductility
0.7% transient; 1.00a 2.5% transient; 9.00a 5% transient; or 11.00a
negligible 1.0% permanent permanent
permanent
a Limit on fange and web slenderness and limit on axial force of columns.

Description of irregularity metrics of MRF with setbacks, Transformation of local ductility, μθ, to target roof
accidental eccentricities and location of mass irregularities displacement, ur,max(μ), by employing the relation
can be found in Tzimas et al. (2013, 2017, 2020).
(2)
(4) Estimation of the input variables (yield roof displacement
and mechanical characteristics) where the roof displacement ductility, μr,θ, is defned as the
ratio of the maximum roof displacement corresponding to a
Yield roof displacement, ury. This displacement corresponds specifc performance level (see Step 2) over the maximum
to the formation of the frst plastic hinge (for MRF) or to the roof displacement at the appearance of the frst plastic
Figure 2: Types of steel building frames considered in the HFD seismic design method initiation of buckling (for braced frames). An initial hinge, and is associated with local ductility through
estimation of the yield roof displacement may be obtained
by designing the frame only for strength requirements under
for μθ ≤ 4.68
the FOE by assuming elastic behaviour, i.e., with q=1.
(3)
Mechanical characteristics. The defnition and estimation of
mechanical characteristics of MRF and braced frames, such forμθ > 4.68
as the fundamental period T of the structure, column-to-
beam strength ratio, a, beam-to-column stiffness ratio, ρ
and brace slenderness, λ, can be found in Tzimas, et al. Thus, the maximum design roof displacement ur,max(d) is
(2013). Initial estimates of these input variables may be obtained as
obtained by designing the frame only for strength
requirements under the FOE by assuming elastic behaviour,
i.e., with q=1. The capacity design rules and the gravity load (4)
combination should be also considered in order to improve
the initial estimation of the input variables of the proposed
method.

(5) Transformation of performance metrics to the target roof Number of IDRy – IDR1.8% IDR1.8% – IDR3.2% IDR > IDR3.2%
Figure 3: Design spectra of EC8 (2004) for soil class B and PGADBE = 0.36g: (a) displacement design spectra; (b) pseudo-acceleration design spectra
displacement stories
b1 b2 b1 b2 b1 b2
Transformation of the IDRmax to target maximum roof 3 0.84 1.01 1.03 1.06 0.99 1.05
displacement, ur,max, using the relation
(3) Defnition of input parameters (performance and frame. The μθ is defned as 1+θp /θy, where θy and θp are 6 0.37 0.88 0.93 1.11 1.51 1.25
irregularity metrics) the yield chord rotation and the plastic rotation of the
member’s ends, respectively. These limit values are selected (1) 9 0.29 0.88 2.07 1.37 2.38 1.41
Defnition of limit values for the maximum inter-storey drift based on the performance level defned in Step (2) and can 12 0.28 0.91 1.46 1.32 5.58 1.71
ratio (IDRmax) and maximum local ductility (rotation ductility, be obtained, e.g., from Table 1 taken from ASCE 41-13 where H is the total height of the frame (in m) and b1 and b2
μθ, for beams/columns and cyclic elongation ductility, μcb, coeffcients given by Table 2 in terms of the number of 15 0.22 0.89 5.04 1.67 6.88 1.76
(2014).
for braces (Tzimas, et al., 2013)) along the height of the stories, ns, and the level of IDRmax. It should be noted that
the empirical formulae of HFD method has been developed
by using the nonlinear dynamic analyses results of several
types of steel building frames. More information on the
created databank can be found in Tzimas, et al. (2013, 2017,
2020). Due to space limitations, design equations are
provided only for regular space MRF (Tzimas, et al. 2017).

62 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [05] A Hybrid Force/Displacement Seismic Design Method for Planar and Space Steel Building Frames 63
(6) Calculation of the behaviour (or strength reduction) This modifcation can be accomplished with the aid of the 3. Application Example and Comparison of An initial elastic design for the FOE yields the dimensions of
factor corresponding single degree of freedom (SDOF) system to the HFD and FBD Methods Table 3. Table 3 also provides the frst three natural periods
the multi degree of freedom (MDOF) system under design. of the designed MRF, with the fundamental period to be
Calculation of the design value of the roof displacement This SDOF system is defned to have as its period the translational and equal to 1.65 sec. The roof displacement
ductility, μr,d, as fundamental period of the MDOF and as its damping the 3.1. Description of the Building and Design Calculations under the FOE is ur,y = 0.130 m, while IDRy = 0.69%, which
damping ratio of the MDOF. For this SDOF system, its The proposed HFD method is applied to the seismic design fulfls the IO demands of Table 1. The above values serve as
maximum displacement is calculated with the aid of the of a space MRF with nine stories of height 3.0 m each and a initial estimates for the input variables of the HFD. In
displacement design spectrum obtained from the rectangular plan view with four bays of 6.0 m and 8.0 m in addition, an assessment of the designed structure for the LS
(5) corresponding acceleration spectrum of EC8 (2004). This each direction, respectively (see Figure 5). It is assumed that and the CP performance levels is made. The q factor of the
maximum displacement is then compared against the this space frame has an accidental eccentricity of 5%. space MRF under the DBE is easily obtained as (PGADBE/
desirable maximum roof displacement ur,max(d) of the MDOF. PGAFOE) = 3.33. This value is used in order to estimate the
If the displacement of the SDOF system is smaller than the The space frame was designed with the aid of the response of the space MRF under the DBE, i.e., by employing
ur,max(d), as shown in Figure 4, one has to assume ur,max(d) commercial computer program SAP 2000 and use of the Eq. (6) μr,d = 1+(3.33-1)/1.35 = 2.73, by employing Eq. (5)
and then computation of the behavior factor, q, from the equal to that of the SDOF and from the design equations of ur,max = 2.73×0.130 = 0.355 m, by employing Eq. (3) μθ =
relation EC8 (2004) and EC3 (2005) provisions. The grade of steel
the HFD method determine the new IDRmax and μθ. was assumed S235 and S355 for beams and columns, 1+(2.73-1)/0.81 = 3.14 and by employing Eq. (1) IDRmax =
respectively. The column sections were square hollow ones (0.355/(2.07×3*9))1/1.37 = 2.49%. The q factor of the space
q=1+1.35∙(μr,d – 1) for e≠0 MRF under the MCE is easily obtained as (PGAMCE/
(SHS), while those of beams IPE. The dead and live design
loads were assumed to be G=6.5 kN/m2 and Q=2 kN/m2, PGADBE)×qDBE = 5. This value is used in order to estimate the
q=1+1.30∙(μr,d – 1) for e=0 (6) respectively. The G + 0.3Q load combination results in 7.1 response of the space MRF under the MCE, i.e., by
kN/m2. It is assumed here that IO under the FOE, LS under employing Eq. (6) μr,d = 1+(5-1)/1.35 = 3.96, by employing Eq.
where e is the accidental eccentricity (up to 10% (Tzimas et the DBE and CP under the MCE are the appropriate (5) ur,max = 3.96×0.130 = 0.515 m, by employing Eq. (3) μθ =
al., 2017)). performance levels for seismic design. The FOE, DBE, and 1+(3.96-1)/0.81 = 4.65 and by employing Eq. (1) IDRmax =
MCE are expressed through the Type 1 elastic design (0.515/(2.38×3*9))1/1.41 = 3.26%. According to the above
spectra of EC8 (2004) (similar to Figure 3) for soil class B by results, using the limit values of Table 1, the space MRF
(7) Design of the structure assuming seismic zones which have peak ground which satisfes the IO performance level satisfes also the
acceleration under DBE (PGADBE) equal to 0.40 g. The peak LS and CP performance levels.
Divide the ordinates of the elastic design spectrum by the q ground accelerations under the FOE and the MCE are equal
factor and design the frame on the basis of an elastic to 0.3 x PGADBE and 1.5 x PGADBE, respectively. Table 1 The target values of the IDRmax and μθ for the LS
response spectrum analysis in conjunction with the capacity provides limit values for performance metrics according to performance level are equal to 2.5% and 9, respectively
and ductile design rules of seismic codes (EC8 (2004)). Use ASCE 41-13 (2014), which were used to determine the q (Table 1). By employing Eq. (1), the target roof displacement
of the behavior factor q makes this design a strength-based factor of the HFD method at the various performance levels. ur,max(IDR) = 9×3×2.07×0.0251.37 = 0.356 m and therefore,
one. Stiffness requirements are automatically satisfed the target roof displacement ductility μr,IDR becomes equal
through the dependence of q on deformation (step (6)). The design process of the nine-storey MRF in accordance to 0.356/0.130 = 2.74. Employing Eq. (3), the target roof
with the HFD method can be summarised as: 1) FOE rotational ductility μr,θ is calculated as 2.58+0.38×(9-1) =
Figure 4: Displacement design spectrum of EC8 (2004) for PGA = 0.36 g and
(8) Iterative design procedure soil class B analysis and design with estimates of the LS and CP 5.62 m. Thus, the design roof ductility μr,d is equal to the min
performance levels under the DBE and MCE, respectively; 2) (μr,IDR, μr,θ) = min (2.74, 5.62) = 2.74 m and therefore, drift
Iteration with respect to the input variable ury. The required A modifcation factor to relate the spectral displacement of DBE analysis and design with estimates of the IO and CP controls the LS performance level design. According to EC8
number of iterations for convergence depends on the initial an equivalent SDOF system to the roof displacement of the performance levels under the FOE and MCE, respectively; 3) (2004) displacement design spectrum, for an SDOF system
estimate of the input variable ury (see step 4 of the method). building MDOF system is required. ASCE 41-13 (2014) on MCE analysis and design with estimates of the IO and LS which has the same period as the space MRF, the maximum
A good initial estimate of ury can be easily obtained by the basis of the coeffcient method for calculating the target performance levels under the FOE and DBE, respectively; displacement would be equal to 0.246×1.48 = 0.364 m for
designing the frame only for strength under the FOE by displacement of a building, proposes an appropriate value of and 4) selection of the lighter designed structure which the case of the DBE, where the above multiplier 1.48 is
assuming elastic behavior, i.e., q=1. this factor equal to 1.0, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5 for buildings complies with the limit values of all performance levels. proposed by ASCE 41-13 (2014) for nine storey buildings.
with 1, 2, 3, 5, and ≥10 number of foors, respectively, with This means that there is no need to revise the target values
As noticed in Tzimas, et al. (2013), the iterative seismic which to multiply the resulting spectral displacement. Thus, of the IDRmax and μθ, because the demand displacement of
design of a structure by using response spectrum analysis in one can use these multiplier factors to estimate more 0.364 m as obtained by the displacement design spectrum
conjunction with target damage levels, as is the case here, realistically the response demand of an MDOF system by is higher than the ur,max(IDR) = 0.356 m. The required
may not be feasible. Target damage levels are the target using an equivalent SDOF system. behaviour factor q is calculated equal to 3.35 m based on
values of IDRmax and μθ, or equivalently the target maximum Eq. (6). By using this factor, the DBE design spectrum is
design roof displacement, ur,max(d). The reason for this lack of reduced and the space frame under the DBE is designed
convergence is that every design spectrum has a maximum with spectrum analysis. This q factor does not change the
response demand, which may lead to a lower ur,max value sections of the designed space MRF for the IO (Table 3). This
than the desirable one. In such a case, one has to modify the design fulfls the demands of Table 1. Therefore, both the IO
target response value of ur,max(d) in order to achieve and the LS performance levels leads to the same design.
convergence of the iterative design procedure.
Figure 5: Plan view of the nine storey MRF

64 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [05] A Hybrid Force/Displacement Seismic Design Method for Planar and Space Steel Building Frames 65
The target values of the IDRmax and μθ for the CP dynamic nonlinear analyses performed by the Ruaumoko Table 4: Time History Analyses Results and Comparison With Design Estimations (TH: Time History
performance level are equal to 5% and 11%, respectively program (2005). Table 4 shows comparisons of the two
Analysis; EST: Estimations of HFD; EC8: Estimations Using the Equal Displacement Rule)
(Table 1). By employing Eq. (1), the target roof displacement methods with the “exact” nonlinear dynamic analysis
ur,max(IDR) = 9×3×2.38×0.051.41 = 0.941 m and therefore, the employed with the aid of 10 accelerograms compatible with Nine storey space MRF - PGADBE = 0.40g
target roof displacement ductility μr,IDR becomes equal to the EC8 (2004) seismic spectra for the three performance
0.941/0.130 = 7.24 m. Employing Eq. (3), the target roof levels considered here. The Ruaumoko (2005) computer HFD FBD (EC8)
rotational ductility μr,θ is calculated as 2.58+0.38×(11-1) = program was used for this analysis. Furthermore, a
6.38 m. Thus, the design roof ductility μr,d is equal to the min comparison of the results of nonlinear time-history analyses
of the designed frames according to HFD and FBD methods, Example FOE DBE MCE FOE DBE MCE
(μr,IDR , μr,θ) = min (7.24, 6.38) = 6.38 m and therefore, local
ductility controls the CP performance level design and with the limit values of Table 1 shows that both designed TH EST TH EST TH EST TH EST TH EST TH EST
ur,max(d) = 6.38×0.130 = 0.829 m. According to EC8 (2004) frames satisfy these limits. In addition, the HFD method in
displacement design, for an SDOF system which has the this worked example gives better estimates of inelastic
same period as the space MRF, the maximum displacement deformation demands and led to a 10% lighter structure. IDR (%) 0.70 0.69 2.11 2.49 3.37 3.26 0.69 0.69 2.19 2.30 3.10 3.45
would be equal to 0.369×1.48 = 0.546 m for the case of the ur,max (m) 0.133 0.130 0.335 0.355 0.535 0.515 0.121 0.120 0.332 0.400 0.455 0.600
MCE, where the above multiplier 1.48 is proposed by ASCE It should be noted that the inter-storey drift sensitivity
41-13 (2014) for nine storey buildings. This means that coeffcient θ of EC8 (2004) governs the design of the nine- μθ 1.11 1.00 4.05 3.14 7.61 4.65 1.38 1.00 4.34 - 5.73 -
there is a need to revise the target values of the IDRmax and storey building for the FBD method. Thus, the initial choice
μθ, because the demand displacement of 0.546 m as of the q factor plays a direct role in the design solution by
FBD and lighter solutions can very likely be adopted if a
4. Conclusions 6. Limitations and modelling assumptions of the HFD
obtained by the displacement design spectrum is smaller method can be found in Tzimas, et al. (2013, 2017, 2020).
than the ur,max(d) = 0.829 m. By employing Eqs. (5, 3, and 1) lower q factor was adopted instead. HFD appears to be more On the basis of the previous developments as well as
and by adopting as target displacement the 0.546 m, the rational in estimating a q factor which satisfes both the additional ones to be found elsewhere (Tzimas, et al., 2013,
demand values of IDRmax and μθ of this structure cannot be targeted performance levels and drift requirements without 2017, 2020), the following conclusions can be drawn: Acknowledgements
much higher than 3.40% and 5.26%, respectively. These implying later any indirect revision.
values fulfl the demands of Table 1. In addition, the 1. The HFD method: (1) treats both drift and ductility The authors acknowledge with thanks Mr. Dave Cotton
response spectrum analysis/design under the FOE spectrum demands as input variables for the initiation of the design (Technical Director of Atkins) for reviewing this paper.
fulfls the demand of Table 1. The use of IDRmax = 3.40% as Table 3: Sections for Columns, Beams and Vibration process; (2) does not use a substitute SDOF system done by
design input will lead to more fexible structure compared to Periods of the Nine Storey Space Steel Frames the DDBD; (3) makes use of the conventional elastic
the designed structure under the FOE spectrum (estimated Designed According to the HFD and FBD Methods response spectrum analysis and design; and (4) can be References
IDRmax = 3.26% under the MCE), thus the demands of Table (The Indices ‘‘i’’ and ‘‘E’’ Mean Internal and External applied to different type of frames taking into consideration 1. ASCE/SEI Standard 41–13. Seismic evaluation of retroft
4 for the IO will be violated. Therefore, the IO performance their irregularity metrics and mechanical characteristics.
Beam/Column Sections, Respectively) of existing buildings. American Society of Civil Engineers,
level controls the design of the space MRF and there is no
Reston, Virginia, USA; 2014.
need for a new design in the case of MCE. Designed according to the Designed according to the 2. The adopted design criteria (drift and local member
HFD method FBD method
ductility) are associated with the IO, LS, and CP performance 2. Bazeos N. Comparison of three seismic design methods
Floor
Using SAP 2000 in conjunction with EC8 (2004) and EC3 IPE SHS IPE SHS levels. The HFD method considers both strength and drift for plane steel frames. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake
(2005) the space MRF of this example was also designed by Fxe - Fye Fxi - Fyi Ci - Ce Fxe - Fye Fxi - Fyi Ci - Ce demands for all performance levels, while FBD considers Engineering 2009;29(3):553–62.
the FBD method. The behavior factor q = 6.5 was chosen in strength-based design for the LS and drift-based design for
accordance with EC8 (2004), which represents steel MRF 1 450-400 550-500 400x20 600-550 600-550 450x22
the IO performance levels. 3. Carr AJ. Ruaumoko-3D - A Program for Inelastic
with high ductility demands. Table 3 provides the 2 500-450 600-550 400x20 600-550 600-550 450x22
Dynamic Analysis. Technical Report, Department of Civil
dimensions of the space frame and its three frst natural 3. The advantages of the HFD method over the FBD method
3 500-450 600-550 400x20 600-550 600-550 450x22
Engineering, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New
periods. According to FBD, the LS performance level by comparing the inelastic deformation estimates of both
4 450-400 550-500 400x16 550-500 600-550 400x20 Zealand; 2005.
controls the design. The space frame remains elastic under methods with the results of the nonlinear dynamic analysis
the IO earthquake and experiences ur,y = 0.120 m, IDRmax = 5 450-400 550-500 400x16 550-500 600-550 400x20 are better estimates of inelastic deformation demands and 4. Eurocode 8, EC8. Design of Structures for Earthquake
0.69% and μθ = 1. Under the DBE, the space frame will fulfllment of the limit deformation values in all the
6 450-400 550-500 400x16 450-400 500-450 400x16 Resistance, Part 1: General Rules, Seismic Actions and
experience ur,max = 0.120×PGADBE/PGAFOE = 0.120/0.3 = performance levels. Rules for Buildings, European Standard EN 1998–1, Stage 51
0.400 m and IDRmax = 0.69%×PGADBE/PGAFOE = 0.69%/0.3 = 7 450-400 500-450 400x16 450-400 500-450 400x16
Draft. European Committee for Standardization (CEN),
2.30%. Under the MCE, the space frame will experience 4. Based on the design examples presented in Tzimas, et al.
8 400-360 500-450 350x16 400-360 450-400 350x16 Brussels; 2004.
ur,max = 0.400×PGAMCE/PGADBE = 0.400×1.5 = 0.600 m and (2013, 2017, 2020) and the design example of this work, the
IDRmax = 2.30%×PGAMCE/PGADBE = 2.30%×1.5 = 3.45%. 9 400-360 500-450 350x16 400-360 450-400 350x16
HFD method appears to offer signifcant design effciencies 5. Eurocode 3, EC3. Design of Steel Structures, Part 1. 1:
Steel Weight = 3588 kN Steel Weight = 3960 kN for high rise buildings and similar designs for low rise General Rules for Buildings, European Prestandard ENV
T1=1.65sec T1=1.45sec buildings compared to the FBD method of EC8. 1993-1-1. European Committee for Standardization (CEN),
3.2. Comparison and Seismic Assessment Using Semi- - T2=1.60sec - T3=1.54sec - T2=1.41sec - T3=1.27sec
Artifcial Accelerograms Brussels; 2005.
5. Empirical expressions of the HFD method derived for
In order to conduct a more detailed comparison of the two steel frames can be also used for assessment. 6. Priestley MJN, Calvi GM, Kowalsky MJ. Direct
design methods (HFD and FBD), the two designed structures displacement-based design. Pavia, Italy: IUSS Press; 2007.
by the above methods were seismically analysed through

