Revise CAPS

History Study Guide

2021
GRADE 12 HISTORY

Brian Mathews
 Preparing for the examination
The History examination at the end of the year consists of two papers. There are six questions per paper,
and you are required to answer three questions as follows: One source-based question, one essay and the
third question could either be a source-based question or an essay.
To ensure that you have the best chance of doing well, you will need to study at least four topics for each paper
thoroughly.

Paper 1/ Source –based questions

Question 1: The origin of the Cold War

Question 2: Angola
Question 3: The Civil Rights Movement

Paper 1/Essays

Question 4: Vietnam

Question 5: Congo: Political, economic and social challenges after independence

Question 6: The Black Power Movement in the USA

Paper 2/Source-based questions

Question 1: The internal resistance against Apartheid

Question 2: The TRC
Question 3: Globalization

Paper 2/ Essays

Question 4: The Black Consciousness Movement and the Soweto Uprising

Question 5: Road to democracy
Question 6: The impact of the collapse of communism on SA

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 How to work with sources
There are two main kinds of sources.
(1) Primary sources – evidence produced during the period of the historical event that is studied.
(2) Secondary sources – evidence that is produced after the actual historical event occurred.

What is the provenance of a source?

Essentially, we are talking about the origin of the source - information like where and who it came from,
for example, and how that relates to what the source is saying. (when, where, by whom / for whom it was
made).
(1) What is the source?
Is it a letter? A speech? A newspaper article? A satirical cartoon? A diary entry? A poster? A
picture?
(2) Who wrote the source?
Is the author a participant, eyewitness, researcher of professor? What is his/their relation to the events
that he/they are discussing?
Were they involved thus giving a first-hand knowledge/information of it
Think about how the person’s background, position, beliefs and interests may have led them to
make a certain judgement or form a certain opinion on a topic.
(3) Why was the source produced?
This is where you can start to link provenance to context.
Was it to inform (reliable), or persuade (unreliable)?
When writing an article for a newspaper, then their intention was for their words to be read by a
large audience of people. They may have been trying to persuade these people of something,
and this might suggest something about the reliability of the source.
This should also reveal any subjectivity or propagandist purpose.
(4) When was the source produced
Was it written at the time of the event in question or was it written some years later? How might
this affect its reliability.
This would allow you to place it into a timeline of events.
The trick is to link the date of the document to the events surrounding it.

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 The content inside the source.
.
Things to consider:
(1) What does it tell us?
(2) What does it leave out?
(3) Is the content Biased/subjective: A source which persuades: a one-sided personal viewpoint,
takes sides and is opinionated/not to inform.
(4) Is the content objective: A source which informs is balanced and factual rather than biased
and opinionated.

Reliability of sources
.
Reliability is a source evaluation skill which asks you to draw a conclusion about the trustworthiness of a
source.
It is important that the sources you use in your assessment pieces are reliable so that the quotes you use
from them can be trusted.
Sources are never 100% reliable. Therefore, when we talk about reliability of sources, we can talk in terms
of ‘degrees of reliability':
Extremely - Very – Somewhat – Rarely – Not very

How do I assess reliability?

Based
. upon what you discovered in your analysis of the source, you can establish reliability based upon:
(1) provenance: The creator of the source was present at the time of the event. (eyewitness)
The creator was physically involved in the event. (first-hand account)
The source was created at the same time of the event it describes. (first-hand account)
The creator of the source has a highly educated perspective on the topic. (e.g., a
university professor/doctor)
The purpose of the source was to provide facts, rather than simply giving opinions.

(2) content: The source has been fact-checked, and subsequently approved, by its audience. (e.g. an
academic journal)
The information inside the source can be corroborated by other historical sources.

How do I establish unreliability?

. upon what you discovered in your analysis of the source, you can establish its unreliability based
Based
upon:
(1) Provenance: The creator of the source was not present at the time of the event.
The creator of the source does not have a sufficiently educated perspective on
the topic. (e.g., they have no formal education in History)

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(2) Content: The source has not been fact-checked by an educated audience. (e.g., it is an online
blog post)
The purpose of the source was to give an opinion, rather than focus on the facts,
about the topic
Biased: If extremely positive, it is described as “pro-”, or “in favour of”, etc.
Biased: If extremely negative, it is described as “anti-”, or “strongly against”, etc.

What is 'usefulness'?
?
Usefulness is a statement about how relevant or helpful a particular source is in providing information
about the specific topic.
.
The usefulness of a source always depends on the questions you ask of it.

How do I determine usefulness?

(1)? Refer to provenance: (A) Who created the source? – this will determine whether the author was a
participant or witness or an academic.
.
(B) Look at the date when the source was produced – produced during or after
the event
(C) Look at the purpose – is it informative or opinionated

(2) Refer to the content: (A) Are the facts accurate or wrong
(B) What are the limitations of the source - Is the content biased/one sided

Sources are never 100% useful. Therefore, when we talk about usefulness of sources, we can talk in terms
of ‘degrees of usefulness':
Extremely useful - Very useful– Somewhat useful– Rarely useful – Not very useful

What is 'bias'?
?
Bias is when the creator’s perspective is so strongly for or against something that the information in the
source
. is clearly unbalanced or prejudiced. All sources contain some degree of bias, but it is not always
possible to detect it.
Bias can either be extremely positive or extremely negative.
• If extremely positive, it is described as “pro-”, or “in favour of”, etc.
• If extremely negative, it is described as “anti-”, or “strongly against”, etc.
• If you cannot detect a bias, it is described as a “balanced” source.
How do I detect bias in a source?
Look for times in a source where any of the following happen:
• When describing people or events, the language is too positive and does not admit anything
negative
• When describing people or events, the language is too negative and does not admit
anything positive
• The source fails to mention very important information of which you are aware
• The source provides clearly incorrect information

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How do I prove a source is biased?
Once you have discovered bias in your source, prove that it exists. Here is how you do it:
(1) Choose a direct quote from the source that shows a clear demonstration of overly positive or
negative language.
(2) Explain what perspective the creator wanted to convince their audience to have on the person
or event based upon this bias.

Interpreting Photographs
?
Photographs are very useful types of primary sources.
. provide a rare glimpse of a particular second in time, which will never again be repeated.
They
Many people assume that photographs are unbiased, accurate records of historical events. However, that
is not always the case.
Photographers took great care to create the exact images they wanted their audiences to see. Therefore, it
is important to analyse photographs in order to identify the message the creator wanted their audience to
understand.

How do I identify the photo's message?

To correctly interpret what the photographer intended their audience to understand from their image, we
?
have to identify some specific information.
1.. Identify the Main Subject:
What are the most important people, locations or items in the image?
You can work out what the photographer wanted you to focus on by looking at what is in the
centre of the photo, or what appears the largest.
This is the main subject the creator wanted the audience to see.

2. Identify Minor Subjects

What appears in the background, behind or around the main subject?
Things of minor importance appear to support the main subject. The photographer wanted to
also show these things to help you draw certain conclusions about the main subject.

3. Explain the Image Composition

At what distance from the main subject was the photograph taken?
If the photograph is a ‘close up’ of the main subject, the photographer wanted the audience to
feel part of the action’ or to be confronted by the image.
If it was taken from further away, the photographer wanted the viewer to feel ‘detached’ from the
action or to get a ‘bird’s eye view’ of things.