66 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [05] A Hybrid Force/Displacement Seismic Design Method for Planar and Space Steel Building Frames 67
7. Tzimas AS, Karavasilis TL, Bazeos N, Beskos DE. A hybrid
force/displacement seismic design method for steel
building frames. Engineering Structures 2013; 56:
1452-1463.

8. Tzimas AS, Karavasilis TL, Bazeos N, Beskos DE.

Extension of the hybrid force/displacement (HFD) seismic
design method to 3D steel moment-resisting frame
buildings. Engineering Structures 2017; 147; 486–504.

9. Tzimas AS, Skalomenos KA, Beskos DE. A hybrid seismic

design method for steel irregular space moment resisting
frames. Journal of Earthquake Engineering 2020; In Press.

68 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [05] A Hybrid Force/Displacement Seismic Design Method for Planar and Space Steel Building Frames 69
 Jim Abatti
Senior Architect
Infrastructure Abstract
London, UK
Extensive prototyping was carried out during the design and delivery of
the Elizabeth line for the line-wide architectural components. Previous
papers have covered the process of client prototyping and its key
benefts. This paper concentrates on the prototyping carried out by the
contractors during the construction stage, with focus on the Glass Fibre
Reinforced Concrete (GFRC) tunnel cladding. The three suppliers involved
Building Structures and Architectural Design 06 were interviewed to share their experiences. In the summary, some
conclusions are made about the potential benefts of the prototyping
approach for DfMA (Design for Manufacture and Assembly) in
Benefts of Contractor Prototyping: architectural design and construction.

GFRC Cladding on Crossrail Jorrin ten Have Keywords

Architect & Associate
Principal Prototyping; Contractor; Benefts; GRC Cladding; Crossrail
Grimshaw
London, UK
 the other. The process relates to the overall beneft and risk required. Many of these were then developed using a
strategy for the principal project outcomes required: safety, process of standardisation, prototyping and user testing to
reliability, usability, low-cost maintenance and passenger refne and enhance the design for manufacturing,
experience. installation and future maintenance. This approach is in line
with DfMA, an industrial design concept that has gained
Benefts and risks were progressively integrated into more prominence recently in architecture with a view to
contractors’ work informed and benchmarked by highly maximise benefts from pre-fabrication.
resolved client requirements in the form of drawings,
technical reports and performance specifcation, validated 2.1 GFRC Cladding and Client Prototype
at design concept stage by trials, prototypes and testing. In
this way, contractors were able to draw on an inventory of In the fve mined central London stations, the escalator
tools with confdence that they would work in use. barrels and public spaces at platform level are lined with
curved Glass Fibre Reinforced Concrete (GFRC) panels.
The process described also mitigated risk of construction These provide a robust fnish to cover the rough surface of
stage changes, reduced errors and actively promoted the sprayed concrete tunnel engineering. The panels
collaboration between client, designer, stakeholders and perform well with daily wear and tear as well as in bomb
multiple contractors with extended supply chains through blast scenarios. Another function of the cladding is to
shared client-side information that originated at pre- distribute refected light from luminaires and provide
contract stage. acoustic attenuation through perforated GFRC acoustic
panels (See Figure 1).

2. Crossrail Project for the Elizabeth Line

Crossrail Limited is the company delivering a new railway
for London and the South East, running from Reading and
Heathrow in the west, through 42km of new tunnels
beneath London to Shenfeld and Abbey Wood in the east.
The project is being completed in phases and planned to
open fully in 2022. The new railway, which will be known as
the Elizabeth line, will carry an estimated 200 million
passengers per year. Integrating new and existing
infrastructure, the project includes the construction of 10
new stations as well as the upgrading of 30 existing
stations.

Within central London there are eight new underground

stations and two new above ground stations, linked by a
common identity created using standardised components.
1. Introduction This unifed set of architectural components, products and
assemblies form part of a line-wide design package for the
Extensive prototyping of the line-wide architectural and construction and for the delivery of outcomes required of public areas. Figure 1: Production of acoustic GFRC panels at the GRCUK factory
engineering components was carried out during the design large infrastructure projects. © GRCUK
and delivery of the Elizabeth line in aid of the progressive From 2009, a multi-disciplinary design team developed the
development of technical requirements, assurance of safety They included David Shillito, director at Laing O’Rourke line-wide design strategy, since forming a working As a cladding material, GFRC is relatively new to the London
and maintenance, stakeholder engagement and delivery of (LO’R); Patrick Weijers, project manager and currently partnership to integrate these essential components of the Underground (LU), so its use required extensive engagement
product value and quality. Previous papers (1) have covered managing director at Sorba; and; Franz Maidl, department Elizabeth line. The team comprises engineers and package to satisfy its performance in meeting fre safety and
the process of client prototyping and its key benefts. This head of CAD and research and development at Lindner. leaders from SNC-Lavalin’s Atkins business, architects from maintenance requirements over the project’s baseline
paper concentrates on the prototyping carried out by the Grimshaw, product designers and wayfnding experts from design life of 120 years. The sheer quantity required (more
contractors during the construction stage, with focus on the This paper describes how the process used by the client Maynard, and lighting designers from GIA Equation. The line- than 50,000 sq m) meant that a high level of
Glass Fibre Reinforced Concrete (GFRC) (2) station tunnel company Crossrail supported the delivery of consistent wide designs include a range of components such as tunnel standardisation was imperative to keep capital and lifecycle
cladding. As a methodology, the key decision makers in each outcomes at the new central London stations through the cladding, platform-edge screens, furniture, lighting and costs down, production and installation manageable, provide
contractor/supplier team were interviewed with the same lens of one line-wide component type; the GFRC tunnel signage. a consistent product performance.
questions for the purpose of eliciting the value and benefts cladding. It describes the role of prototyping as a bridge
of the prototyping approach for DfMA (Design for between technical and design objectives on one hand, and Extensive assessment of the global marketplace identifed In line with the principles of DfMA, the number of variations
Manufacture and Assembly) (3) in architectural design and contractor design, testing, manufacture and installation on which materials and components would meet Crossrail’s was kept as low as possible, both for individual panel
project requirements and where customised designs were

Benefits of Contractor Prototyping: GFRC Cladding on Crossrail 73

geometries and in the design of the junctions and interfaces. learned from the Contractor prototyping, as mentioned confrms that the technical requirements were clearly
The quantity and value of GFRC and its associated above the three contractors who supplied GFRC for the communicated from the client to the contractor, with line-
performance requirements justifed the case for full-scale tunnel cladding were interviewed. These were GRCUK (part wide design guidance showing the outline boundaries of
prototypes of the tunnel junctions; one full scale client of the Laing O’Rourke group), Sorba (who worked with what needed to be designed to and confrming the elements
prototype was built during the design phase in a separate Concrete Valley), and Lindner. Their experiences of the available for subcontractor design.
facility at Vinci Technology Centre UK in Leighton Buzzard. benefts of the prototyping process are grouped around the
(4) relationship to the Crossrail client, the design and Crossrail also encouraged the contractors to learn from
construction phase, and the wider long-term beneft for the each other with the purpose of avoiding asymmetric
Conventionally, an architectural ‘mock-up’ is used as either contractors. information in the contractors’ development process and to
an off-site visual benchmark or an installation for specifc aid in achieving consistent contractor’s designs. Franz Maidl,
testing (for example, water tightness testing on external Lindner, concurs and adds that Lindner were afforded
facades during the construction stage). The GFRC client 4. Contractor Experience: Client opportunities to share and collaborate through being shown
prototype went beyond this in scope and purpose, the prototype produced by LO’R.
addressing issues of manufacture, buildability, access and The GFRC cladding design was developed from concept Figure 3: Lindner Full-scale prototype © Lindner
importantly, providing a feedback loop back into the design design in 2009 to tender information by May 2011, with the All contractors admit that the level of knowledge-sharing
process that included the client and stakeholders. The design information progressively assured through a series of between them could have been better, but they point to the The installation of the physical prototypes provided
prototype tested that concept stage requirements could be gate reviews. Although the GFRC cladding was designed to attitudes of the Tier 1 contractors getting in the way of this Crossrail with a level of assurance on the buildability,
met and allowed the design team to progressively develop be implemented across fve central London stations, at times. One aspect where they believe they could have appearance and operation of the system, thereby
its technical performance. After the client prototyping at Crossrail decided to procure the package as part of the learnt more from each other was in the process of material signifcantly de- risking this part of the project. Shillito
Leighton Buzzard was concluded, the requirement for the individual Station (‘Tier 1’) contracts. This decision was acceptance. Both Sorba and Lindner accept that the recounts that LO’R’s physical prototype gave the client a
construction of a full size GFRC prototype was carried partly based on procurement evidence in 2011 that there collation of MCRs (Material Compliance Records) (8), level of confdence that he would otherwise not easily have
forward in the deliverables of the contractor. was no single company in the UK with enough capacity to conducted at each project site, duplicated records for a achieved before construction on site. (See Figure 4).
supply all the stations within an acceptable risk profle. single component, such as a gasket which equally could be
used by another contractor on other station projects within
3. Purpose of Contractor Prototype To Laing O’ Rourke (LO’R), who won the tender for two of the the Crossrail programme. A single accessible repository for
tunnelled stations (6), the GFRC presented a major risk to the collation of these records on a programme basis (where
The Contractor GFRC prototype, as required in the Station the delivery of the stations. David Shillito, director at LO’R concessions had been granted), could have ensured more
Works specifcation, served a purpose for both the client and and Operations Director at GRCUK, confrms that LO’R set consistent information from client to contactor and avoided
the contractor. Each GFRC contractor had to build their own up their own manufacturing facility as a means of some of the issues caused by asymmetric information.
full-scale prototype, as an evolution of the client prototype, establishing control over the fnishing of the product and
validating that their design and construction could meet all increasing delivery certainty in handover to Crossrail. LO’R Weijers acknowledges that such a level of knowledge
requirements. For the client, it was used to monitor visual purchased a GFRC company, GRCUK, which was one of only sharing would have been diffcult to achieve prior to the
appearance (i.e. the quality of production and alignment of three larger suppliers in the UK at the time, with the express award of the last GFRC package on the project due to
installation), carry out access and maintenance trials, and purpose of utilising their people, skills and experience. commercial tensions.
limited performance testing (such as soft body impact tests
and repair procedure tests). On occasions that the prototype Of the other Tier 1 contractors, one went with GRCUK and After the initial sample regime and detailed designs had
did not perform to the required level in any aspect, two others awarded the GFRC packages to Sorba and been accepted, all three GFRC contractors built their full-
amendments were made, and further trials carried out until Lindner respectively. (7) These two companies, one based in size off-site prototypes of a typical tunnel junction,
the desired performance was met – thereby signifcantly the Netherlands and the other in Germany, are cladding measuring approximately 8m x 9m to a height of 5m (See Figure 4: Full scale prototype at LO’R with client Julian Robinson © Jorrin
ten Have
de-risking the construction prior to full production. The design and construction specialists, but they had limited Figures 2,3).
second purpose of the prototype was for the Contractor to experience with GFRC as a product. Sorba partnered with For his own business, it helped de-risk buildability and
learn and optimise their systems and quality issues within supplier Concrete Valley. Lindner originally worked with programme, so the prototyping benefts were distributed
their supply chains. It allowed the Contractor to coordinate Betsinor in France, then GRC Beton in Poland, and ultimately across the project. A lesson here for future design and build
and plan their supply chain in anticipation of full set up their own facility. mega-projects is that the combination of consistent
manufacture and installation. information from client to contractor and early construction
For Crossrail as a client, the client prototype developed at stage testing, such as prototyping, can bring multiple
Outside of the prototypes, further assurance was attained Leighton Buzzard provided confdence in the performance of benefts to enhance outcome certainty.
by the preceding sample regime that confrmed in the GFRC system. This was translated into the project
progressive steps the general fnish, light refectance, anti- requirements as set out in the Station Works specifcation, The prototyping was part of the wider thorough assurance
graffti coating application, quality of panel perforations and drawings, and various guidance reports such as Lessons processes followed by Crossrail. The organisation had to
edge geometry, and bomb-blast performance. (5) After the Learnt, Access and Maintenance Strategy and Cladding satisfy many stakeholders, from representatives of the
Contractor prototypes were completed and the appropriate Setting-Out Guidelines. project sponsors to future Infrastructure Managers (IMs), so
technical approvals met, further benchmarks on site were prototypes were key in the demonstration that the project
used to judge installation quality. The level of information provided was judged to be could be built and maintained safely and in an effcient
appropriate by the contractors while leaving enough room to manner. This in turn provided the contractors with an
Figure 2: Sorba Full scale prototype © Sorba
In order to identify the key benefts and lessons to be optimise the detailed design. Patrick Weijers, Sorba, element of learning about maintenance planning and quality
control.

74 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [06] Benefits of Contractor Prototyping: GFRC Cladding on Crossrail 75
Specifcally, the GFRC prototypes served to demonstrate the the production process and technical understanding with the single curved panels on a deformable and re-usable acoustic panel to be individually removable – a performance
access and maintenance strategy to stakeholders like LU samples and prototypes. steel bed, thereby greatly reducing the number of required requirement of the design for long term maintenance. After
(9). Panels were taken off and re-installed during moulds. (See Figure 6). successful time trials at the full-scale prototype in the
inspections, demonstrating the equipment and methods Many trials were conducted with different mould types and presence of LU engineers, it was decided to leave the lowest
involved and timing the operations to ensure these would be materials, methods of sand blasting and cast-in fxings to row of acoustic panels individually removable and use the
able to be carried out in the limited time available during achieve the desired outcome. So, by the time the frst pin hooking system for the upper panels. This process
engineering hours. As each of the contractors’ designs varied version of the prototype was ready, many of these lessons showed that the prototype was not there merely as a
in the detail of their fxings and framing, the access strategy had been recorded in a large manual for internal use in the fnished piece for acceptance, but also functioned as a
had to be proven for all individual systems. Crossrail company. After the prototype established the physical working test and design development model. LO’R’s third
maintenance planning engineers and LU premises engineers feasibility of the installation, LO’R could concentrate on innovation was the structural system around the tunnel
travelled to inspect all the contractor prototypes in the UK, further optimising both panel variations across three junctions. Rather than using 3D curved steel members for
the Netherlands and Germany multiple times between 2015 stations. The moulds proved a critical item for many framing, LO’R used an integral GFRC shell, made up of four
and 2017 to witness these trials in person and comment in contractors, in terms of design, sign off, and the time it took connected elements as the structural carrier frame. This
detail. All these procedures were signed off on Inspection for production and delivery. Due to the complex geometry of unusual approach, called the ‘tusk’, was calculated in detail
Test Plans (10) and became part of the contractors the junctions, many moulds were required Also, depending and prototyped at full scale in order to give Crossrail the
Operation and Maintenance manuals. on the type of material used, ranging from low- to high- confdence that it was going to perform satisfactorily.
density foam, timber, and GFRP, some moulds were used as
For Sorba, the rigorous testing of access and maintenance one-off, some for series of up to 10, and others to 50 before For the client, these innovations presented potential
on prototypes was a novel experience. Weijers asserts that the mould would become unusable. (See Figure 5). effciencies in cost and construction, but the specifcation
through Crossrail’s requirement to demonstrate these requirements for access and maintenance had to be closely
strategies in detail, Sorba has become more aware of the guarded. The prototype proved to be the most effective way
importance of this aspect to operators and going forward to ensure that the systems could be safely and effciently
they will demonstrate and design with asset maintainability maintained.
at early stage in future projects.
Lindner’s approach to innovation was to base the GFRC
framing system on technology developed in their interior
5. Contractor Experience: Design and cladding business. By using a toggle clamping system
Construction accessible through the vertical joints, each panel became
fully individually demountable without the need for multiple
A clear aim for the prototyping was for the contractor to Figure 6: Deformable steel moulds at Concrete Valley © Sorba face fxings on each panel. Although the principles of this
learn how to manufacture and install their systems. Like system were explored through drawings and models, it was
prototyping in product design, this process resulted in many This fabrication method was only possible using a poured
again the prototype that demonstrated the effectiveness of
feedback loops into the detailed design to simplify rather than sprayed GFRC. Generally, poured GFRC is of a
the approach.
production, minimise waste and optimise material use. For lower strength category, so Sorba had to demonstrate that
LO’R, it presented a leap in terms of the skills present in the the chosen mix (including high performance concrete),
The complex geometries of the stations and the
company; both for the GFRC material itself and the cladding method and panel thicknesses would suffciently address all
technological innovations proposed by the contractors were
design. In contrast with Sorba and Lindner, LO’R is not an of Crossrail’s performance requirements. While it took
Figure 5: Double curved foam mould © GRCUK only possible to achieve through detailed and accurate 3D
experienced cladding specialist. Teaming up with the offce longer to evidence compliance through calculations, test
modelling. Lindner produced a detailed 3D model which was
of Bryden Wood (11) as technical advisers and through the LO’R, with designer Bryden Wood developing their digital panels, load tests, and full-scale prototyping, Sorba saved
used to pick up details such as additional bracketry to aid
process of prototyping LO’R managed to overcome this models, were able to rationalise the number of moulds. The time and money later in the process – an example of how
the fabrication process. The model served as a general BIM
handicap and even optimise material weights and the reduction in the number of moulds (for 27,500 panels) was early testing and investments is suited to a successful DfMA
model but it also became a means to determine
number of panel variations. signifcant: a 30% reduction – 3,300 moulds reduced to approach and consistent project outcomes.
construction processes and the exchange of information
2,300 moulds. With each mould costing some £3,000 between the Tier 1 contractor/station designer and Lindner
Approximately, 35,000 square metres (some 6.5 football pounds, LO’R were thus able to introduce savings of While the other contractors did not follow this route, each
as a Tier 2 supplier of the GFRC cladding (See Figure 7).
felds) of GFRC panelling and 7,000 types were used across approximately £3 million. Arguably, as parametric 3D made their own other innovations on the system. For LO’R,
LO’R’s three stations. With Sorba, there were approximately modelling and optimisation is employed on further complex optimisation of panel weights was a key aim. They achieved
800 panel types on Farringdon station, and on Bond Street major projects, it will aid the consistency of technical this through a combination of cast-in stainless steel ribs in
station with Lindner some 750 panel types. For LO’R, typical information shared from client to contractor. the horizontal spanning direction and varying the thickness
lead times for performance testing, prototypes and mock- of the panels according to their size and location. Lighter
ups would be six months. An evolution in learning and Reliance on external suppliers for the moulds pushed weight panels were easier to handle and used less concrete.
development for LO’R over 18 months helped to obtain the several contractors to set up their own in- house mould This panel optimisation was combined with a pin hooking
handover certainty that Crossrail as client required. It can production. Lindner’s experience also shows that the system that allowed for a very fast installation of panels
thus be understood that a tangible beneft for major design prototyping process allowed them to further refne and once the main frame members were accurately positioned.
and build projects alongside consistent, evidential rationalise the geometries of tunnel radii and panel types, The system innovation prompted a series of prototype tests
information is planning in extended timescales to develop thus reducing the number of moulds. Sorba and Concrete to ascertain the effect of this system on access and
Valley took an innovative approach to this problem; they cast maintenance. In particular, the system did not allow each Figure 7: Lindner 3D model © Lindner

76 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [06] Benefits of Contractor Prototyping: GFRC Cladding on Crossrail 77
In some way, the prototyping was therefore not only a test Lindner was confronted directly with the risks of the The prototyping process allowed the Contractor to learn benchmarks for collaborative working, input from supply
of the physical objects, but also of the processes required to package when their initial GFRC supplier went into how to include maintenance planning and quality control in chain expertise and sponsor engagement and buy-in. This
achieve these. The contractual set-up provided many administration. Relatively late in the programme, they had to their design and manufacturing processes. paper has focussed on the contractor prototyping aspect of
challenges in the communication and acceptance of change supplier (13). The experience motivated them to take the approach.
proposals. Franz Maidl identifes that Lindner would often even more control of the process and set up their own GFRC 7.2 Design and Construction
receive inconsistent information being passed down the business. In summary, the GFRC contractor prototyping provided a
supply chain. Lindner would receive the line-wide design in The prototype aided the contractor to learn how to test of the physical objects, but also of the processes
parts, amended with updates from the Tier 1 contractor via Although the decision by both Contractors to set up their manufacture and install their systems prior to full required to achieve these. Having identifed the above
their designer. Lindner experienced numerous changes and own GFRC facilities seems primarily driven by risk reduction production and site installation. This resulted in simplifed benefts, the relevance of these to the wider industry and
new instructions which became a challenge to manage due and future business opportunities, the process of production, minimised waste and optimised material/mould DfMA approaches can only be understood by looking at the
to the lag-time in information being received by Lindner as a prototyping and design development presented by Crossrail use, thereby saving money on the production costs. The project conditions and the challenges overcome. The GFRC
Tier 2 supplier. Thus, the contractor’s designer was not enabled LO’R and Lindner to get familiar with the product. It process allowed the contractor to build up the necessary cladding on Crossrail presented a potential economy of
always able to review designs submitted by Lindner as they allowed them to build up enough of a knowledge base to skills and knowledge including advanced 3D parametric scale, through reduction of the time on site and the
had changed works information instructed to them. The understand the risks and opportunities related to the modelling with geometric outputs that could be used complexity of product. Sectors that feature a comparable
process of client information being passed along the supply material as well as the digital processes involved in the directly for production of moulds. scale, complexity of construction, and maintenance critical
chain became slow at times, alongside an elaborate making of the panels. operations would all be likely candidates, such as the
contractual mechanism which was not acting lockstep with transport and energy sector, and to a lesser extent large
the required information fow. (12) It is clear from the points above that the process of the 7.3 Wider Benefts commercial or residential development with a high degree
Contractor developing the GFRC production design has of repetition.
LO’R’s Shillito criticises the process when compared against indirectly hugely benefted their own capabilities regarding The quantity and complexity of delivering the GFRC with its
advanced manufacturing processes such as in the future work. In contrast, the Contractors were initially associated risk led contactors to use their learning for their Crossrail also provided a project condition where the long
automotive industry - the inspiration behind DfMA in reluctant to engage in a thorough design and prototyping own business development, with two of them setting up new civil works programme allowed for time to engage in
construction - where change requirements are held back by process. At several points the client requirement for production facilities in the process. This means the benefts prototyping and testing of the ft-out. Budgets were
the sponsor before manufacture even commences. prototyping was challenged and the need for maintenance from learning on Crossrail can be carried forward to future allocated to support this process from, initially with client
trials was questioned. Although the process at that time opportunities. prototypes and throughout with client-side technical advice
may have seemed to the Contractor to be time consuming and guidance.
6. Contractor Experience: Wider Benefts and costly and the benefts unclear or limited, they gained The contractors all developed in-depth knowledge about the
from the knowledge built up in the process to improve their materials and production processes that were not previously Challenges were both the management of information and
The tunnel cladding on the Elizabeth line-wide design own operations and business. A better understanding of part of their core business. Having proven their systems by the management of variation. Some of the information fow
presented a large volume and was complex to deliver these indirect benefts could help to overcome the initial physical prototype, the contractors were able to develop processes, such as MCRs and 2D versus 3D technical
because of 3D geometries, demanding performance reluctance. their digital workfow to a high accuracy, setting up submissions, were only developed throughout the process
requirements and restricted installation. The challenges of processes seamlessly linking design development and and at times suffered from complicated contractual
delivering this package posed such risks to programme and design changes to rationalisation, production design and relationships between the different tiers of contractors and
cost that the contractor had to gain a higher degree of 7. Conclusions manufacture. consultants. In order to allow contractors room for
control over their own suppliers and manufacturing optimisation and innovation, Crossrail had to actively
processes. This was most obvious in the case of LO’R who In summary, the prototyping process for the GFRC cladding 7.4 Key Learning for Other Major- and Mega-Projects manage the quality and consistency of the outcomes
set up their own new factory as GRCUK and were therefore on Crossrail presented various benefts for the contractor in through continued guidance from the original design team
able to plan out and optimise each step of the production relation to different aspects of the process: Crossrail’s approach to line-wide design was informed by (See Figures 8,9).
process. But beyond responding to a need on the project this client expertise across a wide range of UK mega-projects
move has transformed part of LO’R’s business. LO’R 7.1 Client such as St Pancras, HS1 and the Jubilee line extension. It
subsequent to the Crossrail programme now possess their forms relevant learning for most future major- and mega-
own GFRC business where previously they held none and The level of information provided by Crossrail was projects, as a design and procurement process but also as a
have used lessons learnt on Crossrail to drive forward their consistent, effective and evidential, allowing three different risk assignment approach in contrast to more traditional
manufacturing processes. Already, the frm is looking to use Tier 2 contractors to understand the performance methods.
these new capabilities on subsequent projects such as the requirements of the cladding system while allowing them
Sydney Metro. Shillito here does not merely refer to the enough room for individual innovation to optimise their In Crossrail’s case, the client acknowledged project risks at
physical production of the cladding panels; the process of detailed design and manufacture. Consistent information an early stage and mitigated these through collaborative
applying a fully digital workfow is still relatively new in the combined with the planned prototyping process provided the working relationships. This approach involved the
construction industry. client with a level of assurance that the different solutions progressive disinvestment of risk from client to contractor,
developed by the contractors would all meet the ultimately benefting operational cost, reliability of quality
Lessons learnt through the physical prototyping could be requirements of the system. The physical prototype helped and durability. Important aspects of this approach were
fed back into the digital workfow and the client was able to de-risk the GFRC cladding by providing the client with a defning the line-wide requirements, allowing for design
review detailed proposals and variations directly in 3D. This level of assurance on the buildability, appearance and iterations and testing early in the process, and reducing
way of working still informs GRCUK’s current work but operation of the system. The prototype was used to complexities to a level where the supply chain could Figure 8: Consistent fnishes and quality across Elizabeth line stations ©
Shillito has found the uptake within the larger organisation demonstrate safety and access as part of this assurance. effectively resolve the remaining ones. Designs were then Crossrail
of LO’R to be slow. carried through with client and contractor prototyping and

78 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [06] Benefits of Contractor Prototyping: GFRC Cladding on Crossrail 79
 References 11. Bryden Wood is a design and engineering practice
focussed on developing DfMA solutions and off- site
1. Neill McClements, ‘The Value of Common Design – C100 construction.
Crossrail Architectural Components’ and Simon Atherton,
Stuart Moxon, ‘The Importance of Construction Mock-ups 12. Dan Harvey, ‘Crossrail May Not Open Until 2021 –
and Trials’ in Crossrail Project: infrastructure design and Reports on Problems with the Project Identifed in a Report
construction Vol. 1, ed. by Mike Black and others (London: From the NAO’ Modern Railways, June 2019 pp 17-20.
ICE Publishing, 2014)
13. Lindner changed supplier twice, from Betsinor to GRC
2. Glass fbre-reinforced concrete consists of a composite of Beton to their own in-house production facility, now named
high-strength, alkali-resistant glass fbres embedded in a Lincrete.
concrete matrix.