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 How do I interpret a photograph?
? you have identified the main subject, the minor subjects and the composition of the photograph, you
Once
can begin to understand the photographer's intended message. Follow the next steps:
.
(1) The main subject is what the photographer wanted the audience to see.
(2) The composition is how the photographer wanted the audience to feel about the main subject.
(3) The minor subjects may indicate how the photographer wanted the audience to react to what
they see.

How do I understand the meaning of a political cartoon?

All? political cartoons rely heavily upon a very simple visual ‘code’ rather than relying solely on words to
convey their message. Once we learn how this visual code works, we can use it to ‘decode’ the specific
.
message of a cartoon.

Political Cartoon Visual Codes

1. Caricature (Exaggeration)
Cartoonists intentionally draw people or characters with physical features that are larger than
they naturally are. They do this in order to make a point. Usually, the point is to highlight
something about the character of a person.

2. Labelling
To help their audience understand what each person represents in their drawings, cartoonists
often write a name on the major figures. So when you’re interpreting a cartoon, look for the
labels.

3. Symbolism
Cartoonists use simple objects, or symbols, that the general public would be familiar with.
These symbols are used to represent important concepts or ideas. While you’re interpreting a
cartoon identify any symbols and try to work out what concept the image is meant to represent.

Symbol Meaning(s) Symbol Meaning(s) Symbol Meaning(s)

Anchor safety, security Bear Russia Bulldog Great Britain
Chains imprisonment, slavery Crowd of People unstoppable force Cupid love
Dollar Sign money Door/gate access, entry Dove peace
Eagle America Grave Stone death Skull death
Hammer & Sickle communism Rainbow hope, future Snake evil, temptation
Stars and Stripes America Swastika Nazis, Nazism Star of David Jews or Israel

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 Tips on how to answer source-based questions?
Level 1 questions test the skills of extraction and basic concepts. These questions can be identified by the
following question verbs: ‘According to the source”
“List”
“Identify”
“Quote”
“State”
“Name”
“Give”
NB there are at least 11 to 13 marks that can be obtained because the answers are in the source.

Level 2 questions test the skill of interpretations. These questions can be identified by the
Following question verbs: “Explain”
” Comment on”
” Use the source and your own knowledge”
“Why do you think?”
“What messages are conveyed?”
NB: Remember these questions require you to interpret information in the source and not to extract
information directly from the source.

Level 3 questions require you to engage with the nature of the source to determine usefulness, reliability,
justification and comparison.

Sources are useful because it gives us a better understanding/ an in depth insight into/shows how
people reacted to/or felt about an event/gives us clear information about an event

Reliability refer to the trustworthiness of a source. It is the ability to tell the difference between FACT and
OPINION. FACTS can be verified, cross referenced and corroborated. This means that other sources
support what this source says.
Sources are unreliable when: it shows bias
when it was produced for particular reasons
When it contains factual errors, when it contains exaggerations or distortions and
When it is inconsistent with similar sources

Justification asks for valid reasons for one’s actions.

Comparisons require you to look at similarities and differences between two or more sources. If you find
similarities, then the two sources support each other. If you find differences, then it means that the
sources differ or contradict each other.
Paragraph writing requires you to write your own original argument using your own knowledge on the
given topic and to substantiate that argument with evidence that is extracted from the relevant sources.
It is not the mere rewriting of sources.

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 THE COLD WAR
Definition
Ideological battle between capitalism and communism without getting involved in an actual war
Or
A period of conflict and competition between the capitalist United States and the communist Soviet Union
without getting involved in an actual battle.

What is Capitalism?
An economic system based on private ownership with the sole purpose of making a profit.

What is Communism?
An economic system based on state ownership with the intention of sharing the wealth equally between
people.

The Yalta and Potsdam Conferences

The problems
Britain, Russia and the USA met before the Second World War ended to try and solve the following
problems.
1. What to do about Germany.
2. What to do about the countries in Eastern Europe that had been occupied. Stalin wanted a barrier
Between Russia and Germany to ensure that Russia was never invaded again. Britain and the USA
were not keen on Eastern Europe falling under communist control.

3. How to ensure lasting peace.

The Yalta Conferences
The Big Three (Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin) agreed that:
1. Germany and Berlin would be divided into four zones of
Occupation controlled by America, Britain, France and Russia.
2. Free elections for new governments would be held in Eastern
European countries that were occupied by Germany.
3. The United Nations would replace the failed League of
Nations
They disagreed on Stalin’s demand for Polish land but they
did agree on the general point that Eastern Europe would be
a Soviet Sphere of influence
THEN THE SITUATION CHANGED

1. Roosevelt died and was replaced by Harry Truman.

2. Churchill was replaced by Clement Attlee.
3. Russia expanded westward and took control of Finland, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Romania

THE ALLIES WERE NOW SUSPICIOUS OF EACH OTHER.

STALIN WANTED TO CONTROL EASTERN EUROPE – BRITAIN AND THE USA SUSPECTED THIS

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 The Potsdam Conference

They agreed: on the new boundaries for Poland.

To divide and Germany and Berlin between them
Disagreement: Stalin wanted to punish Germany.
Truman not in favour
Truman not happy that Eastern Europe must be
under Communist control

After this meeting, the USA and Russia viewed each other with total suspicion and became
rivals – THE COLD WAR HAS STARTED

Three reasons for tension between the USA and the USSR

1. Stalin wanted to force communism onto Eastern Europe.

2. The USA did not inform the USSR about their plan to use the atom bomb on Japan.
3. Stalin wanted compensation from Germany the USA thought this would be a repeat of
The mistakes made after First World War.

Installation of Soviet friendly governments in Eastern Europe

Russia lost nearly 20 million lives during the war.

The Russian economy was severely weakened.
To rebuild the economy assistance from the west and reparations from the ex-enemy countries would be
valuable.
Stalin wanted to create a buffer between Russia and Germany for future Russian security.
When the war ended, Russia had already freed and controlled Eastern Europe.
Communist controlled governments were set up in all of these states.

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 USA policies: Truman Doctrine

Truman was convinced that Stalin wanted to spread communism worldwide.

1946 there was a civil war in Greece between the democratic government and the communist.
1947 Britain informed USA that she could no longer afford to provide economic and military aid to Greece
and Turkey.
Truman announced his policy of containment: The Truman Doctrine.
"The USA would support (by economic or military aid) free peoples (meaning anti-communists) who were
resisting armed minorities or outside pressures (meaning the USSR).
USA sent $400 million economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey.
The communists were defeated, and capitalist rule restored.

Marshall Plan
Truman believed that communism could be resisted by providing economic aid.
He feared that people living under poverty-stricken conditions might turn to communism.
1947 George Marshall announced the Marshall Plan - billions of dollars would be given to European
countries to help them recover.
They would have to agree to buy American goods and allow American investment.
The Marshall Plan led to the recovery of European economies.
The scheme was offered to Russia and the Eastern European countries, but Stalin refused the offer
viewing the plan as an attempt by the USA to take economic control of Europe.

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 BERLIN: DIVISION AND FOCAL POINT OF THE COLD WAR

The causes of the Berlin Blockade

West Berlin received the Marshall Plan.
THE COLD WAR
Britain, France and the USA combined and introduced a
new currency.
This led to the economic recovery of West Berlin and
West Germany
Stalin felt this was against the Yalta agreement.
Stalin responded by cutting off all road, rail and canal
links between West Berlin and West Germany
He wanted to force the West to reconsider.
The aim was to cut off food and fuel supplies in an
attempt to force West Berlin to submit to Soviet control.