3. The concept of Design for Manufacture and Assembly

originates from the manufacturing industry as a form of lean
Figure 9: Installation of GFRC cladding in a station tunnel © Crossrail. engineering with the aim of reducing manufacturing and
assembly costs and to quantify improvements through
decisions in the design process.
The main lesson from the GFRC prototyping on Crossrail is 4. After an initial visual mock-up of a section of platform
how this process supports de-risking and optimising a large was completed in 2010, Crossrail constructed a full scale
and complex part of the project through the combination of GFRC cladding prototype working with GFRC manufacturer
performance requirements and prototyping requirements. It BCM during 2012-2013.
is an approach that aligns with the idea of DfMA and digital
workfow in architectural design and production. The 5. A series of prescribed tests on panels of varying sizes
necessary level of client involvement, through planning, was carried by each contractor out prior to building the full
early investment and continued guidance should not be prototype. GFRC as a material has varying properties
underestimated. In parallel, many contractors are reluctant depending on the types and amount of aggregates used as
to engage in prototyping; it is seen as costly, slow and well as the glass fbre length, method of manufacture etc.
unnecessary. This was also the case on Crossrail in the Light refectance, acoustic performance and blast
initial phases of contractor involvement. However, the performance could not be accurately calculated for this type
benefts that resulted from the prototyping have become of cladding and therefore required physical laboratory
clear to the contractors during the process and all three are testing.
now strong advocates of Crossrail’s approach to this part of
the line-wide design; they are already applying the gained 6. Tottenham Court Road station and Liverpool Street
knowledge to other major- and mega- projects such as the station.
Sydney Metro and London Underground extensions.
7. GRCUK, Sorba and Lindner acted as Tier 2 contractors
responsible for the design, manufacture and installation of
Perhaps further industry guidance on prototyping as part of
the GFRC cladding. They in turn used different material
DfMA in construction could be developed to help to educate
suppliers and installation contractors.
and communicate this process for future projects. The
authors of this paper certainly hope that these lessons from 8. As part of the Quality Assurance plan on Crossrail, Tier 1
Crossrail will inform future clients and contractors to contractors were contractually obliged to summit material
organise their processes using the full benefts that compliance records on each component/material to be
prototyping can bring. utilised on the project. These provided evidence for
compliance on issues such as fre resistance and durability
Acknowledgements and were checked against the Employer’s requirements.
The authors would like to thank David Shillito from GRCUK, 9. The future operation and maintenance of the central
Franz Maidl from Lindner and Patrick Weijers from Sorba for Elizabeth line stations falls under the Infrastructure
sharing their experiences and insights that form the basis of Managers, London Underground and RfL (Rail for London).
this paper.
10. Inspection Test Plans (ITPs) were part of a rigorous
process to check against requirements and gain acceptance
from the IMs.

80 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [06] Benefits of Contractor Prototyping: GFRC Cladding on Crossrail 81
 Claire Wansbury
MA MSc FCIEEM CEcol
CEnv CMLI
Associate Director of
Ecology
Infrastructure
London, UK Abstract
Biodiversity Net Gain is an approach that means development leaves
biodiversity in a better state than before. Net gain policies and the use of
biodiversity metrics are on the rise. It is easy to forget that the seemingly
simple maths at the heart of metric tools can have real-world outcomes.
Several metrics have been developed to meet the specifc needs and
situations of public bodies, local authorities, and developers in the UK.
Here we compare some of these metrics to illustrate how subtle
Environmental Engineering and Ecology 07 differences in the metrics can infuence the biodiversity balance sheet.
James Hicks
This article does not attempt to judge whether any particular approach is
the “best” of those currently in use; it simply signals that there can be
Biodiversity Net Gain: One Policy, Many MBiolSci MCIEEM CEnv,
Senior Ecologist, substantive differences in units and therefore the requirements placed on
developers depending on which metric is used.
Metrics - Comparing Different Metrics
Infrastructure,
Birmingham, UK

Because the Maths Matters Keywords

Ecology; Biodiversity Net Gain; Metrics; Offsetting; Policy
Matt Wainhouse
BSc MSc MCIEEM
Cardiff University
Cardiff, UK
 These metrics are broadly similar in the method of points, we hope to emphasise the importance of the sums
calculation, multiplying values of habitat distinctiveness, with the aim of making the Biodiversity Net Gain process
condition, and area to produce a fgure of pre-construction more transparent.
biodiversity value. Post-construction biodiversity value is
calculated in the same way (i.e., multiplying values for
habitat distinctiveness, target condition and area, with 2. Comparing the Metrics
negative multipliers for time to reach target condition,
delivery risk and spatial relevance). For each metric, there are two distinct types of inputs: user-
specifed values and metric-specifed values. User-specifed
Despite their similarity, each metric takes a subtly different values are those where there is more than one value option
approach. This ultimately refects the context in which they to choose from and this is defned by the person using the
were intended to be used. Both the original 2012 draft Defra tool. An example is choosing whether a semi-natural
method and the subsequent Defra biodiversity metric 2.0 woodland is of Good, Moderate or Poor condition. The person
(2019 Beta version) are designed to be used across the inputting the values reviews the survey data and chooses
breadth of England and in a range of infrastructure projects. the appropriate option.
Other metrics have been developed with a greater degree of
relevance to their situation. Network Rail’s Biodiversity Metric-specifed values are fxed within the metric tool itself
Calculator was designed specifcally for rail projects, most or by metric rules and cannot be changed or edited by the
of which occur almost entirely within the rail estate. HS2’s user. The spreadsheet tools for the NRBC and WCSBIA, for
metric was developed specifcally for the scheme and the example, have automatic formulae, drop-down boxes, and
circumstances unique to such a large-scale, linear restricted cells that cannot be overwritten or changed by
infrastructure project. In contrast, the WCSBIA metric was the user. These values are entirely metric-specifed and vary
designed with local conservation priorities in mind and use between the two. An example of a metric-specifed value
at County scale. common to all metrics would be lowland beech-yew
woodland, which is automatically defned as high value.
Despite the increasing application of a Biodiversity Net Gain
approach to development, the UK metrics have rarely, if
ever, been openly compared. The nuances of each metric
3. Calculating Offsets
mean that the net balance of biodiversity has the potential Maths is at the heart of the metric-based net gain approach
to vary quite signifcantly depending on which is used. This is and so, to understand the metric outputs, we need to
an important issue because a net gain approach must be understand the equations. The order of the calculation
transparent in order for stakeholders to have faith in the matters because subtleties within them can cause quite
process and so that genuine benefts to biodiversity can be different outcomes. At its most basic we can say:
attained.
Biodiversity Net Change = After Works Units – Baseline
An exercise was carried out to compare four biodiversity Units
metrics currently used in the UK:
When we expand this to include the multipliers, all the
1. Introduction 1. Defra’s Biodiversity Offsetting Metric 2012 metrics were consistent in their approach to calculating
Biodiversity Net Gain is an approach that means and additionality (CIRIA, CIEEM, IEMA 2016), the calculation on-site units, but approaches differed for offsets (i.e., off-site
2. HS2 Phase 1 Biodiversity Offsetting Metric (HS2 2015) habitat compensation). Two schools of thought begin to
development leaves biodiversity in a better state than of losses and gains can then be used by non-specialists to
before. In the United Kingdom (UK), there has been inform better decision making. emerge from the metrics we looked at: whether to deduct
3. Network Rail’s Biodiversity Calculator (Version 5.10) baseline Units before negative multipliers have been applied,
increasing recognition that Biodiversity Net Gain is a policy
approach that could contribute to creating ecological In the UK, the biodiversity metrics used to-date are habitat or after (Box 1).
4. The Warwickshire, Coventry and Solihull Biodiversity
benefts from development (Ministry of Housing, rather than species orientated. Defra’s Biodiversity
Impact Assessment (WCSBIA) Tool (Version 19.0)
Communities and Local Government 2018, Defra 2018a). Offsetting Metric 2012 (Defra 2012) is perhaps the best
known and most widely used. Its introduction set the
The authors also reviewed a working draft version of Defra’s
Achieving genuine net gain relies on an objective method for precedent for similar metrics used by HS2, Network Rail’s
biodiversity metric 2.0 for context. In comparing these
measuring some proxy for biodiversity in a transparent and Biodiversity Calculator (NRBC), The Warwickshire, Coventry
metrics, we aim to highlight the similarities and differences
replicable way. Biodiversity metrics are simple conceptual and Solihull Biodiversity Impact Assessment Tool (WCSBIA),
in how net gain is calculated in three areas: offsite habitat
tools for doing just this. They attempt to represent the and the update to the Defra biodiversity metric (‘2.0’) that
creation; distinctiveness and condition values; and trading
complexity of nature using tangible values through a Natural England published as a Beta version in late 2019,
down corrections. The comparison is not exhaustive and
calculation based on factual survey data. When supported drawing on experience across the industry and studies,
there are several facets of these metrics that add to the
by underlying good practice in respect of habitat equivalence including this comparative study (Defra 2018b and Natural
variation in Units but are not discussed. In identifying these
England 2018).

Biodiversity Net Gain: One Policy, Many Metrics - Comparing Different Metrics Because the Maths Matters 85
Calculating off-site offsets The difference this makes is best illustrated through the A creative method for getting over this issue was devised for 6. Conclusion
worked example in Box 1. Using equation 1 to calculate the use with the NRBC. This bespoke method uses a default
Equation 1 value of offsets, the habitat creation scheme would be condition assessment derived from common themes in the It is diffcult to disentangle the extent that these differences
predicted to result in a 66% net increase in biodiversity FEP (e.g., presence of non-native invasives) (Network Rail contribute to the overall variation that we see between the
Biodiversity Net Change= Units. An equivalent increase in Biodiversity Units using 2017). Other metrics have removed the variable condition metrics. There are, of course, many other idiosyncrasies not
Equation 2 would require a commitment to achieving a weighting of habitats altogether. The HS2 metric gives all discussed here that add to the variation. The specifcs of the
((After Works Distinctiveness × Condition×Area) - Baseline Biodiversity Units) “Good” target condition (3) and an increased area of 0.35 ha Low distinctiveness habitats an automatic Poor condition, site and situation where a metric is used will no doubt
(i.e., a third extra land or habitat needs to be acquired or “recognising that condition has a negligible effect on the contribute to any disparity. What is clear is that the
((Delivery Risk ×Time to Condition ×Spatial Risk)) managed). overall value of those habitats” (HS2 2015). The WCSBIA individual metric rules that account for distinctiveness and
takes a similar stance, using metric-specifed condition habitat condition, together with trading down and
Equation 2 Defra’s net gain public consultation suggests that multipliers for some Low distinctiveness habitats. In these differences in the calculation itself will all contribute to the
Biodiversity Net Gain may be identifed as an increase of at three metrics, again we begin to see differences emerging in overall Unit variance between metrics.
Biodiversity Net Change= least 10% above the baseline value (Defra 2018b), which in how the Unit score might vary between them. A patch of
this example would mean a positive increase of 0.4 Units. arable land would have a standard Poor condition (1) using In a comparison like this, subtle differences like those

)
)
After Works Distinctiveness × Condition×Area Using an Equation 1 metric, this could be reached with 0.5 the WCSBIA or HS2 metrics and up to Good condition (3) outlined above may seem innocuous at frst glance.
- Baseline Biodiversity Units ha of the created unimproved grassland in Moderate using the NRBC, a difference of up to 66% depending on the However, we need to recognise that Biodiversity Net Gain
Delivery Risk ×Time to Condition ×Spatial Risk condition. Using an Equation 2 metric hitting the same net fexibility of the metric. Similar variation will also occur in strategies do affect real-life projects. A third extra habitat
gain target needs a minimum 0.75 ha of Good condition the post-construction calculation with the time to reach the may equate to a third extra cost, which, on large
habitat, again a third extra in both area and condition for the target condition multiplier. An interesting point drawn from developments, can be substantial. In the Defra 2.0 metric
same result. HS2’s metric is that creating habitat of High distinctiveness consultation, an indicative tariff rate of £9,000 - £15,000/
For example, an off-site habitat compensation scheme will was capped at a Moderate (2) condition, limiting the overall Unit was estimated (Defra 2018b). With this fgure in mind,
create one hectare of unimproved grassland (High value of much of their compensatory habitat. By contrast, we can see that calculating Units inaccurately, or using an
distinctiveness, 6) with a Moderate target condition (2). This 4. Distinctiveness and Condition other metrics do not enforce a condition cap in the same unsuitable metric, can lead to substantial differences in the
will replace one hectare of poor semi-improved grassland way. The new bespoke condition assessment in the Beta cost of offsets, with the total sum scalable to the size of the
(Low distinctiveness, 2) in Moderate condition (2). The new A less subtle difference between the metrics is that both testing version of Defra biodiversity metric 2.0 uses fve project. Using an inappropriate metric could be bad news for
unimproved grassland is of Medium delivery risk (1.5), will user- and metric-specifed values differ between them. The condition values (1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3) (Natural England 2018) and project balance sheets if excessive costs result from over
take 20 years to reach its target condition (2), and is WCSBIA, for example, uses fve distinctiveness scores (2, 3, this may level the playing feld with a consistent protocol for compensation, but even worse news for biodiversity if it
spatially well connected to the habitat it is replacing (1). 4, 5, 6) compared to three in the Defra 2012 and NRBC (2, 4, describing habitat condition. results in failure to deliver genuine net gain. Such large
6) and four in HS2 and (anticipated) Defra biodiversity metric differences in Units don’t only translate to cash but also to
The pre-construction value of the poor semi-improved 2.0 (2, 4, 6, 8) (Natural England 2018). High distinctiveness the biodiversity outcomes that we, as an industry, are trying
grassland habitat is calculated as: habitats are rarely encountered on most developments and 5. Trading Down to promote through Biodiversity Net Gain policies.
throw up an entirely different set of issues to those
2 ×2 ×1=4 Biodiversity Units discussed here. However, three common habitats do warrant One of the key net gain principles is of equivalency in habitat
some discussion because of their prevalence and lack of compensation. High distinctiveness habitats cannot be offset Acknowledgements
Using Equation 1, the net change is a positive increase of other legislative protection. Dense scrub is valued Medium- with the creation of habitats of lower value. The loss of one
2.66 Units, calculated as: low (3) in the WCSBIA and Medium (4) in the other metrics, hectare of unimproved grassland, for example, should not be This paper is an updated version of one originally published
amounting to a 25% difference in the Units available for this replaced with larger areas of habitats of lower as: Wainhouse M, Wansbury C and Hicks J (2019) One Policy,
((6 x 2 x 1) - 4) / (1.5 x 2 x 1) = 2.66 Biodiversity Units habitat depending on which metric is used. Similarly, tall distinctiveness such as semi-improved grassland or dense Many Metrics: Comparing Different Metrics Because the
ruderal vegetation is valued as Low distinctiveness (2) in the scrub (i.e. trading down). However, this then raises the Maths Matters. In Practice – Bulletin of the Chartered
Using Equation 2, there is a net balance of 0 Units. There is NRBC, HS2 and Defra metrics and Medium-low (3) in the question of what to do when a project does result in trading Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management
no net loss in Units, but no net gain either, calculated as: WCSBIA, a 25% difference in the Unit outcome of this down. A facet unique to the WCSBIA tool is that it includes (CIEEM) 104: 17-21. It is re-published with kind permission
habitat. Poor semi-improved grassland was considered to be an automatic “trading-down correction,” which the others do from CIEEM. The original article has been shortlisted for the
((6 × 2×1 )/(1.5 ×2 ×1))-4 = 0 Biodiversity Units of Medium (4) distinctiveness by HS2, but valued Medium- not. The WCSBIA calculates the net change in biodiversity “2020 CIEEM InPractice Award”.
low (3) in the WCSBIA and Low (2) in the NRBC, again Units and then deducts the number of Units that are not
The Defra 2012 metric guidance is somewhat vague on this resulting in a 25-50% difference in the Unit score that this accounted for through equivalency. While all other metrics
and it is easy to see how it has been interpreted differently habitat will contribute to the biodiversity balance sheet. should apply a similar correction, it is not automatically
in different metrics. The worked example in the Defra 2012 deducted. So, without skilled interpretation, the metric tools
guidance does at least show their line of thought: baseline Applying condition values can also exacerbate the can appear to allow trading down to occur without penalty.
Units are subtracted before negative multipliers are applied differences between metrics. The Defra 2012 metric used This can make the WCSBIA appear to be far less favourable
(Equation 1, Box 1). This is the approach taken in the NRBC the Farm Environment Plan (FEP) Manual (Natural England than other metrics where equivalency can be poorly
2010) as the basis for its condition assessment. However, accounted for. The authors would like to express thanks to Network Rail,
and some of biodiversity offsetting pilot study areas. The Julia Baker (Balfour Beatty), Nick White (Natural England)
alternative approach (Equation 2, Box 2) has been taken up the consensus now is that it is not particularly suitable for
this purpose, with many habitats typically encountered on and Rachel Blount (SNC Lavalin’s Atkins) for valuable
in other metrics used by HS2, WCSBIA, The Environment comments on a previous draft of the manuscript.
Bank, and provisionally used in Defra biodiversity metric 2.0 development sites either not included or covered
(Natural England 2018). inadequately, particularly for Low distinctiveness habitats.

86 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [07] Biodiversity Net Gain: One Policy, Many Metrics - Comparing Different Metrics Because the Maths Matters 87
References
CIRIA, CIEEM, IEMA (2016). Biodiversity Net Gain: Good
practice principles for development. Available at: https://
www.cieem.net/data/fles/Publications/Biodiversity_Net_
Gain_Principles.pdf. [Accessed Feb. 2019]

Defra 2012. Technical Paper – metric for the biodiversity

offsetting pilot in England. Available at https://assets.
publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/
uploads/attachment_data/fle/69531/pb13745-bio-
technical-paper.pdf. [Accessed Feb. 2019).

Defra (2018a). A Greener Future: Our 25 Year Plan to

Improve Environment. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.
uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
fle/693158/25-year-environment-plan.pdf. [Accessed Feb.
2019].

Defra (2018b). Net Gain Consultation Proposal. Available at:

https://consult.defra.gov.uk/land-use/net-gain/supporting_
documents/netgainconsultationdocument.pdf [Accessed
Feb. 2019].

HS2 (2015). HS2 London-West Midlands No net loss in

biodiversity calculation Methodology and results. Available
at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/fle/490928/No_
net_loss_in_biodiversity_calculation_-_methodology_and_
results_v2.pdf. [Accessed April 2019].

Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government

(2018). National Planning Policy Framework. Available at:
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/fle/740441/
National_Planning_Policy_Framework_web_accessible_
version.pdf [Accessed Feb. 2019].

Natural England (2010). Higher Level Stewardship Farm

Environment Plan (FEP) Manual. Available at: http://
publications.naturalengland.org.uk/fle/2819648. [Accessed
March 2019]

Natural England (2018). Updating the Defra Biodiversity

Metric. Available at http://publications.naturalengland.org.
uk/publication/6020204538888192. [Accessed April 2019,
and Beta version of Defra biodiversity metric available at
http://nepubprod.appspot.com/
publication/5850908674228224?cache=1564421772.98 ].

Network Rail (2017). Biodiversity Calculator User Guide

Version 2. Available at https://safety.networkrail.co.uk/
wp-content/uploads/2017/12/NR-Biodiversity-Calculator-
User-Guide_V2.pdf. [Accessed April 2019].

88 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [07] Biodiversity Net Gain: One Policy, Many Metrics - Comparing Different Metrics Because the Maths Matters 89
 Shayne Paynter
PhD, PE, PG
Vice President, Atkins
Fellow, Senior Technical
Abstract
Manager, Technical
Professional Organization
In lieu of traditional site-specifc stormwater Best Management Practices
Engineering, Design and (BMP’s) for large infrastructure projects, Atkins and the Florida
Project Management Department of Transportation (FDOT) looked at a regional solution in an
Tampa, FL, USA area of Old Tampa Bay that has historically had poor water quality. After
in-situ study, modelling and coordination with multiple agencies, Atkins
and FDOT have established a new tidal connection through the SR 60/
Courtney Campbell Causeway to improve water quality north of the
causeway and created ecological conditions that are conducive to
seagrass recovery and benthic habitat. The project removes an equivalent
of 10,161 Kg of nitrogen due to tidal fushing and is expected to increase
Environmental Engineering and Ecology 08 seagrass coverage and density over an area of approximately 300 acres.
Atkins and FDOT set up a frst-of-its-kind water quality credit leger as
well as a seagrass mitigation ledger to track improvements and offset
Ecological Uplift Through Engineering – future impacts for project that drain to the bay. The water quality
improvements have already offset approximately $100 million in
Tidal Circulation and Old Tampa Bay Ed Cronyn
PWS
acquisition, construction and maintenance costs. The project has won
multiple state and national awards, including the 2019 Federal Highway
Technical Manager, Administration (FHWA) Environmental Excellence Award.
Technical Professional
Organization
Engineering, Design and
Keywords
Project Management
Tampa, FL, USA
Nitrogen removal; Seagrass; Water quality; Residence time

Mike Salisbury
PE
Senior Engineer, Technical
Professional Organization
Engineering, Design and
Project Management
Melbourne, FL, USA
 The most widely adopted stormwater treatment system in
Florida, wet detention ponds, only remove about 30 to 40
percent of incoming nitrogen loads from stormwater. Dry
retention ponds have nitrogen removal effciencies in excess
of 90 percent, but they often require much larger
construction costs or areas of land to meet design standards
and are often impossible in areas with poor soils or high
water tables. Given the continuous rise in costs associated
with acquisition of property for stormwater management as
well as the associated costs of construction and
maintenance, many clients are beginning to seek regional,
innovative solutions that can address stormwater water
quality needs of more than one project.

One such alternative treatment system involves the Figure 1: Map of Tampa Bay showing main transportation features and the
watersheds of coastal drainage to Old Tampa Bay, the Hillsborough River,
Courtney Campbell Causeway (CCC). The CCC was the Alafa River, and coastal drainage to Hillsborough Bay.
constructed in the early 1930s during a time when OTB was
considered to have good water quality. Aerial photographs
show evidence of extensive seagrass meadows in most of Tampa Bay suffered signifcant declines in seagrass
Old Tampa Bay in 1948. However, the shallow waters of coverage between 1950 and 1980, but these initial losses
OTB north of the CCC at its eastern terminus appear to be have been followed by substantial increases in recent years
devoid of seagrass in 1948. These fndings indicate that the (i.e., Johansson, 1991; Johansson and Greening, 1999;
construction of the CCC changed the environment to the Tomasko et al., 2005; and Greening and Janicki, 2006).
extent that seagrass could not grow in that area, even while
adjacent waters supported extensive meadows of these The removal or modifcation of causeways (as opposed to
underwater plants. bridges) has been promoted worldwide as an environmental
restoration tool. Examples include Cockburn Sound,
Australia (Cockburn Sound Management Council, 2003),
2. Feasibility Study Fidalgo Bay, Washington State (Samish Indian Nation, 2007),
Lake Victoria, Kenya (Patrick et al., 2005), and Missisquoi
In January 2015, a feld study characterizing existing Bay, Vermont (Mendelsohn et al., 1997). In Tampa Bay, the
© Aerial Innovations, Inc
seagrass, water quality, sediments, and other parameters removal of the 50-year-old causeway leading to Ft. Desoto
was completed in OTB (north of the CCC Figure 1). The Park was completed in 2004, restoring tidal fow between
results of this preliminary study revealed a pattern of two lagoons in this high-profle public park. The removal of
seagrass species and presence that is best explained by the the causeway and its replacement with a bridge appears to
altered salinity regime that currently occurs in the area have helped improve water quality over an area in excess of
north of the CCC. Hydrologic fow and residence times have 1,000 acres (NOAA, 2006). After the removal of the 100-
also been altered by the CCC, which has placed stressors on year old causeway across Lake Surprise, which was part of
1. Introduction seagrass meadows within the assessment area. The current Flagler’s railroad, water quality improved over an area in
state of the seagrass resources in the assessment area can excess of 300 acres (PBS&J, 2009).
In 1998, the Florida Department of Environmental FDEP and the Southwest Florida Water Management be most likely attributed to the lack of tidal fushing causing
Protection (FDEP) placed Old Tampa Bay (OTB) on its list of District [SWFWMD]) and various other stakeholders joined the differences in seagrass species and abundance. The In OTB, the CCC represents a potentially signifcant impact
impaired water bodies, in accordance with Section 303(d) of forces to produce a Reasonable Assurance Plan (RAP) to current pattern of seagrasses is such that shoal grass to seagrass resources. The CCC was constructed during the
the Federal Clean Water Act. For waterbodies categorized as guide the management of water quality in Tampa Bay. The (Halodule wrightii) and widgeon grass (Ruppia maritima) are Great Depression and was completed in the early 1930s,
having impaired water quality, the typical management RAP requires an estimated 85 tons of additional nitrogen the dominant species north of the CCC, while mixtures of during a time when Tampa Bay as a whole, and OTB as well,
approach has been to transition towards the development of load reduction projects for each fve-year planning period turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum), shoal grass, and was considered to have had good water quality, based on
a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) which is defned in the (equal to a 17 ton per year reduction). The RAP for Tampa manatee grass (Syringodium fliforme) dominate the photographic evidence of extensive seagrass resources.
Code of Federal Regulations sections 130.2 and 130.70 as “… Bay focuses on nitrogen loads, based on the following seagrass areas south. Aerial photography from 1948 shows evidence of extensive
the sum of the individual waste load allocations (WLAs) for management paradigm: seagrass meadows to the south of the CCC along Rocky
point sources and load allocations (LAs) for nonpoint This study was initiated to evaluate if the replacement of a Point (Figure 2).
sources” that, if exceeded, would be expected to result in the > Increases in nitrogen loads increase phytoplankton portion of the CCC with a conveyance structure such as a
non-attainment of water quality standards. levels bridge would likely bring about an ecological response in
> Increases in phytoplankton levels decrease water OTB similar or greater than that which would be expected to
Rather than waiting for FDEP to produce a TMDL for Tampa clarity occur by treating stormwater runoff alone.
Bay, local governments, state agencies (including FDOT,
> Decreases in water clarity reduce the amount of bay
bottom that can be occupied by seagrass

Ecological Uplift Through Engineering – Tidal Circulation and Old Tampa Bay 93
 2.1 Feasibility Study Methods 2.2 Feasibility Results
A comprehensive data collection effort was completed to Four species of seagrass were identifed within the overall
characterize the study area north and south of the CCC. The study area: Halodule wrightii, Ruppia maritima, Syringodium
data collection effort conducted here consisted of the fliforme, and Thalassia testudinum (Figure 6).
following parameters for each of the four strata:

> Seagrass and macroalgal presence and abundance

> Depth of the deep edge of seagrass meadows
> Surface and near bottom water quality
Figure 5: Graphic depicting distance from sampling sites to nearest open
> Sediment characterization water

> Flora and fauna observations

Surface and near-bottom water quality samples were
Four representative areas (strata) were identifed: three to
collected at randomly selected sites within each stratum
the north of the causeway and one to the southeast (Figure
and are shown in Table 1.
4). The strata were selected based on available biannual
seagrass maps produced by SWFWMD.
Table 1:Parameters and Analytical Method Used to
Analyze Surface and Near-Bottom Figure 6: Seagrass species observed within each stratum

Figure 2: Aerial photograph from 1948 showing extensive seagrass meadows Parameter Method
in Old Tampa Bay. Area shown is north and south of the CCC, at the eastern In regards to seagrass abundance, (Figure 7) strata A and D,
terminus of the causeway. Chlorophyll-a 445.0 closer to open water, have signifcantly greater seagrass
Ammonia Nitrogen 350.1 presence.
However, in the area north of the CCC shown in Figure 3, the
photographic signature of seagrass meadows found in areas Nitrate+Nitrite 353.2
to the west and south is reduced or absent. While no Ortho-Phosphorus 365.3
ground-truthed data are available, it would appear that
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen 351.2
seagrass meadows were already impacted in the areas
shown in Figure 3 at least as far back as 1948. Total Nitrogen 351.2+353.2
Total Phosphorus 365.3
Figure 4: Experimental design layout with the four strata delineations

Sediment characterization was conducted at randomly

The presence and abundance of seagrass and macroalgae selected sites within each stratum and is summarized in
were quantifed at 30 randomly chosen sites within each Table 2.
stratum. In addition to evaluating the presence and absence
of seagrass within each stratum, the distance from each
sampling site to open water was calculated as a surrogate Table 2: Parameters and Analytical Method Used to Figure 7: Average percentage of seagrass coverage at each sampling site
for tidal infuences, to see if “distance” correlated with Analyze the Collected Sediment Samples
indicators of ecosystem health. For the purposes of this
study, “open water” was defned as areas with a water depth In order to ascertain if distance to open water correlated
Parameter Method
of six feet or greater and located 500 feet or more from land with ecosystem health (or seagrass abundance), the
or other structures. Color relationship between seagrass abundance and the
Grain size ASTM D-4464-85 calculated distance to open water was evaluated (Figure 8).
A line shapefle was then generated, snapping the ends of The average seagrass abundance observed less than 8,000
Percent organic content SM 2540G feet from open water (81 percent) was found to be
each line to the points and the edges of the open water. The
lengths of each line were calculated and assigned to the Hydrogen sulfde Colorimetric test kit signifcantly greater than the abundance (36 percent) for
points from which they were measured in order to show the locations greater than 8,000 feet from open water.
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen 351.2
distance of each sampling point to open water (Figure 5).
Total Phosphorus 365.4
The results shown in Figure 8 strongly suggests that
Figure 3: Aerial photograph from 1948 showing apparent impacts to
artifcially reduced tidal infuences and/or increased
seagrass meadows north of the CCC at the eastern terminus of the residence times are important stressors to seagrass health
causeway. The yellow oval indicates the photographic signature of shallow in this region of OTB as areas farthest removed from tidal
areas devoid of seagrass.
infuences (i.e., those farthest from open water) are the

94 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [08] Ecological Uplift Through Engineering – Tidal Circulation and Old Tampa Bay 95
areas with the lowest probability of occurrence and of the CCC (36 percent more variable) than south of the 3. Hydrodynamic Modeling
abundance. CCC (Figure 10).

Based upon the results of the feasibility study, including

demonstration of signifcant differences in nitrogen, salinity,
seagrass type and abundance as well as a link between lack
of seagrass and distance to open water, it was deemed by
FDOT, Atkins, and permitting agencies that placing a cut
within the CCC would likely result in signifcant ecological
uplift. As such, a hydrodynamic model and further data
collection was provided to help size and locate a bridge cut
through the causeway as well as to evaluate anticipated
changes in salinity, nitrogen and residence time.

Figure 8: Seagrass abundance compared to the calculated distance from

open water The hydrodynamic model utilized in this effort was the
Figure 10: Comparison of annual average coeffcient of variation of salinity Delft3D model, a widely used and validated numerical model
Five genera of macroalgae were identifed within the overall north and south of the CCC over the period of 1983 to 2013 Figure 14: Bathymetric contours for the Tampa Bay model domain
which incorporates the effects of astronomic tides, wind,
study area: Entermorpha, Gracilaria, Hypnea, Laurencia and Chlorophyll-a, a measure of phytoplankton production, and waves, and meteorological forces to simulate time-varying
Uva. The offshore edge of seagrass meadows was located in nutrient concentrations were also compared for stations hydrodynamics in two or three dimensions. The grid
deeper waters within Stratum D compared to the areas north and south of the CCC. Chlorophyll-a concentrations associated with the model is depicted in Figure 13, Figure 14,
north of the CCC (p<0.001; Strata A, B and C; Figure 9). The were signifcantly higher north of the CCC (43 percent and Figure 15, respectively, illustrating the bathymetric
median water depth at the deep edge was 1.34 meters higher) when compared to south of the CCC (p<0.001; contours for the Tampa Bay and nested domains.
below MSL in Stratum D compared to 0.45 meters below Figure 11). Total nitrogen concentrations were 23 percent
MSL in Stratum C. This discrepancy indicates that higher north of the CCC compared to south of the CCC
seagrasses grow to a deeper water depth in Stratum D than (p<0.001; Figure 12).
elsewhere, refective of better water clarity in this stratum.