How did the West respond?

THE COLD WAR
The Western Powers had three options available to
them.
1. Ignore the blockade and drive through the blockade.
2. Pull out of Berlin.
3. Airlift supplies to West Berlin.
The West decided on an Airlift.
Problem Soviets would shoot down their
aeroplanes.
Solution Soviets afraid to shoot because it
could cause a hot war.
The West had nuclear weapons.
Supplies were airlifted for full year.
Blockade lifted in May 1949.
The Western powers saw the lifting of the blockade as a
victory

Results of the Berlin Blockade.

The SovietsTHE COLD

suffered WARdefeat in this crisis.
a major
The division of Berlin became a permanent feature of the Cold War.
It showed the determination of the West to keep the doors of
democracy open in a 'sea of communism'.
East-West relations were strained further, and the Cold War got
worse.
Germany split up. In May 1949, America, Britain and France united
their zones into the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany)
with its capital Bonn. In response, in October 1949, Stalin set up the
German Democratic Republic (East Germany), with its capital East
Berlin.

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 The Berlin Wall
THE COLD WAR
Causes
THE In 1958 Khrushchev, demanded the West hand over
Berlin, which lay in the heart of the Soviet zone, to East
COLD Germany.
WAR The Western powers refused to give in to these demands.
In 1961, it was clear that West Berlin, controlled by the
Western powers, was much wealthier than East Berlin.
East Berliners, because of the poor conditions begun
escaping to the West via West Berlin.
This was an embarrassment to Khrushchev, and he was
determined to stop East Berliners from escaping
Sunday 13 August 1961, East German troops sealed off
West Berlin with roadblocks and barbed wire.

The Russians then began to construct a concrete wall around the Western zones of the city.

Impact of the Wall

The wall was high, fortified and was manned 24
THE aCOLD
hours day byWAR
machine-gun posts and searchlights.
Berlin was divided into two.
Overnight its citizens were cut off from family, friends
and jobs.
The Berlin Wall stood as a symbol of the divide
between West and East, between democracy and
communism.
Kennedy made it very clear that they would fight to
protect West Berlin.
It led to further tension between USA and Russia.

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 Consequences of the Wall
THE was
Berlin COLD WAR divided.
physically
Free access from East to West came to an end.
It stopped the flow of East Berliners to the West.
Many of those that tried to cross the wall were killed.
In 1963, Kennedy visited West Berlin showing the USA'S commitment to West Berlin.
It gave a strong message to the Soviet Union and dashed Moscow's hopes of driving the Allies out of West
Berlin.

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 ESSAY: THE VIETNAM WAR
Reasons why America got involved in Vietnam.
THE COLD WAR
1. America believed that if just one country was
taken over by communism then the nearby
countries would also become communist – for
Example they were worried that Communist
North Vietnam could cause South
Vietnam to become Communist and this in
return could lead to neighbouring countries
becoming communist.
This was called the “domino theory”
Vietnam was divided into communist north and
capitalist south in 1954 with the proviso
that there would be an election in 1956 to create
a united Vietnam.
America was against the election taking place
because they feared the domino theory.

2. This angered the South Vietnamese, and they formed the Vietcong to overthrow Diem.
The Vietcong was helped by the Vietminh, which sent supplies down the Ho Chi Minh Trail
In 1955 the USA started to support South Vietnam by sending advisors and military supplies.

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 President Johnson changes US policy.
THE COLD WAR
Johnson believed that the war could be won
easily with a massive increase in American
involvement.
In 1964 American ships in the Gulf of Tonkin
was attacked by North Vietnam – this gave
America the reason to send troops into
Vietnam.
By 1967 there were 500 000 U.S. soldiers in
Vietnam.
Johnson launched Operation Rolling Thunder to
destroy the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
U.S dropped more bombs on North Vietnam
than all the bombs dropped by both sides
during WW11.

The Tet Offensive turns US public opinion against the war.

THE COLD WAR In 1968 the Vietcong launched a major attack
known as the Tet Offensive
They attacked and gained many town and
villages in South Vietnam.
The attacks took the Americans by surprise, but
they soon recovered and recaptured most of the
lost territories.
This was a major embarrassment for America
and they suffered large casualties
People saw footage of the war on TV and this
together with the My Lai massacre turned public
opinion against the war.

Nixon and the end of the war.

THE had
Nixon COLD WAR
a new strategy called Vietnamization which meant
training the South Vietnamese forces to fight the north and the
Vietcong instead of US troops.
American troops were gradually withdrawn from Vietnam.
In January 1973, a ceasefire was agreed upon but the war
between North and South Vietnam continued.
In 1975 the Vietcong captured Saigon. Vietnam became a single
country again with a communist government.
America was effectively defeated and was unable to stop the
spread of communism.

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 Why America lost the war.
.
The nature of the war
THE COLD WAR
. Vietcong used guerrilla tactics in which they moved undetected, sprang ambushes and laid booby
The
traps.
.
They rarely fought large battles.
They
THEwould
COLDappear
WARfrom nowhere, kill and disappear.
The booby traps inspired fear in the US soldiers which in turn led to a low morale.
The US: fought a conventional war depended on bombers, gunships and heavily armoured troops.
Fought in a foreign country they did not know or understand.
Bombing raids, search and destroy missions and chemicals lost them the support of
the local villagers.
It was impossible to fight an enemy you could never find.

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 Aid for the enemy
. Vietcong received help from North Vietnam, China and Russia via the Ho Chi Minh Trail
The
.
Opposition to the war in America.
THE COLD WAR
AsTHE
the COLD
numberWAR
of casualties grew, many people
began to doubt the wisdom of the war.
This was the first television war- night after night
Americans were confronted with the horrors of
war.
This led to anti-war protests: students and hippies
denounced the war.
The shooting of four demonstrators at Kent state
University made matters worse.

My Lai Massacre
In 1968 Lieutenant Calley launched an assault on the village My Lai killing hundreds of unarmed
THE COLD WAR
Vietnamese civilians.
Photographs of the massacre shocked the American public and more and more people turned against the
war.

Conclusion

The Vietnam War highlighted the

failure of the US policy of containment.

The USA was defeated by the

communist forces in Vietnam.

America failed to stop the spread of

communism in South East Asia as

Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos became

communist countries.

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 ESSAY: THE VIETNAM WAR
The Geneva Agreement of 1954 divided Vietnam in two at the 17th parallel, Communist North Vietnam
under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh and Capitalist South Vietnam under Ngo Diem. It also stipulated that
general elections would be held in 1956 to create a united Vietnam.

Diem, the leader of South Vietnam was corrupt and brutally persecuted the Buddhist majority. He refused
to hold the elections in the South in fear that the majority of people would vote to join under a communist
government. The U.S. supported Diem because they feared the domino theory. This angered the South
Vietnamese, and they formed the Vietcong to overthrow Diem. The Vietcong was helped by the Vietminh,
which sent supplies down the Ho Chi Minh Trail

America became involved in the Vietnam war because they were determined to stop the spread of
communism and to win the Cold War. They believed that South East Asia would in turn collapse to
communism. The Vietcong fought a very effective guerrilla war against Diem and also had the support of
the peasants. Kennedy wanted to win the “hearts and minds” of the people, but it was difficult because
Diem was corrupt, oppressive and unpopular. Nevertheless, he supported Diem by sending only advisers
and military supplies. He also introduced the “safe village” policy where local peasants were moved into
fortified villages, leaving the Vietcong isolated outside. This was a failure as most of the Vietcong were
peasants who operated inside these villages. When Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, American policy in
Vietnam changed sharply.