Figure 15: Bathymetric contours for the nested model domain

Models were driven by tides, wind, and precipitation, and the

Figure 9: Median water depth (meters) of the seagrass meadow deep edge nested domain included a conservative tracer to simulate
for each Stratum residence time in the area of interest. Model predictions
Figure 11: Comparison of average chlorophyll-a concentrations north and Figure 13: Tampa Bay (black) and nested (red) model domains were validated against actual data prior to running bridge
Multiple long-term surface water monitoring locations were south of the CCC over the period of 1983 to 2013
simulations.
identifed within the area of interest. These data represent
monitoring efforts conducted for more than 30 years by the
Hillsborough County Environmental Protection Commission. Modelling scenarios of various bridge opening lengths and
These stations provide a long-term dataset from 1972 to the locations along Courtney Campbell Causeway were
present. Data from stations 62 (North of CCC) and 63 (South evaluated. The intent was to balance costs versus having an
of CCC) were compared to identify if there are discernable opening long enough to exchange suffcient water to
differences in water quality between the two locations. signifcantly reduce residence time north of the causeway
and improve water quality.
The average salinity north of the CCC has signifcantly lower
salinity, 10 percent lower, than the area directly south of the Figure 16 illustrates the initial distribution of a 1 kg/m3
CCC (p<0.001). Additionally, the annual average coeffcient concentration of the conservative tracer. This distribution is
of variation of salinity is statistically greater (more variable) identical for all model simulations. Figure 17 and Figure 18
north of the CCC than south of the CCC (p<0.003). This represent the fnal tracer concentration for the existing and
fnding shows that there is greater variation in salinity north Figure 12: Comparison of average total nitrogen concentrations north and
proposed conditions at the end of the seven-day model run.
south of the CCC over the period of 1983 to 2013

96 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [08] Ecological Uplift Through Engineering – Tidal Circulation and Old Tampa Bay 97
After seven days, the highest concentration in the area of The addition of the modelled 200 ft opening generally Table 4: Water Quality Success Criteria and Release Schedule
concern is 0.25 kg/m3 under existing conditions and 0.15 kg/ decreases peak velocities to the north of CCC compared to
m3 with a modelled 200 ft opening. existing conditions except in the immediate vicinity of the Success Criteria Release Compensatory Impervious Compensatory Total
opening, while the opening itself experiences a peak depth- Area Credits (Acres) Nitrogen Credits (Kg N/
averaged velocity of 2.5 ft/s. A sediment analysis was also year)
performed to ensure no signifcant impacts on erosion or A. Tidal Flux Established 20% 612.00 2,032.20
siltation would be caused by the bridge or changes in
velocities. After seven days, the peak concentrations in the B. Dissolution Rate 20% 612.00 2,032.20
area of concern are about 50 percent lower with the 200 ft Improvement
opening versus without. Within the area of concern, the C. Salinity Improvement 30% 918.00 3,048.30
modelled 200 ft opening reduces residence time (defned at
D. to E. Chlorophyll-a and TN 20% 612.00 2,032.20
time to reach 50 percent of initial concentration) from about
Improvement
three days to about one day, location dependent (Table 3).
F. Restoration vs. Reference 10% 306.00 1,016.10
Differences Reduced by 50%
Table 3: Summary of Modelled Residence Time for
Total 3,060.00 10,161.00
Strata A, B, and C
Figure 16: Initial tracer concentration; all scenarios
Residence time (days)
5. Construction
Location Existing With proposed
conditions (no 200 ft opening In the summer of 2019, the OTB project was completed. The
alternative) location is shown in Figure 19 and construction photos,
including a tracer test to establish tidal fux, are included in
Stratum A 2.50 0.50 Figures 20 and 21.
Stratum B 2.75 0.50
Stratum C 3.00 1.50

4. Design and Permitting

Because both the feld study and hydrodynamic modeling Figure 21: Dye tracer test for initial release of credits
Figure 17: Tracer concentration after 7 days; existing conditions demonstrated that adding a bridge cut under CCC was
extremely likely to signifcantly improve water conditions,
the design and permitting phase was begun. A fnal bridge 6. Monitoring and Success Criteria
length of 229 ft was developed and permits with the
SWFWMD, FDEP, Tampa Port Authority, United States Army Water quality monitoring as part of the permit success
Corps of Engineers, Florida Fish and Wildlife, and the United criteria has been ongoing since the opening of the bridge in
States Coast Guard were obtained. As part of the permitting December of 2018. The majority of the success criteria look
conditions, a two-year water quality monitoring program and for Strata A, B, and C north of the bridge to improve
success criteria for releasing both water quality and suffciently to approach values at the reference site, Strata
seagrass credits were developed. Credits could be applied, Figure 19: Bridge location D, south of the bridge which has excellent seagrass
on a case-by-case basis, to any FDOT projects within the coverage, abundance, and water quality. As of spring 2020,
Tampa Bay Coastal Floodplain. The water quality success tidal fux, salinity, Chlorophyll-a, total nitrogen, seagrass
criteria and release schedule are in Table 4. coverage, and seagrass species variation have all met their
targets and 80 percent of water quality and seagrass credits
have been requested or released. In fact, while a residence
time reduction of 50 percent was modeled and was
Figure 18: Tracer concentration after 7 days; 200 ft opening
generally the basis for parameter improvement, all of the
parameters improved by over 50 percent. The difference in
monthly mean values between Stratum C and D for
Chlorophyll-a reduced by over 82 percent. In addition,
multiple residents and boaters have indicated visually
improved water clarity and more abundant wildlife north of
the new bridge. Figure 22 demonstrates a clear reduction in
Chlorophyll-a north of the causeway after the bridge
Figure 20: Bridge construction aerial
opening, which is represented by the vertical black line.

98 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [08] Ecological Uplift Through Engineering – Tidal Circulation and Old Tampa Bay 99
 Mendelsohn, D.L., H.R. Hines and T. Isaji. 1997. Missiquoi Bay Tomasko, D.A. and E.H. Keenan. 2010. Potential impacts of
Field Study and Hydrodynamic Model Verifcation. Final sea level rise on Sarasota Bay seagrasses. Pp. 463-477. In:
Report to: Vermont Geological Survey, Waterbury, VT. S.T. Cooper (ed.). Proceedings, Tampa Bay Area Scientifc
Information Symposium, BASIS 5. October 20-23 2009. St.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006. Petersburg, Florida. 538 pp.
Fort DeSoto Tidal Hydrology Restoration Project, Fort
DeSoto Park, Pinellas County, Fl. Pp. 110-115. In: Returning Tyler, D., Zawada, D.G., Nayegandhi, A., Brock, J.C., Crane,
the Tide: Tidal Hydrology Restoration Guidance Manual. M.P., Yates, K.K., and Smith, K.E.L., 2007, Topobathymetric
NOAA Restoration Center and NOAA Coastal Services data for Tampa Bay, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Open-
Center Report. File Report 2007-1051 (revised). http://pubs.usgs.gov/
of/2007/1051.
NOAA. 2015a. Tampa Bay Operational Forecast System.
http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/ofs/dev/tbofs/tbofs_info. United States Army Corps of Engineers and South Florida
html Water Management District. 2002. Central and Southern
Florida Project – Comprehensive Everglades Restoration
Figure 22 – Pre/post Chlorophyll a concentrations
NOAA. 2015b. Climate Data Online, Daily Summaries, KTPA. Plan: Project Management Plan – Florida Keys Tidal
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdo-web/datasets/GHCND/ Restoration Project. 104 pp.
stations/GHCND:USW00012842/detail
7. Conclusions
An area totaling 321 acres evidences a reduction in NOAA Tides & Currents. 2015. Meteorological Observations,
residence time from 50 percent to 80 percent, depending on Station 8726607, Old Port Tampa, FL.
Figure 23: Completed OTB bridge https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/met.html?id=8726607
location in proximity to the proposed opening and existing
bridge. The improvement of water quality in 321 acres
would result in conditions favorable to the growth and Patrick, K., Romero, J.R., Imberger, J., Ewing, T., Antenucci,
expansion of seagrass. It was determined that the resulting Cockburn Sound Management Council. 2003. Infuence of J., Nijuguna, H., and J. Okungu. 2005. The effect of the Mbita
water quality improvements would be equivalent to the Garden Island Causeway on Mangles Bay, Cockburn Causeway on water currents in the region of Rusinga
constructing over 200 traditional ponds. Sound. Community Summary Paper for: Cockburn Sound Channel, Winam Gulf, Lake Victoria: a 3D modelling study
Management Council. Rockingham, Western Australia. 8 pp. with ELCOM. Report to: Centre for Water Research for the
The completed project (Figure 23) is a win-win for the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute and the Lake Victoria
environment and for FDOT. The project has already saved Greening, H.S. and A. Janicki. 2006. Toward reversal of Environmental Management Project. Kisumu, Kenya. 5pp.
$100 million by internal FDOT cost analysis; it improves eutrophic condi¬tions in a subtropical estuary: Water quality
water quality and ecological habitat far more than more and seagrass response to nitro¬gen loading reductions in PBS&J. 2009. Responses of Water Quality and Seagrass
expensive ponds could possibly have; and the local public Tampa Bay, Florida, USA. Environmental Manage¬ment. Coverage to the Removal of the Lake Surprise Causeway.
residents, boaters, and water enthusiasts receive direct 38:163–178. Report to FDOT District 6, Miami, FL. 34 pp.
beneft. This beneft will exist in perpetuity and not require
the ongoing maintenance costs that traditional ponds would Greening, H.S., Cross, L.M. and E.T. Sherwood. 2011. A Samish Indian Nation. 2007. Fidalgo Bay Causeway
have. Also, if seagrass growth and abundance increase over multiscale approach to seagrass recovery in Tampa Bay, Feasibility Study. Anacortes, WA. 14 pp.
time, as anticipated, a signifcant long-term ecological Florida. Ecological Restoration. 29: 82-93.
beneft for benthic organisms, seagrass, and marine life is Swart, P.K., G.F. Healy, R.E. Dodge, P. Kramer, J.H. Hudson,
anticipated. Due in part to the success of this project, FDOT Johansson, J.O.R. 1991. Long-term trends in nitrogen R.B. Halley, and M.B. Robblee. 1996. The stable oxygen and
and Atkins are developing state-wide guidance promoting loading, water quality and biological indicators in carbon isotope record from a coral growing in Florida Bay: a
the use of similar innovative, regional projects in lieu of Hillsborough Bay, Florida, p. 157–176. In S. F. Treat and P. A. 160-year record of climatic and anthropogenic infuence.
traditional project-by-project stormwater management Clark (eds.), Proceedings, Tampa Bay Area Scientifc Palaeo. 123: 219-237.
solutions as a frst option. Information Symposium 2. Tampa Bay Regional Planning
Council, St. Petersburg, Florida. Tampa Bay Estuary Program. 2000. Seagrass Management:
It’s not just nutrients! Tampa Bay Estuary Program
References Johansson, J.O.R. and H.S. Greening. 1999. Seagrass Technical Publication # 04-02. Tampa Bay Estuary Program,
restoration in Tampa Bay: A resource-based approach to St. Petersburg, FL 257 pp.
Calleja, M.L., N. Marba, and C.M. Duarte. 2007. The estuarine management, p. 279–293. In S. A. Bortone (ed.),
relationship between seagrass (Posidona oceanica) decline Seagrasses: Monitoring, Ecology, Physiology, and Tomasko, D.A., Corbett, C.A., Greening, H.S., Raulerson, G.E.,
and pore-water sulfde pools in carbonate sediments. Management. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. 2005. Spatial and temporal variation in seagrass coverage in
Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 73: 583-588. Southwest Florida: assessing the relative effects of
anthropogenic nutrient load reduction and rainfall in four
contiguous estuaries. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 50: 797-805.

100 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [08] Ecological Uplift Through Engineering – Tidal Circulation and Old Tampa Bay 101
 Abstract
This paper details an innovative approach to ground gas risk assessment
using a statistical approach in the fault tree analysis applied to an
Bala Palananthakumar operational electrical substation compound in the south of England.
PhD, BSc.Eng (Hons), CSci,
C.WEM, MCIWEM
Senior Environmental The site is one of the most complicated brownfeld sites operated by
Engineer, Contaminated National Grid. Historical maps indicated that, prior to development, a
Land and Hydrogeology landfll crossed the site boundary near a substation. The ground
Infrastructure
Epsom, UK
investigations undertaken by Atkins and others at the site had identifed
elevated concentrations of ground gases (both methane and carbon
dioxide) in the vicinity of and directly beneath the relay room of
substation.

Atkins has recently reassessed this site using additional continuous

monitoring of ground gas (including gas fow) collected using the latest
available technology and by applying a statistical approach involving
Environmental Engineering and Ecology 09 probability density functions of gas data as recommended in the latest
guidance. This has reduced the level of conservatism in the previous
assessment and increased confdence in the estimated risk level such
Continuous Monitoring and a Statistical Kristian Fox
MSci MSc FGS
that the ground gas risk has been demonstrated to be acceptably low. As
a consequence, the requirement for ongoing gas control and mitigation
Approach to Ground Gas Risk
Hydrogeologist,
Contaminated Land and measures has been shown to be unnecessary enabling closure of the
Hydrogeology project and the lifting of operational controls.
Assessment at a Substation Site Infrastructure
Epsom, UK

Keywords
Ground gas; Methane; Quantitative risk assessment; Fault tree analysis;
Continuous monitoring

Philip Harrison Jonathan Steeds

MEng (Hons) CEng, MICE BSc (Hons), CSci, CEnv,
NECReg FCIWEM, MCIWM, SiLC
Principal Consultant, Technical Director,
Contaminated Land and Contaminated Land and
Hydrogeology Hydrogeology
Infrastructure Infrastructure
London, UK Epsom, UK
 assessing risk on gassing sites is to apply a fault tree Table 1: Potential Pollutant Linkages
analysis which provides a numerical estimate of the risk (i.e.
a probability that an adverse effect will occur in any year or Source Receptor Pathway
other specifed period).
Methane On site workers Migration of
produced from at the 132kV methane from
This paper details an innovative approach to ground gas risk
biodegradable compound the ground into
assessment using fault tree analysis as applied to an
material within the building,
operational electrical substation compound in the south of
the landfll under Plant and building accumulation
England.
and adjacent to structure of the within confned
the site. 132kv compound spaces followed
by ignition leading
2. Conceptual Site Model (CSM)
to an explosion.
The site is approximately 1.02 ha and includes three
electrical substation compounds (400 kV, 132 kV and 33 kV)
operated by National Grid as shown in Figure 1. The site is 3. The Challenge
underlain by Made Ground (including in part a historically
The site had been characterised by a series of historical
inflled gravel pit) and Superfcial Deposits (Glaciofuvial
ground investigations and assessments undertaken since
sandy clay) over the Holywell Nodular Chalk Formation as
the earliest pre-construction investigation in 1966.
shown in Figure 2.
Monitoring locations within the historical landfll, which is
considered to be the potential source of ground gas, had
Gravel pits were identifed both on site and extending to the
reported methane concentrations between 41.8 and 97.2%
north of the site on historical maps prior to 1964 and were
v/v. Boreholes located next to the relay room of the 132kV
inflled with landfll waste prior to construction of the 132kV
substation (i.e. HW02 as shown in Figure 3, along the
substation compound in 1972. The waste types input into
potential migration pathway of ground gas) had reported
this historical landfll are listed on the UK Environment
lower methane concentrations up to 16.2% v/v but which
Agency website as inert, industrial, commercial and
still exceeded the LEL (5% v/v).
domestic.
Continuous gas monitoring was undertaken for a period of
Biodegradable materials such as domestic refuse, wood and
three months under the foor slab of the 132 kV building
paper which had been identifed within the infll materials
relay room (at the receptor) in 2013. Methane was
are capable of generating landfll gas including methane.
measured above the LEL, up to 29.3% v/v, directly beneath
Therefore, there was potential for ground gas to migrate
the slab. The estimated risk of methane explosion (using
through the ground and then via gaps or cracks in the foor
95th percentile site conditions and applying forward
construction and accumulate in the buildings on site. If
modelling method as per Construction Industry Research
methane concentrations exceed the Lower Explosive Limit
and Information Association (CIRIA) Report 152 (O’Riordan,
(LEL) of 5% v/v. within a building or confned space such as
et al., 1995) identifed a potential annual frequency of an
an electrical cabinet, then this has the potential to ignite.
explosion event to be outside of a ‘tolerable risk range’.
1. Introduction The resulting explosion could cause damage to the structure
and its contents and, if the building is occupied, injury or
Microbiological breakdown of organic matter in soil or UK Government policy for managing risks associated with even loss of life.
landfll generates ground gas. The term ground gas (also ground gas is that it should be achieved primarily through
called ‘soil gas’ and ‘landfll gas’) refers to a combination of the planning and building control process when sites are The potential pollutant linkage of the source-pathway-
bulk gases such as methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2); redeveloped. Where sites are not likely to be dealt with as receptor is presented in Table 1.
and trace gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen part of redevelopment in a reasonable timescale, local
sulphide (H2S) and hydrogen (H2). The most commonly authorities can use the powers granted to them under Part
recognised hazards and effects of ground gas are its 2A of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 to assess risks
fammable (or explosive) properties, physiological effects posed by sites and ensure that they are remediated where
(toxicity, asphyxiation, cell damage), odour, effects on necessary (Wilson, et al., 2009).
vegetation and contribution to global warming (Wilson, et
al., 2007). Historically there have also been incidents of Sites that are being assessed under Part 2A of the
methane migrating from ground gas sources such as Environmental Protection Act 1990 are likely to require a
landflls and coal mines and causing explosions in the UK quantitative assessment to provide scientifcally robust
(Fergusion W, 2005). evidence that the site meets the legal criteria to be
classifed as statutory contaminated land under the Part 2A
regime. The most commonly used method of quantitatively Figure 1: Site layout

Continuous Monitoring and a Statistical Approach to Ground Gas Risk Assessment at a Substation Site 105
 A total of seven weeks of continuous monitoring (at hourly
intervals) was carried out from April to June 2019 at two
locations on site (indoor and outdoor as shown in Figure 3).
The outdoor unit was attached directly to an existing
monitoring location (borehole HW02) along the potential
ground gas migration pathway as shown in Figure 6. The
indoor unit was attached to the same sub-slab monitoring
location as shown in Figure 5 (at the receptor) that was used
previously for continuous gas concentration monitoring in
2018.