Johnson believed that the war could be won easily with a massive increase in American involvement. In
1964 an American destroyer was attacked in the Gulf of Tonkin by North Vietnamese boats. This
persuaded Congress to support the sending of more troops to Vietnam. By 1967 there were 500 00 U.S.
soldiers in Vietnam. Johnson launched Operation Rolling Thunder to destroy the Ho Chi Minh Trail. U.S
dropped more bombs on North Vietnam than all the bombs dropped by both sides during WW11. Despite
this bombing the Vietnamese unleashed the Tet Offensive in 1968. With this, the Vietcong captured
almost 80% of all towns and villages. Although they lost ground later, this offensive played a major role in
turning American public opinion against the war. By 1969 14 000 Americans were killed. Public opinion
turned against Johnson and he announced (1968) that he would not run for presidency again.

Nixon introduced a policy of Vietnamisation. This aimed to arm and train the South Vietnamese Army to
fight the Vietcong and gradually withdraw U.S troops. In 1979 he ordered the bombing of North Vietnam,
Cambodia and Laos to cut of the supply trail. In reply, North Vietnam invaded Cambodia and Laos and set
up communist governments there. By now the war was very unpopular in the US and in 1973 a ceasefire
was agreed upon.
In 1975 the Vietcong captured Saigon. Vietnam became a single country again with a communist
government.

America lost the war because the Vietcong: used guerrilla tactics in which they moved undetected, sprang
ambushes and laid booby traps. They rarely fought large battles. They would appear from nowhere, kill
and disappear. The booby traps inspired fear in the US soldiers which in turn led to a low morale.
America fought a conventional war depended on bombers, gun ships and heavily armoured troops. They
fought in a foreign country they did not know or understand. The use of chemical weapons such as the
napalm bomb and Agent Orange caused them to lose the support of the local villagers.

18
As the number of casualties grew, many people began to doubt the wisdom of the war. This was the first
television war- night after night Americans were confronted with the horrors of war. This led to anti-war
protests: students and hippies denounced the war. The shooting of four demonstrators at Kent state
University made matters worse.
In 1968 Lieutenant Calley launched an assault on the village My Lai, killing hundreds of unarmed
Vietnamese civilians. Photographs of the massacre shocked the American public and more and more
people turned against the war.

The Vietnam War highlighted the failure of the US policy of containment. The USA was defeated by the
communist forces in Vietnam. America failed to stop the spread of communism in South East Asia as
Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos became communist countries.

19
 INDEPENDENT AFRICA: CASE STUDY-ANGOLA
Basic concepts applicable to this chapter

Cold War - was an ideological conflict between the USA and the Soviet Union, after World War 11 (not a
direct fighting between superpowers)

Communism - is a political and economic system whereby the state takes full responsibility for its
citizens. Centrally controlled economic and political system which is an alternative to
capitalism.

Socialism - The involvement of state in the economy. State takes partial control of the means of production
but allows for some private ownership.

Democracy - A political system in which all citizens are free to elect representatives to establish a multi-
party government.

Neo-colonialism - (neo-meaning new or revived colonialism) paradoxically Africa with its rich resources
enriched foreign powers in a one-sided relationship (exploitation) which favoured the
former colonial powers. African nations were given political independence but did not
attain economic freedom.

One-Party State - System of government where only one political party is legally permitted to
exist/function.

Dictatorship – An individual ruler who takes total control of all state power. Often results in the creation of
a personality cult through the use of security forces to eliminate all forms of opposition.

Civil War - War between civilians within a country.

African Nationalism - An intense commitment to liberate Africans from colonial rule.

Perestroika - Economic restructuring & Glasnost – Political openness (introduced by Gorbachev).

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 How Africa was drawn into the Cold War

African decolonization occurred during the Cold War.

Both US and USSR used aid packages, technical assistance and even military assistance to liberation
movements to draw African countries into their spheres of influence.
Angola is rich in minerals: Oil, diamonds, gold, uranium, copper + fishing industry – a very desirable colony
and ally.

Angola: Colonialism and Independence

Portuguese presence / trade in Angola from the 1480s

In 1974 Portugal decided to hand over power to a coalition of the three liberation movements: the MPLA,
FNLA and UNITA.
The coalition failed and it led to a civil war between the three liberation movements.
Each of the three liberation movements declared themselves the official government from their separate
capital cities.

MPLA: Leader Augustine Neto

Occupied the capital Luanda.
Received military training from Cuba.
Received arms from Russia.
Declared themselves against Apartheid

FNLA: Leader Holden Roberto

Against communism
Received outdated American weapons through
Zaire.
Tried to overthrow MPLA by attacking Luanda
before elections.

UNITA: Leader Jonas Savimbi

Based in the South and Central Angola
Received military support from the USA.
Was supported by South Africa.

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 The War of Independence

Civil war broke out in Angola between the three liberation movements.
South Africa invaded Angola on 23 October 1975 from Namibia and joined forces with UNITA.
MPLA asked for Cuban assistance ---- thousands of Cubans entered Angola before the elections.
MPLA defeated the FNLA and proclaimed Angolan independence on 11 November 1975.
The MPLA was recognized by Africa, Russia and Cuba as the official ruling party/government.
Cuba wanted to end the South African advance on Luanda.
SA outgunned by the MPLA and Cuban troops
SA and American hopes of a quick victory over the MPLA disappeared.

The USA: was not in favour of a communist state in Southern Africa.

: wanted to protect their petroleum interest in Angola.
: feared that their oil industry would be destroyed by war.
: felt vulnerable after the 1973 Arab oil embargo.
: was not willing to send troops to Angola because of their defeat in Vietnam.
: therefor secretly supplied the FNLA and UNITA with weapons to overthrow the
MPLA
: CIA set money aside for the recruitment of mercenaries to overthrow the MPLA.

CUBA supported the MPLA because: many Angolans were sent as slaves to Cuba.
: they wanted to save their black brothers.
: many Angolans fought for the liberation of Cuba.
: they supported revolutionary movements around the world.
: they wanted to protect Angola’s natural resources which could have
played a leading role in the world economy.

South Africa: wanted to stop the spread of communism in Southern Africa.

: USA secretly supported and requested SA to assist UNITA.
: wanted to break their policy of isolation.
: hoped to get international credit/recognition from the West.
: to stop SWAPO from establishing military bases in Angola.
: against the MPLA because they allowed SWAPO to use Angola as a base to attack SA.
: SWAPO’s aim was to end South African rule over SWA.

Russia became involved because: they wanted to advance the spread of communism.
: they wanted to obtain strategic military bases in Africa.
: they wanted to form trade agreements with African countries.

22
 ESSAY: THE CHALLEGES FACED BY THE CONGO AFTER
INDEPENDENCE
Belgian Congo became independent on 30 June 1960 with Joseph Kasavubu as President and Patrice
Lumumba as Prime Minister. The Congo crisis erupted immediately when Moise Tshombe declared
Katanga an independent state. Katanga was rich in minerals especially copper and accounted for 50% of
Congo’s total revenue. Lumumba asked Russia for assistance. This angered Kasavubu and he subsequently
removed Lumumba from his post as prime Minister. Encouraged by the USA, Joseph Mobutu, the leader of
the army, seized power from Kasavubu through a coup de tat in 1965.