The supplementary investigation also included three rounds

of conventional spot monitoring at six locations (BH01,
BH02, BH04A, HW01, HW02, and the indoor sub-slab
location as shown in Figure 3) across the site using a hand-
Figure 2: Schematic diagram of conceptual site model held GA5000 gas analyser unit during the same period as
the continuous monitoring was undertaken.

5. Supplementary Monitoring Results

Statistical summaries of the continuous and spot monitoring
results for 2019 are presented in Table 2 and Table 3
respectively. It can be seen that the methane concentrations
and gas fow rates below the building (indoor sub slab) were
generally lower than those recorded in boreholes adjacent
to the building. The exception was BH02 which was located
adjacent to the south-west of the building and further from
the historical landfll and ground gas source. Continuous
monitoring at the indoor (sub-slab) location identifed
methane concentrations to be in good agreement with
previous monitoring undertaken in 2018 (average 0.6%vol.
and maximum 1.7%vol.) and was signifcantly lower than the
concentrations reported in 2013.

Figure 3: Supplementary gas monitoring locations Figure 4: Venting cowls installed around the perimeter of the relay room
building Figure 5: Sub-slab monitoring (Indoor)

As a result of the potential risk identifed from ground gas, a Further, the gas alarm installed above the sub-slab also had 4. The Solution
temporary gas alarm was installed within the sub-foor void not reported methane concentrations above 20% of the LEL.
of the relay room on a precautionary basis and an To resolve the challenge, Atkins undertook a programme of
emergency plan was implemented. This arrangement Although some of these gas monitoring results indicated supplementary gas monitoring, which included innovative
remained operational for over fve years from May 2014. that the likelihood of the pollutant linkages being realised continuous gas monitoring (including gas fow rates) and
was low, the risk from ground gas was not able to be conventional spot monitoring, to inform an unconventional
Meanwhile, following a remediation appraisal undertaken for discounted due to the lack of gas fow monitoring from detailed quantitative risk assessment (QRA).
the site, four venting cowls were installed connected to gas beneath the building and the inherent conservatism of the
wells and extended to above roof level around the conventional risk assessment methodology. The continuous monitoring was undertaken using the
perimeter of the relay room building in 2017 to mitigate the Ambisense GasfuX™, which is the world’s frst device able
risk from the possible accumulation of elevated The challenge was to understand better the residual risks to to monitor real time continuous gas and fow including
concentrations of ground gas (as shown in Figure 4). site users and to reduce or remove the operational costs, ambient conditions such as barometric pressure,
disruption and administration complexities involved in temperature and humidity (Ambisense). The in-built
In 2018, the sub-slab monitoring of the relay room reported maintaining the gas alarm, either through physical technology of telemetry in the device enables access to the
a maximum methane concentration of 1.7% v/v, which was remediation or further detailed risk assessment based on monitoring data remotely and to check whether critical
signifcantly lower than the concentrations reported in 2013. additional gas monitoring data. pressure drops have been achieved. Figure 6: Borehole monitoring (Outdoor)

106 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [09] Continuous Monitoring and a Statistical Approach to Ground Gas Risk Assessment at a Substation Site 107
Table 2: Statistical Summary of Continuous Monitoring Results, 2019 (Ambisense, GasfuX™). 7. Continuous Monitoring Results: Initial 7.2. Critical Pressure Drops
Assessment Rates of ground gas emission are likely to be highest when
Monitoring Number of Methane (%vol.) Flow (l/hr) there are sharp and/or large falls in barometric pressure.
Location Readings 7.1. Gas Screening Values
The latest Contaminated Land: Applications in Real
Environments (CL:AIRE) guidance (Wilson S., 2018)
Average Maximum Average Maximum
Figure 7 presents the continuous gas monitoring results and proposes that a critical pressure drop occurs when the rate
Outdoor (borehole 994 3.2 7.0 0.11 2.09 gas screening values (GSVs) calculated as per the modifed and duration of a pressure drop fall within a ‘worst case
HW02) Wilson and Card methodology (Wilson, et al., 2009) for both zone’. It is recommended that continuous monitoring should
the outdoor (borehole) and indoor (sub-slab) monitoring ideally be undertaken to capture at least two signifcant
Indoor (sub-slab) 868 0.6 2.0 <0.01 0.48
locations. This method uses the following formula to barometric events (Talbot S., 2019). A signifcant barometric
calculate the GSV and can be extended to continuous event is when a critical pressure drop occurs.
Table 3: Statistical Summary of Spot Monitoring, 2019 (Gas Analyser, GA5000). monitoring data.
The pressure drops that occurred during the indoor (sub
Monitoring Number of Methane (%vol.) Flow (l/hr) GSV (l/hr) = gas fow rate (l/hr) x gas concentration (%vol.) slab) monitoring period on different time-scales ranging
Location Readings from one hour (short term) to two days (long term), were
The characteristic situation (CS) rating based on the also compared against the worst case zone associated with
Average Maximum Average Maximum calculated continuous monitoring data GSVs demonstrated the critical pressure drop presented in the CL:AIRE guidance
Outdoor (HW02) 3 4.1 6.5 <0.1 <0.1 that at least 12% of the monitoring period was CS2, which (Wilson S., 2018) as shown in Figure 8. It clearly showed that
implies low risk but still requires gas protection measures the worst-case zone was encountered during the latest
Indoor (sub-slab) 1 1.0 1.0 <0.1 <0.1
to be incorporated into new developments (British Standard, continuous gas monitoring period as recommended in the
BH01 3 1.6 2.4 <0.1 0.1 2019). latest CL:AIRE guidance (Talbot S., 2019); therefore, the
BH02 3 0.3 0.6 <0.1 0.1 continuous monitoring data were considered to be suffcient
to support a robust ground gas risk assessment.
BH04A 3 3.3 4.2 <0.1 0.1
HW01 3 8.4 9.1 <0.1 0.1

6. Continuous Monitoring Validation was some discrepancy between the fow readings for the
outdoor (HW02) location. This may refect actual changes in
Spot monitoring data and continuous monitoring data for the ground gas fow regime during the 25-minutes between
outdoor (HW02) and indoor (sub slab) locations were readings. Alternatively, this may be due to inherent
compared for quality assurance purposes. Table 4 differences in the accuracy of the two monitoring systems
demonstrates the good level of agreement between with the continuous monitoring system reporting a higher
conventional spot monitoring and continuous monitoring gas fow reading which can be assumed to be more
undertaken at the site. Flow readings taken on the GA5000 conservative.
(spot monitoring) have a resolution of 0.1 l/hr whereas the
Ambisense GasfuX™ unit has a resolution of 0.01 l/hr. There

Table 4: Continuous Monitoring Validation.

Location Date Spot monitoring Continuous monitoring

Time Methane Flow (l/hr) Time Methane Flow (l/hr) Figure 8: Indoor monitoring record: pressure drops against ‘worst-case zone’.
(%vol.) (%vol.)
Outdoor 2 May 2019 11:00 6.5 <0.1 11:25 5.83 0.70 8. Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA)
(HW02)
While the calculated GSVs (shown in Figure 7) are useful for
Indoor (sub 2 May 2019 11:40 1.0 <0.1 11:58 0.72 0.08 initial screening of potential gas risks, GSVs do not assess
slab) quantitatively the risk posed by extreme events which are
unlikely to occur in a given monitoring period. Under the
acceptability of risk presented in the CIRIA report (Wilson, et
al., 2007), an event causing total loss of life is considered to
Figure 7: Indoor (sub-slab) and outdoor (borehole) continuous gas monitoring
results be of little concern if it has an annual likelihood of less than
1 x 10-7 (one in 10 million years). Therefore, a robust
detailed QRA was undertaken to assess the risk.

108 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [09] Continuous Monitoring and a Statistical Approach to Ground Gas Risk Assessment at a Substation Site 109
Only methane was considered in this assessment because Table 5: Parameters of Good Fit PDFs
the maximum recorded carbon dioxide concentration
beneath the building (6.9% v/v) was signifcantly below the Probability Parameter Value Parameter Value
concentration at which it potentially becomes fatal by
Density Function
asphyxiation or by intoxication (22% v/v) (Wilson, et al.,
2009). In addition, the explosive risks posed by methane are (PDF)
more acute and occur at lower concentrations, which have Normal Mean (µ) 0.00043 Standard Deviation (σ) 0.00068
previously been exceeded beneath the building. Therefore,
assessing methane gas risks was considered to be Log Normal Mean Log (µ) -8.8 Standard Deviation 1.7
suffciently precautionary to also address the risk from Log (σ)
carbon dioxide at this site. Gamma Rate (θ) 1400 Shape (α) 0.6
Exponential Rate (λ) 2300 Specifc-case of the gamma probability density
The most commonly used method of quantitatively
function with shape parameter = 1)
assessing risk on gassing sites is that described in the CIRIA Figure 9: Development of fault tree.
Report (O’Riordan, et al., 1995). This uses a combination of Weibull Shape (k) 0.21 Scale (λ) 0.1
forward modelling (to evaluate the gas concentration at the
receptor) and fault tree analysis to provide a numerical 8.1.1. Statistical Approach: Application of Probability
estimate of the risk (i.e. a probability that an adverse effect Density Function (PDF) By comparing a set of fve PDFs with a histogram and The threshold for a yellow alert under the current gas alarm
will occur in any year or other specifed period) given by: empirical density function of the observed data (as shown in system is a methane concentration of 1% vol. Given a 1 m x
The probability of failure to ventilate the building adequately
Figure 10), the gamma distribution (with shape parameter 1 m x1 m cabinet and an air exchange rate of once per day, a
was derived using a statistical approach made possible by
Risk = (frequency of exposure to hazard) x (probability of 0.6 and rate parameter 1400) was identifed to be the best minimum methane gas infow of 0.4 l/hr is required to
the collection of continuous gas fow and methane
hazard occurring) ft PDF. exceed the yellow alert threshold of 1%vol. Gas migration
concentration data from the sub-slab monitoring location.
into the cabinet is assumed to be through a 2 mm crack
Under this approach, a set of PDFs (such as exponential,
The method used in this assessment varied from the extending around the perimeter of the cabinet base.
normal, log normal, gamma, Weibull) were ftted to the
method described in CIRIA report (O’Riordan, et al., 1995) Comparison of this 0.008 m2 crack with the cross-sectional
methane fow rate (i.e. product of gas fow rate and methane
and included backward modelling (to evaluate the gas fow area of the indoor (sub slab) monitoring location (0.002 m2)
concentration,) which is equivalent to the continuous GSV of
required to result in ventilation failure) and the statistical results in a critical fow of 0.1 l/hr. This approach is
methane in Figure 7.
approach of considering the PDFs for gas fow based on the considered more robust than applying Pickson’s law
latest guidance (Wilson, et al., 2009) and Atkins’ extensive (Peckson G.N, 1985) because it directly compares like-for-
Each of the probability density functions can be specifed by
experience of undertaking gas risk assessments. like sub-slab ground gas ingress and avoids assumptions
one or two parameters, for example the PDF of normal
about an external borehole area of infuence.
distribution P(x) is described by a mean (µ) and a standard
8.1. Fault Tree Analysis deviation (σ) as follows:
This critical fow rate can be compared to the probability
A fault tree is developed by working backwards from the density functions ftted to the continuous monitoring data.
hazard or undesirable event (the top event) and listing in Based on the best ftting (gamma) probability density
reverse order the things that must happen for the hazard to function, the probability of exceeding the critical fow rate is
be realised (contributory events). This continues until a basic Similarly, PDFs of other distributions are given by: 1.1 x 10-63.
event is arrived at where no further events can be
Figure 10: Indoor (sub-slab) methane GSV histogram and probability density
developed. The events in a fault tree are connected by logic Exponential distribution functions.
gates. Probabilities are estimated for the sub events and 8.1.3.Frequency of Ignition
then the overall probability of the top event (i.e. methane Gamma distribution 8.1.2. Failure to Ventilate Adequately In the context of the site, this has been assumed to be a
cloud present) occurring can be estimated as shown in spark from a malfunction in the automatic operation of the
The sensitive receptor considered for this detailed QRA is a
Figure 9. Weibull distribution electrical equipment control cabinets within the building. It
1 m x1 m x1 m cabinet, such as the electrical control
cabinets present within the relay room building. These are is conservatively assumed that such a spark event would
The fault tree analysis aimed to determine the probability of Where λ and θ are rate parameters; and α and κ are shape occur once a week and therefore the frequency of ignition is
opened infrequently for maintenance operations only and
an undesirable event (i.e. explosion from methane) occurring parameters. assumed to be 52 times in a year. Using a frequency in the
are therefore not routinely ventilated. However, the cabinets
based on estimates for the likelihood or frequency of fault tree analysis means the resulting calculation will also
are not air-tight and therefore it can be expected that some
independent, but necessary conditions (contributory events) Appropriate selection of these parameters is required to ‘ft’ be expressed per unit of time.
air exchange will take place with air in the wider building.
arising. For the purposes of this assessment, a number of the probability density function to the dataset. The optimal
contributory events to a potential explosion were considered parameters were estimated by maximising the Guidance in CIRIA Report 152 (O’Riordan, et al., 1995)
including: corresponding likelihood function. For the normal, log- 8.1.4.Probability of Occupation
estimates the air exchange rate of an unventilated space
normal and exponential distributions likelihood functions with an access door (as with the electrical cabinet receptor) Anecdotal evidence from the current site manager indicated
> probability of ventilation failure; were maximised analytically, whereas for the gamma and to be one air change per hour. However, for the reasons that the site was not continuously occupied. It was
> frequency of ignition; and Weibull functions they were maximised numerically. The given above, the air exchange rate has been conservatively suggested that the typical frequency of visits to the site
maximum likelihood parameters for each of the probability assumed to be closer to that of an unventilated space with would be once a week for a typical period of an hour
> probability of occupation.
density functions are presented in Table 5. well-sealed doors and windows, i.e. one air change per day. (equivalent to an occupancy of 0.006). For this assessment a

110 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [09] Continuous Monitoring and a Statistical Approach to Ground Gas Risk Assessment at a Substation Site 111
conservative assumption has been made, based on the 9. Conclusion
possibility of repair or maintenance works, that occupation
could be up to one eight hour day a week (equivalent to an The combination of using a statistical and fault tree analysis
occupancy of 0.05). approach and use of the innovative continuous gas
monitoring technology, conclusively demonstrated that
8.2. Risk of Explosion Event there was not an unacceptable risk of methane explosion
within the relay room building. Therefore, Atkins was able to
From a combination of all the above contributory events, the
recommend that the existing monitoring activities and other
annual probability of a methane explosion event that would
control measures including a temporary gas alarm system
result in harm to human health was calculated as 2.7 x 10-63
could safely be discontinued at the site.
(1 in 3.6 x 1062 years).

According to the CIRIA guidance (Wilson, et al., 2007), an

event such as a methane explosion in an occupied building,
Acknowledgement
that has the potential for loss of life, is considered to be of The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of National
little concern if it has an annual likelihood of less than 1 in Grid Property Holdings Limited for this project.
10 million years. Events with an annual likelihood less than
1 in 100 million years are considered to be of no concern.
Therefore, this assessment suggests that there is not an References
unacceptable risk from methane explosion within the relay
room building. Ambisense. [Online] [Cited: 01 April 2020.] https://
ambisense.net/gasfux/.
8.3. Sensitive Analysis: Choice of Probability Density
Function British Standard. 2019. BS 8485:2015+A1:2019 : Code of
practice for the design of protective measures for methane
The choice of which probability distribution best represents
and carbon dioxide ground gases for new buildings. s.l. :
the data is subjective and while probabilities may be similar
British Standard, 2019.
for likely events (typical GSVs) the choice of probability
distribution can have large impacts on the probabilities of
Fergusion W, and Palananthakumar B. 2005. A fully coupled
more extreme events (very high GSVs) in the tail of the
fnite element model of landfll gas migration in a partially
distribution. The best ftting probability density function
saturated soil. Computer Modeling in Engineering and
(gamma) has been used in this assessment and sensitivity
Sciences. 2005, Vol. 8, 3.
analysis has been undertaken on the impact of selecting the
normal and exponential distributions with results presented
O’Riordan, N J and Milloy, C J. 1995. Risk Assessment for
in Table 6.
methane and other gases from the ground. CIRIA Report
152. ISBN 0-86017-434-4. 1995.

Peckson G.N. 1985. Methane and development of derelict

land. s.l. : London Scientifc Services, 1985.

Talbot S., Card G. 2019. Technical Bulletin 18: Continuous

Ground-Gas Monitoring and the Lines of Evidence Approach
to Risk Assessment. s.l. : CL:AIRE, 2019.

Wilson S., Card G., Collins F. and Lucas, J. 2018. Technical

Bulletin 17. Ground Gas Monitoring and ‘Worst Case’
The sensitivity analysis indicates that the result (annual Conditions. London, UK : CL:AIRE, 2018.
probability of methane explosion resulting in harm to human
health) is sensitive to the choice of the underlying probability Wilson, S, Card, G and Haines, S. 2009. Ground Gas
density function. However, the best-ft probability density Handbook. ISBN 978-1904445-68-5. 2009.
function (gamma) is also the most conservative, which
supports the use of the gamma distribution to model Wilson, S., et al. 2007. Assessing risks posed by hazardous
methane GSV in the main assessment. ground gases to buildings. CIRIA C665. 2007.

112 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [09] Continuous Monitoring and a Statistical Approach to Ground Gas Risk Assessment at a Substation Site 113
 Abstract
Historically, bored piles have been used very seldomly in Denmark as the
Danish Codes and Regulations have required that only 30% of the
calculated skin friction may be used for the characteristic bearing
capacity. Over the past 5-10 years, there has been growing consensus
that this is incorrect for cased bored piles. For bored piles in sand there
has been no method for determining the bearing capacity so bored piles
Morten Carøe Rasmussen are not normally used in Denmark and never in frictional materials. At a
M.Sc. Ph.D.
project in Aarhus Denmark, full displacement bored Fundex piles, a new
Geotechnical Engineering 10 Senior Specialist method in Denmark, was suggested by Keller Funderingsteknik Danmark.
Broer & Konstruktioner Atkins was asked to develop a method to determine the ultimate load
Aarhus, Denmark bearing capacity for the production piles by evaluating the CPT- tests

New Piling Method in Denmark carried out and compare these with the results of 4 static load tests
carried out in different areas in the construction excavation. The method
needed to take into account the unloading of the area as excavation for a
basement was carried out after installation and testing of the test piles.

Keywords
Bored piles; Static load test; Bearing capacity; CPT tests; Fundex piles
 capacity of the production piles based upon the CPT tests The foundation principle was to install piles in the sand/
conducted, the results of the static load tests and the gravel formation to reduce settlements.
unloading after the tests were carried out.
For the project a total of 15 boreholes and 12 CPT tests
were carried out. The results of the density of the sand
2. Soil Conditions formation was variable so it was decided to locate the 4 test
piles for static load testing in different areas of the
The soil conditions were similar over the complete construction site.
construction area, but the relative density of the sand layers
differed considerably across the construction pit. The piles were installed and tested from an excavated level
of +1,1 mAOD.
The soil conditions at the location were:
In the fnal situation the base slab should be cast at level
+2,6 - -1,4 Fill with peat layers -1,9 mAOD and have a thickness of 0,6 m corresponding to
an unloading of the underlying soil of:
-1,4 - -5,5 Clay/silt post glacial (w≈70%)
Δσ’=-(1,1-0,4)∙18-(0,4+1,9)∙9+14∙0,6
-5,5 - -11,5 Sand/gravel Postglacial
=24,9 kN/m²
-11,5 - Clay Tertiary

The ground water level is expected in +0,4.

Figure 1: The drilling rig for Fundex piles.

1. Introduction
The calculated bearing capacity of bored piles in Denmark is For this project driven piles were not an option, as driving
usually determined as the geostatic determined bearing was not allowed due to adjacent buildings founded on
capacity with a reduction to only 30% of the skin friction in spread foundations on very loose sand with layers of peat.
cohesive layers. For frictional material the bearing capacity Any vibrations could lead to compaction of the soil below Figure 2: The drilling rig for Fundex piles.
for driven piles shall be determined using the driving the footings of the adjacent buildings resulting in
resistance during installation and the “Danish driving settlement.
formula” to determine the bearing capacity. That is not
possible for bored piles. So, in accordance with Danish The project in the centre of Aarhus contains a 6-story
Codes it is not possible to determine the pile bearing building with a basement.
capacity for displacement piles.
For reduction of vibrations during installation, Keller
As an estimate of the bearing capacity of driven piles in suggested installation as full displacement driven Fundex
friction material the results of CPT tests are normally used. piles with toe level in sand. As there is no approved method
for determining the bearing capacity in Denmark, Atkins was
asked to develop a method to determine the bearing

New Piling Method in Denmark 117

3. Full Displacement Piles 4. The Test Piles 5. Determination of the Bearing Capacity q(c,red)=qc σ’red/σ’

The full displacement piles that were installed were Fundex A total of 4 test piles were installed. The installation data In Denmark, there is no method for estimating the bearing The bearing capacity that is derived from the above is a
560/440 mm, where the tip has a diameter of 560 mm, for each of the piles and the representative borehole/CPT capacity for Fundex piles. Furthermore, there is no measured/calculated pile bearing capacity. The
while the casing has a diameter of 440 mm. When the toe is test are shown in Table 1 “standard” method to estimate the bearing capacity for a characteristic bearing capacity can then according to DS/
drilled to the fnal toe level a reinforcement cage is installed driven pile in sand based upon the results of CPT tests. EN1997-1 DK NA:2020 [3], be determined as:
inside the casing after which the casing is retrieved while
Pile 1 Pile 2 Pile 3 Pile 4
the pile is flled with concrete. The concrete level in the pile In Atkins Denmark, our experience has shown a correlation R(c,k)=R(c,m)/ξ
bore is always above the tip level of the casing to avoid Top [m] +1,1 between tip resistance, qc, and bearing capacity of the pile,
infow of soil material. The method for installation is shown Length 8,0 9,5 9,5 7,5 qpile of: For the test pile itself ξ is 1,1. For the piles where the test
in Figure 2. [m] pile is representative ξ=1,25 and for other piles ξ=1,5.
qc/qpile =1,1 for qc = 10 MPa
Toe [m] -7,0 -8,5 -8,5 -6,5 For this project, with minimal experience with Fundex piles,
Width 0,56 qc/qpile =2,0 for qc = 30 MPa ξ=1,5 was used for all production piles.
[m]
Kempert & Becker [1] have evaluated the bearing capacity The design bearing capacity is determined as:
Future -1,9
of a driven based upon CPT. They have also evaluated the
level [m]
bearing capacity of Fundex piles. Atkins correlation (orange) R(c,d)=R(c,k)/γt , hvor γt= 1,3.
Profle CPT6 CPT12A CPT10 CPT7 for driven piles, Kempert & Becker’s correlation for driven
piles (yellow) and K&B’s correlation for Fundex piles (blue)
The soil conditions near each of the test piles were are all shown in Figure 5. 6. Results of Static Load Tests
evaluated. At each location the tip resistance of the CPT test
near the toe to 3x (Diameter of pile) = 3 x 0,56 ≈ 1,5 m was 16 Four static load tests were carried out at four different
evaluated and a mean and a cautious mean value was 14 locations in the excavation area. At each location the mean
determined. As an example, the CPT result for CPT12A, 12
and cautious mean value was determined for the
near test pile no. 2 is shown in Figure 4. representative CPT tests carried out.
10

q_pile [MPa]
8

6
Pile 1 Pile 2 Pile 3 Pile 4
4 Toe [m] -7,0 -8,5 -8,5 -6,5
Figure 3:The tip of the Fundex pile. 2
qc,mean 12,5 15,0 14,0 4,0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
[MPa]
q_c [MPa]
The tip of the piles, see Figure 3, are left in place. The gap DK - Driven piles K. & B. - Dirven piles K. & B. - Fundex piles
qc,cau 11,0 12,5 12,5 3,0
between the soil and the casing is flled with concrete, as
Figure 5: Correlation between qc and qpile for driven and Fundex piles Table 2: Tie tip resistance at the location of the test piles.
the casing is always flled with 2-3 m more concrete than
outside. This to ensure that the concrete will push out and
to avoid infow of soil material, which will “destroy” the pile. When evaluating the bearing capacity, it is necessary to be
aware of the stress level in the sand. Both the CPT tests and The test piles were loaded in 3 load cycles. After each load
The installation method will give a tip diameter of 560 mm, the static load tests were carried out from level +1,1, while cycle the pile was unloaded and the settlement of the pile
while the shaft pile diameter will be between 440 and 560 the fnal excavation level is -1,9. This will reduce the bearing could be determined (No elastic settlement when the pile is
mm. In sand, the shaft diameter is most likely 440mm, while capacity of the piles as the effective stress is reduced. unloaded).
in hard clay the shaft diameter is expected to be According to NGI [2] the correlation between qc and σ’ can
approximately 560mm since in the brief period between be determined as: In Denmark, failure in a pile is determined as the load where
drilling and casting of the pile, the clay will be able to hold the pile has a settlement of 10% of the diameter of the pile,
without support. Nq=qc/σ’ when unloaded or the load that gives a deformation rate of
20 mm/hour. The deformation rate was not reached in the
In the current project, the piles are installed in sand and Nq=tan2(45+φ’/2) e(π⁄3+4φ’) tan(φ’) load tests carried out.
hence are end bearing piles. The bearing capacity was
therefore determined based on a tip diameter of 560 mm or qc is measured and σ’ can be calculated. With those known, For Fundex piles, the tip diameter is 560 mm and the shaft
Atip = 246300 mm². the friction angle of the sand can be determined. The friction diameter minimum 440 mm. The failure criteria are then
angle and Nq will not change due to unloading. This makes it somewhere between 44 and 56 mm. We have conservatively
possible to determine the bearing capacity of a pile after used 44 mm deformation as failure criteria.
unloading. The excavation after testing can therefore be
considered as a reduction of qc. This reduction can be
Figure 4: The tip resistance near test pile no.2 - CPT12A
determined as:

118 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [10] New Piling Method in Denmark 119
 Each load cycle contained several load steps. For each test
Pile 1 Pile 2 Pile 3 Pile 4 Pile 1 Pile 2 Pile 3 Pile 4 9. What Have We Learned?
pile the load-displacement curve (Working curve) was
produced. As an example, the working curve for test pile no. Fpile [kN] 1800 >2000 2000 914 Fpile [kN] 1800 2100 2000 914 The results from the static load tests show that it is possible
2 is shown in Figure 6. to evaluate and determine the bearing capacity of full
qpile,meas 7,31 8,53 8,12 3,70
≈2100 displacement bored Fundex piles in sand, if CPT tests have
[MPa]
Load [kN]
been carried out on site.
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 qpile 7,3 >8,1 8,1 3,7
00
[MPa] qc,meas 10,08 13,25 12,11 3,47
02
8,5 [MPa] If the soil conditions vary on site it is necessary to carry out
a larger number of tests to ensure that all “soft areas” are
σ’ins [kPa] 87,5 101 101 83
located. Furthermore, it is necessary to undertake a
04

The results of inserting the qpile vs qc for the test piles into
σ’red [kPa] 62,5 76,1 76,1 58,1
Settlement [mm]

comprehensive verifcation of the drilling journals to make

Figure 5 are shown in Figure 8.
06

qc,meas,red 7,2 9,98 9,12 2,43 sure that all piles are installed in the expected soil types.
08
[MPa]
It will be recommended to carry out static load tests for the
16
10
qpile,red 6,16 7,27 7,0 2,81
14
frst projects to verify that the established qc vs qpile
12
[MPa]
12
correlation is also appropriate for new projects.
14
10 Fpile,red 1517 1791 1724 692

q_pile [MPa]
Figure 6: Load displacement curve - Test pile no.2. 8 [kN] The test setup for one of the test piles is depicted in Figure
10.
6
Fk [kN] 1379 1628 1567 629
Each load step should be maintained until the settlement
Fd [kN] 1061 1252 1206 484
4

rate was reducing for a signifcant time interval. This was 2

not the case for some of the load increments. This was 0
For the production piles the safety factor is higher ξ=1,5
taken into account in the estimate of the bearing capacity. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

instead of 1,1. The design pile bearing capacity was

Driven piles - DK Driven piles - K&B
q_c [MPa]
Fundex pi les - K&B Ø560
Correlation for fundex piles on the actual project
determined according to the graph shown in Figure 9.
Based upon the settlements for each unloading, the bearing Figure 8: The qpile vs qc relation for the test piles.
capacity plots are drawn and shown in Figure 7. 2500

50 As shown, the test results are better for the actual project 2000

45 than given by Kempert & Becker, but less than the bearing
Plastic deformations [mm]

40 capacity for driven piles. 1500

F_pile [kN]
35
30
That makes sense, as no dynamic compaction of the soil 1000

25
takes place during installation.
20 500

15
10 In the actual project it was decided to use 80% of the
0

5 expected correlation for driven piles in Denmark. This 0 5 10 15

q_c [MPa]
20 25 30 35
Figure 10: Possible test setup.
0 correlation is shown in Figure 8 as the “black” line. As Measured bearing capacity Design bearing capacity, F_d

0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 demonstrated, it suitably corresponds to the test results.
Load [kN]
Figure 9: The design bearing capacity for Fundex piles in sand.
Acknowledgements
Figure 7: The bearing capacity plots of the four test piles.
The test results and geotechnical information was provided
7. The Bearing Capacity of the Test Piles 8. Production Piles by Keller Funderingsteknik Aps, Jesper Petersen.
The test setup was limited to a maximum test load of 2000 After Excavation During installation of the test pile, a full drilling journal
kN.
As previously described, an excavation to -1,9 was carried showing drilling speed, torque and rotation speed are made
and forwarded to the Consultant for approval. References
Figure 7 shows that failure was reached for test piles P1 and out after the tests had been conducted. This will reduce the
P4, while failure was not reached for piles P2 and P3. bearing capacity. [1]B. Wrana. Pile load capacity – calculation methods,
For the production piles it is necessary to verify that the
Studia et Mechanica, vol 37, No.4, pp 83-93, 2015.
The design bearing capacity of the test piles are determined same behaviour is found in all drilling journals as received
The settlement curves are very fat until very close to
in Table 4. for the test piles.
failure, where the settlement increases rapidly. [2]NGI Publikasjon nr. 156, Lunne & Christoffersen,1985
In case one shows a different result than expected, the pile
The bearing capacity of the four piles are summarized in [3]DS EN1997-1 + DK NA:2020 Eurocode 7 – Del 1:
shall be further investigated before being approved.
Table 3. Generelle regler

120 SNC-Lavalin Technical Journal 2020 | Volume 2, Issue 2 [10] New Piling Method in Denmark 121
Contact information
Akshaye Sikand
Manager, Knowledge Management
Akshaye.Sikand@snclavalin.com

© SNC-Lavalin except where stated otherwise.

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