Joseph Mobutu established a one-party state (Movement Populaire de la Revolution (MPR) in the Congo
and brutally suppressed all opposition. His government was therefore guilty of severe human rights
violations and political repression. Despite this he was supported by the USA because he was seen as an
ally who would prevent communist expansion in the Congo and Africa. He ruled by decree and controlled
all appointments and promotions as well as the allocation of government revenue.

He immediately implemented a very effective economic strategy. Inflation was halted, the currency was
established, output increased and government debts were kept low. He nationalized the country’s copper
mining industry. He was pro capitalist and supported by the USA. The country’s rich natural resources of
copper, cobalt, diamonds, and other materials attracted foreign investment. Mobutu built a steel mill in
Leopoldville, a dam at the lower end of the Congo river and a long-distance powerline from Inga to
Katanga.

Mobutu then embarked on a policy of Authenticité to rid the country of the last remaining colonial
influence. He renamed the Congo to Zaire in 197 and instructed Zairians to abandon their Christian names
for more “authentic” African names. Leopoldville became Kinshasa, Elisabethville became Lubumbashi, and
Stanleyville became Kisangani. He banned the wearing of Western-style suits with shirt and tie to
symbolise the break with their colonial past. The Congolese were encouraged to wear a collarless Mao-style
tunic called an abacost, a lightweight short-sleeved suit, worn without a tie. This was done to create a more
centralized and singular national identity. Mobutu then developed a personality cult (Mobutuism). around
himself. He was called the Father of the Nation and his deeds were endlessly praised in songs and dances.
Places where he worked and lived were declared as national heritage points.

In 1974 Mobutu introduced a policy of Zaireanization, a policy that replaced skilled foreigners or those
occupying strategic management positions with the unskilled locals. He also nationalised 2000 foreign
owned small businesses without compensation and placed it under control of his own political allies and
family members. He used most of the investment money and loans to enrich himself at the expense of his
own people. While he was accumulating the riches, his country plunged into crisis. The foreign owned
businesses went bankrupt due to poor management, corruption, and maladministration. Corruption
became so prevalent the term “le mal Zairois” or “Zairean Sickness,” meaning gross corruption, theft, and
mismanagement, was coined by Mobutu himself. Infrastructure declined and the gap between the elite
and ordinary citizens widened. Elitism and nepotism became the key features of the economy. Zaire
became a “kleptocracy” as Mobutu and his associates embezzled(stole) government funds.

The administration disintegrated. Monies allocated to government services were never provided. Teachers
and hospital staff went unpaid for months. Civil servants and army officials kept the monies to themselves
instead of paying their staff members. Bribery became rife. Infrastructure collapsed while hospitals closed
due to lack of medicine and equipment. Disease and hunger became rife. This forced Mobutu to reverse
23
his policy and ask the foreign owners to return. (Retrocession) Very few returned, the economy collapsed
and the Congo became more dependent on foreign aid and investments.

24
 THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT IN AMERICA
Basic concepts applicable to this chapter

• Civil Rights = Right of citizens to political and social freedom and equality that lives within the same
boundary e.g., the right to vote.

• Human Rights = A right which is believed to belong to every person from the day of birth e.g. the
right to live.

• Integration = Bringing together blacks and whites into a single system that functions as one.

• Segregation = Separation of races socially and politically

• Constitution = Set of fundamental rules and regulations whereby a country is governed.

• Discrimination = unfair treatment of people

25
 Introduction
Civil rights are the protections and privileges given to all citizens by law.
Civil rights are rights given by nations to their citizens within their territorial boundaries.
Human rights, on the other hand, are rights that individuals have from birth.
When citizens in civil society find that their civil rights are not being granted, they may form civil rights
movements to claim equal protection for all citizens.
They may also call for new laws to stop current discrimination.

Why was the Civil Rights Movement formed?

The CRM was a political, legal and social struggle to
gain full citizenship for Black Americans.
Segregation was called the Jim Crow system and was
common in the southern states.
Black Americans had separate schools, transport,
restaurants and parks which were poorly funded and
inferior to those of Whites.
The system of segregation also included the denial of
voting rights for Blacks.
Although the American Constitution protected the voting rights of Blacks, the southern states-imposed
requirements for voting: the ability to read and write.
Conditions in the northern states were much better for the Blacks but they were discriminated against
when it came to job reservation.
In order to stop segregation Blacks created organizations e.g., National Association for the Advancement
of Coloured People (NAACP) and CORE Congress for Racial Equality.
NAACP relied mainly on legal strategies that challenged segregation and discrimination in courts.

Dr Martin Luther King Junior and the Civil Rights Movement

King was influenced by the passive resistance ideas of M.K

Gandhi and became convinced that the same methods could be
used by African Americans to obtain their civil rights.
He was particularly struck by Gandhi's words: "Through our pain
we will make them see their injustice".
Non-violence or passive resistance is a method of social
change that uses strategies such as strikes, sit-ins, boycotts,
marches, and civil disobedience.
It is seen as morally justifiable to peacefully resist unjust laws.
Martin Luther King believed that direct, non-violent protest
action would force whites to confront segregation laws.
He made it widely acceptable that people use peaceful protest to
force changes to the law.
Many white people supported him and joined the protests.
Protests were often met with police and public violence.
Many people died, but Dr King did not support using
violence as a form of resistance.

26
 Montgomery bus boycotts 1955
?
In Montgomery, like most other towns in the Deep South,
buses were segregated.
One day in 1955, a black 42-year-old woman called Rosa
Parks got on a bus to return home from work.
She sat down near the front of the bus.
Some white people got onto the bus, and she was
expected to give up her seat.
She decided not to move.
The police were called, and she was arrested.
King organized a Bus Boycott to protest against bus
segregation.
It was decided that black people in Montgomery would
refuse to use the buses until passengers were completely
integrated.
King and others involved in the Bus Boycott were harassed
and intimidated by the authorities, but the protest
continued.
For thirteen months the black people in Montgomery
walked to work or got lifts from the small car-owning
black population of the city.
The bus company lost of 65% of its income, and finally the
US Supreme Court said that segregation on busses was
against the law, and the bus boycott came to an end.

The struggle for equal education: The Little Rock Nine 1957
Movement
Background: Brown vs board of Education
Movement Segregation at schools in the USA was based on the
doctrine of separate but equal.
White schools had better infra-structure and were
better equipped than black schools.
In 1951, a black girl, Linda Brown was barred from
attending a white school.
Her father together with 12 other African American
parents decided to sue the Topeka Board of
Education.
In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled on the case, Brown
vs. Board of Education, Topeka that racial
segregation of schools was unconstitutional.
Thus, schools had to be desegregated.
The Southern states were against desegregation.
8. Individual states tried to ignore the Supreme
Court’s decision of 1955.
9. They argued they had the rights to keep schools
segregated.

27
 The Little Rock Nine incident
Movement
Who were the Little Rock Nine?
Ernest Green
Elizabeth Eckford
Jefferson Thomas
Terrence Roberts
Carlotta Walls Lanier
Minnijean Brown Trickey
Gloria Ray Karlmark
Thelma Mothershed-Wair

What happened Little Rock High?

Based on the Brown vs. Board of Education ruling
the Little Rock School Board wanted to integrate the
school gradually in 1957.
Nine African American students were enrolled at
the school
The segregationist Mother’s League of Central High
School gets an injunction against school integration
fearing racial violence
Governor Orval Faubus prevented the students from
entering the racially segregated school.
Segregationist councils threatened to hold protests at
the school and physically block the students from
entering the school.
On 4 Sept 1957, Daisy Bates (NAACP) accompanied the
nine African American children in order to enrol them
at Little Rock.

How did Faubus respond?

Faubus called on the Arkansas National Guard to stop them

and a stand- off occurred.
He said they were there to stop racial violence, but the soldiers did not
let Black children in the school.
On September 9, the Little Rock School District issued a statement
condemning the governor's deployment of soldiers to the school.
On 23 September, “the Little Rock 9” again tried to enter the school
They were prevented by a white mob.

28
 How did the Federal government react to the crisis?
It was now clear that Faubus was defying a federal law.
The mayor of Little Rock (Woodrow Mann) ordered the removal of the Little Rock Nine for their own safety
and asked President Eisenhower to send federal troops to enforce integration and to protect the nine
students.
The Federal government was now compelled to defend the decision of the High Court and to defend the
American constitution.
24 September 1957, the 101st Airborne Division was sent to Little Rock.
The Arkansas National Guard was federalized/put under federal law.
Soldiers stayed in Little Rock for a year, even patrolling the school corridors to make sure children were
safe.
Events in Little Rock, Arkansas, attracted worldwide attention to the Civil Rights Movement

What were the experiences of the nine students inside the school?
The
? students were still subjected to a year of physical and verbal abuse by many of the white students.
Minnijean Brown was suspended for dumping her lunch on two white males because they were insulting
her.
After a few weeks, the patrollers left the nine students to fend for themselves.

Minnijean Brown said

‘’I was one of the kids 'approved' by the school officials. We were told we would have to take a lot and
were warned not to fight back if anything happened. One girl ran up to me and said, 'I'm so glad you’re
here. Won’t you go to lunch with me today?' I never saw her again.’’

29
 The Sit-ins 1960
? In early 1960, motivated and inspired by King, a small group
of black students in Greensboro began a student sit-in at the
restaurant of a local store that had a policy of not serving
black people.
They took their seats and ordered coffee but were refused
service.
In just two months the sit-in movement spread to 54 cities in
9 states.
The students were often physically assaulted, but they
followed King's strategy and did not fight back.
All over the Deep South, black students began to follow King's
non-violent strategy.
There were successful campaigns against segregated
transport, restaurants, swimming pools, theatres, libraries,
beaches and public parks.

Freedom Rides 1961

In?1961 CORE organized the Freedom Rides where both
black and whites travelled around the South to test the
effectiveness of the court's decision to desegregate
busses
In Alabama the one bus was burned, and some riders
were beaten.
The violence brought national attention to the Freedom
Riders and condemned the Alabama officials.
The federal government stepped in to protect the
Freedom Riders.
The Freedom Rides did result in the desegregation of
some buss stations, but more importantly they caught
the imagination of the American public.

The march onto Birmingham 1963

? Birmingham was a strong KKK fortress and described as
America's most racist city.
In April 1963 the King led a march to protest against
segregation and unfair employment in the city.
He was arrested. He consequently used children to continue
the campaign in Birmingham.
The police suppressed the march with violence.
The images of children being sprayed with high-pressure water
pipes and being attacked by dogs and police, caused
international news and condemnation.

30
 The media had once again shown America what life
was like for African Americans in the South.
The march was ended through a compromise.
The protest action was stopped, and the city's
facilities were desegregated, and more Blacks were
employed in the city’s departmental stores.

The march on Washington 1963

? On 28 August 1963, King led a march of more than
200.000 Americans in Washington for jobs and
freedom.
He wanted to emphasize the political and social
challenges that black Americans faced each day.
The march tried to address the unemployment of
Blacks and to gain full racial equality.
It culminated on Martin Luther King Jr. 's "I have a
dream" speech, a spirited call for racial justice and
equality.
This led to the Federal Government passing the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 that banned segregation in public
accommodation and discrimination in education and
jobs.

Freedom Summer June 1964

?
Freedom summer was organized by CORE and the NAACP.
Their aim was to gain voting right for Blacks in Mississippi
through a strategy called Freedom Summer. Blacks in
America could only vote if they could pass a literacy test.
Black and white students from the North visited churches
and schools in the South and taught Blacks how to read and
write.
They were abused and harassed and at least three activists
were killed. I
n spite of this, the Freedom Summer campaign continued
and was a success because many more Blacks could now
pass the literacy test.
In this way more Blacks were now able vote.

31
 March from Selma to Montgomery 1965

Even though the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in voting on the basis of race, Alabama
still refused to register Black voters.
These Black voters were met with fierce resistance.
After a Alabama state trooper fatally shot Jimmie Lee Jackson, a young African American
demonstrator the CRM embarked on a massive march from Selma to the state capitol of
Montgomery, 54 miles away .
They were attacked by the state police at the Edmund Pettis Bridge in what became known as Bloody
Sunday.
The brutal scene was captured on television, which led to many more religious leaders joining the
march.
Their second attempt also failed when Martin Luther King decided to abandon the march fearing more
police brutality.
President Lyndon B Johnson then decided to call in the federal troops to protect the protesters.
2,000 people set out from Selma on March 21 and reached Montgomery on March 25.
The President then passed the Voting Rights Act in 1965.
It gave the national government power to register those whom the southern states refused to put on
the voting list.
It is interesting to note how the number of African Americans registered to vote increased as a
result of this legislation.

32
 ESSAY: THE BLACK POWER MOVEMENT

What was the causes of the rise of Black Nationalism?

The CRM focussed on ending racism in the southern

American states but Blacks living in the north:
Suffered serious discrimination.
Had poor housing/lived in slums.
Had poor inferior education.
Had a very high unemployment rate.
Had inferior facilities.
Still lived in poverty.
These blacks became impatient with the slow pace
of change.
Hence - they did not believe that they could live
together with traditional whites. They rejected the
non- violent tactics of the CRM. They began to
support the use of violent methods and expressed
Black Nationalist feelings
The growth of black power coincided with race riots
in America over poor living conditions and police
brutality
Stokeley Carmichael wrote the book Black Power.

What is Black Power?

It is a philosophy rather than a political organization.
It advocated that: Black people should do things for themselves.
Black people should control the politicians and
politics in their own communities.
Black people should defend themselves and fight
back if necessary.
Black people should develop and emphasise
pride in their own culture.
Black people should seek freedom from White
authority
They used the slogan “Black is beautiful”.
The term was popularized by Stokely Carmichael.

33
 Black Panther Party

In 1966 Bobby Searle and Huey Newton responded to

Stokely Carmichael’s “black power” theories and formed the
Black Panther Party for Self-Defence. It was a militant group
within the Black Power Movement.
Aims: demanded better living and working conditions for
poor blacks
pride in black culture and history
Patrolled inner cities (armed) to protect black people
from Police brutality.
Ran feeding schemes, childcare, literacy projects in
black communities.
demanded freedom to determine the destiny of the
Black Community.
demanded decent housing.
demanded the immediate end to POLICE BRUTALITY
and MURDER of black people.
Black History to be taught in schools and universities.
Fashion statements: Afros, African clothes
They clashed with police - between 1967 and 1968 nine
police officers were killed.
Many of their leaders were imprisoned for criminal activities
- leading to its dissolution in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

The role of Stokely Carmichael

Stokely Carmichael felt they had not done enough to

correct centuries of inequality.
He wrote book Black Power and promoted Blacks to
be proud of their heritage.
He argued that Blacks should not have anything to do
with whites in the United States or anywhere else.
He promoted one plan to split the United States into
separate black and white countries.
He started the slogan “Black is beautiful”.
He rejected white ideas on style and fashion and
urged his people to wear afros and African clothes.
He was against America’s involvement in the
Vietnam War.
In 1966 he was arrested whilst participating in a
protest march.
His passport was confiscated –he moved to Guinea in
West Africa

34
 Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam

A growing number of black activists opposed

integration altogether.
Malcolm X preached black self-sufficiency.
He also advocated armed self-defence against
white oppression, arguing that bloodshed was
necessary for revolution.
He urged his followers to secure their rights “by
any means necessary.”
He travelled to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, on a
religious pilgrimage in 1964.
In the course of his journey, he encountered
Muslims of all nationalities who challenged his
belief system and forced him to rethink his
opinions regarding race relations.
When Malcolm X returned to the United States,
he joined forces with the SNCC in the non-
violent fight against segregation and racism.
However, he was assassinated in early 1965.

The Legacy of the Civil Rights

Movement.
The most overt forms of racial discrimination came to an end.
Racial violence declined immeasurably.
Today, African Americans can freely exercise their right to vote.
Blacks were elected to public offices.
Millions of blacks have been lifted out of poverty as a result of the many economic opportunities created
by the civil rights movement.
Exec order 11375 – sanctions affirmative action policies for federal employment.
In 1972 Georgia Marnard Jackson, 1st black major of a southern city (Atlanta)
Despite these gains, the civil rights movement fell short on many counts, and the fight for equality is far
from over.
Yet the black freedom struggle achieved something enduring: It profoundly changed people’s attitudes
and made the promise of America if not a reality, at least a possibility.

35
 ESSAY: THE BLACK POWER MOVEMENT
The CRM focussed on ending racism in the southern American states but Blacks living in the north still
suffered serious discrimination and lived in poverty. Blacks were therefor still economically and politically
crippled. These blacks became impatient with the slow pace of change and began to develop Black
nationalist feelings. They rejected the non-violent approach of the CRM and felt that force was justified in
order to achieve equality for black Americans. The growth of black power coincided with race riots in
America over living conditions and police brutality. Stokeley Carmichael felt they had not done enough to
correct centuries of inequality. In 1967, Carmichael wrote the book Black Power.

Black Power movement was a philosophy that advocated that Black people should do things for
themselves, Black people should control the politicians and politics in their own communities, Black people
should defend themselves and fight back if necessary, Black people should develop and emphasise pride in
their own culture and that Black people should seek freedom from White authority. They used the slogan
“Black is beautiful” and promoted Afro hairstyle and African clothing.

In 1966 Bobby Searle and Huey Newton responded to Stokely Carmichael’s “black power” theories and
formed the Black Panther Party for Self-Defence. It was a militant group within the Black Power
Movement. They drafted a Ten Point plan that served as the Black Panther Party manifesto that covered its
social, political and economic goals They demanded better living and working conditions for poor blacks
and pride in black culture and history. They patrolled inner cities (armed) to protect black people from
police brutality and ran feeding schemes, childcare and literacy projects in black communities. They
ensured that Black History was taught in schools and universities. They clashed with police - between 1967
and 1968 nine police officers were killed. As a result of their militant stance, the FBI and police came down
heavily on them. Many of their leaders were imprisoned for criminal activities - leading to its dissolution in
the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Stokely Carmichael became chairman of SNCC (Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee) in 1966 and
decided to embrace the teachings of the Black Power Movement. He wrote book Black Power and
promoted Blacks to be proud of their heritage. He argued that Blacks should not have anything to do with
whites in the United States or anywhere else. He promoted one plan to split the United States into
separate black and white countries. He popularized the slogan “Black is beautiful”. He rejected white ideas
on style and fashion and urged his people to wear afros and African clothes. He was against America’s
involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1966 he was arrested whilst participating in a protest march. His
passport was confiscated –he moved to Guinea in West Africa

Malcolm X of the Nation of Islam was the most vocal critic of King’s nonviolent tactics. He preached black
self-sufficiency and advocated armed self-defence against white oppression, arguing that bloodshed was
necessary for revolution. He urged his followers to secure their rights “by any means necessary.”
Promoted the use of violence as a means of self defence against those who attacked African Americans. He
urged Blacks to be proud of their heritage ad their African roots. He travelled to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, on a
religious pilgrimage in 1964. During his journey, he encountered Muslims of all nationalities who
challenged his belief system and forced him to rethink his opinions regarding race relations. When
Malcolm X returned to the United States, he joined forces with the SNCC in the nonviolent fight against
segregation and racism. However, he was assassinated in early 1965.

The Black Power Movement ended the most overt forms of racial discrimination. Racial violence declined
and many Blacks were elected to public offices. Programmes were put in place to improve housing and
facilities of black communities. Affirmative action policies for federal employment were put in place.

36
 CIVIL RESISTANCE IN SOUTH AFRICA 1970’S AND 1980s

The role of the Black Consciousness Movement in South Africa during the 1970's

During the 1960's urbanization increased in S.A.

Many Blacks were now employed in the urban areas (cities)
The Apartheid system denied these Blacks basic human
and political rights.
Both the ANC and the PAC were banned and all political
leaders were either imprisoned or exiled
The government's policy of repression managed to bring
the social unrest under control in the1960's
The S.A. economy grew and life for whites was good.
However, for Blacks the struggle continued.
Black Consciousness emerged out of this political vacuum
in S.A. in the late 1960's and introduced a new hope and
style of protest that would endure throughout the 1970's.
The decolonization process in Africa encouraged Blacks to
fight against Apartheid.
The Black Power Movement and the successes of the Civil
Rights Movement also encouraged Blacks to oppose
Apartheid.

The origins of the Black Consciousness Movement

BC has its roots in university campuses.

Biko joined the non-racial National Union of South
African Students (NUSAS)
NUSAS spoke out against Apartheid but:
(1) their white leadership did not fully appreciate
how Apartheid affected everyday
life for Black people in S.A.
(2) they did not promote black interest.

Led by Biko, most Black, Indian and Coloured

students left NUSAS and formed the South African
Students Organization (SASO)
It was from this organization that BC doctrine would
emerge.

37
 The ideals of the Black Consciousness Movement

BC is a philosophy based on the believe that Blacks would

only liberate themselves if they can remove the shackles of
inferiority and fear.
It advocates that Blacks should conduct their own political
campaigns and help each other gain freedom rather than
wait for Whites to grant them freedom.
Biko believed that Blacks have lost confidence in themselves
as a result of living in a white dominated society.
He believed that in order to regain their freedom, Blacks
must regain their confidence and end their dependence on
Whites.
BC promoted a sense of identity and pride amongst Black
people.
BC united supporters of the ANC and the PAC by creating an
ideology for the liberation on S.A
He wanted blacks to understand why they were oppressed.
"The most potent weapon in the hands of the oppressor is
the mind of the oppressed".
In BC freedom for blacks was first and foremost a freedom
from the psychological oppression of their own inferiority
complex.
Only once the "mind of the oppressed" was free could
blacks fight for political and economic freedom.
For Biko there was a difference between Blacks and non-
whites

.
How were the ideals of BC movement implemented?

Biko set up Black Community Programs to implement BC ideals.

The aim of these programs was for blacks to help other blacks
without white assistance.
(1) The Zanempilo Health Clinic was established near King
William's Town and was run by Dr Mamphela Ramphele.
(2) The Ginsburg Educational Trust was established to assist
black students
(3) Zimele Trust Fund (Stand on your Feet)
The Black Peoples Convention (BPC) was formed in 1972 which
involved students, churches, communities and trade unions.
BC led to the formation of the Black Allied Workers in 1973.
BC inspired high school learners who then formed the South
African Students Movement (SASM)
BC had special appeal for the youth and would lead to the
greatest act of civil protest in S.A: The Soweto Uprising

38
 The Soweto Uprising

Causes
In the 1970’ s Blacks became very frustrated:
(1) High oil price ----- high inflation ----cost of living high ----
Blacks not given wage increases.
(2) Economic recession in 1970’s ----- many blacks were
retrenched
(3) State did not provide Blacks with adequate housing------
lived in overcrowded conditions with poor access to basic
amenities

(4)
1953 the government introduced the Bantu Education Act
Black students received 15 times less state funding than
their White counterparts.
Black schools were overcrowded.
Teachers were under qualified and could not teach
effectively without adequate resources.
The outcome of this syllabus was to prepare Blacks for
manual labour only.
SASO exerted pressure on high schools ------- 1972 the South
African Students Movement Was formed (SASM)
SASM exposed Blacks to the ideals of BC and mobilized
them to fight for their rights.
In 1975 the government decided that black students had to
learn half of their subjects in Afrikaans
Both black teachers and students resented this as Afrikaans
was seen as the language of the oppressor
On the 16th of June 1976 students protested peacefully
against the implementation of Afrikaans

Police responded by firing tear gas and then live rounds of ammunition into the crowd.

39
Hector Petersen, a 13-year-old boy was one of the first casualties of this uprising.

The students went on a rampage and by the end of the day Soweto resembled a battleground.
A nationwide uprising was set in motion ------ protest spread to Natal, the Cape and the Homelands
MK received massive support as scholars left school to receive military training.
The international community imposed embargoes and sanctions on SA ----- many foreign companies
pulled out of SA
Police arrested and detained thousands of people ------ including Biko.
Biko died whilst in police custody in August 1977.
The government passed the Labour Relations Act in 1979 --- this gave blacks the right to form trade unions
and the right to strike.

40
 ESSAY: THE CHALLENGE OF BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS TO
THE APARTHEID STATE
Black Consciousness emerged out of the political vacuum after both the ANC and the PAC were banned
and all political leaders were either imprisoned or exiled in the late 1960's. It introduced a new hope and
style of protest that would endure throughout the 1970's.

It is a philosophy based on the believe that Blacks would only liberate themselves if they can remove the
shackles of inferiority and fear. It advocates that Blacks should conduct their own political campaigns and
help each other gain freedom rather than wait for Whites to grant them freedom. Biko believed that Blacks
have lost confidence in themselves as a result of living in a white dominated society. BC promoted a sense
of identity and pride amongst Black people and united supporters of the ANC and the PAC by creating an
ideology for the liberation on S.A. BC wanted blacks to understand why they were oppressed. Biko believed
that freedom for blacks was first and foremost a freedom from the psychological oppression of their own
inferiority complex. Only once the "mind of the oppressed" was free could blacks fight for political and
economic freedom.

Biko then set up the Black Community Programs to implement BC ideals. The aim of these programs was
for blacks to help other blacks without white assistance. He built the Zanempilo Health Clinic near King
William's Town which was run by Dr Mamphela Ramphele. He established the Ginsburg Educational Trust
to assist black students and formed the Zimele Trust Fund. BC led to the formation of the Black Peoples
Convention (BPC) in 1972 which involved students, churches, communities and trade unions. It led to the
formation of the Black Allied Workers in 1973 and inspired high school learners who then formed the
South African Students Movement (SASM). BC had special appeal for the youth who were attracted to the
militant language and defiance of authority.

The Apartheid government initially supported the BCM because it supported separate black organisations
but by 1973, they changed their attitude. They felt that BC encouraged feelings of hostility between blacks
and whites that constituted an act of terrorism.

In 1953 the government introduced the Bantu Education Act which gave Black students 15 times less state
funding than their White counterparts. Black schools were overcrowded. Teachers were under qualified
and could not teach effectively without adequate resources. The outcome of this syllabus was to prepare
Blacks for manual labour only. School students formed the South African Students Movement 1972 which
exposed Blacks to the ideals of BC and mobilized them to fight for their rights. In 1975 the government
decided that black students had to learn half of their subjects in Afrikaans. Both black teachers and
students resented this as Afrikaans was the language of the oppressor. On the 16th of June 1976 students
protested peacefully against the implementation of Afrikaans.

Police responded by firing tear gas and then live rounds of ammunition into the crowd. Hector Petersen, a
13-year-old boy was one of the first casualties of this uprising. The students went on a rampage and by the
end of the day Soweto resembled a battleground. A nationwide uprising was set in motion as the protest
spread to Natal, the Cape and the Homelands. MK received massive support as scholars left school to
receive military training. The international community imposed embargoes and sanctions on SA and many
foreign companies pulled out of SA. Police arrested and detained thousands of people including Biko.
Biko died whilst in police custody in August 1977.

41
 THE CRISIS OF APARTHEID IN THE 1980s:
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
In the 1980’s the NP believed that there was a Total Onslaught against the NP government.
The NP implemented their Total Strategy policy – they would make minor reforms to the apartheid system
and repress (crush) all opposition.

Tricameral parliament
The NP created a cosmetic Tricameral Parliament.
It made provision for: House of Assembly (Whites)
House of Representatives
(Coloureds)
House of Delegates (Indians)
It gave limited representation to Coloureds and Indians.
Blacks were excluded.
Africans had to exercise their political rights in the
'homelands'.
Real political power would remain concentrated in the
House of Assembly, the representatives of the 'White'
minority.
Voters on separate ethnic voter's roles would elect the
members of each chamber of parliament:

The UDF
The United Democratic Front was a non-racial alliance of about 400
national, regional and local organisations based on the Freedom
Charter.
The UDF was supported by the African National Congress (ANC) in
exile.
It launched a massive nationwide campaign to dissuade Coloured
and Indian voters from participating in the elections for the Houses
of Representatives and Delegates.
Coloured and Indian voter turnout was extremely low.
Those who participated in the Tricameral system were called 'sell-
outs', collaborators and 'puppets'.
In reaction to these political developments, mass action campaigns
swept through the country.
These included strikes, mass protests and school, rent and
consumer boycotts.
The government responded by banning the UDF declaring a State
of Emergency that lasted for much of the 1980s.

42
 The role of Civics
Civics tackled 'bread and butter issues' such as rent, municipal
services, public transport and poor recreational and child-care
facilities.
Civics sought to improve the quality of life of township residents and
played a major role in the resistance of the 1980s.
There were frequent, violent confrontations with the security forces.
Black Councillors and black police officers were forced to flee the
townships, forced to resign, or faced violent deaths.
Protest poor services took the form of boycotts, in which residents
refused to pay rent or service fees to the municipality.
By 1987, the amount owing to the government due to boycotts was in the region of Rl77 million.

The role of COSAS

(COSAS) was formed in 1979 to co-ordinated student activities in

different regions, to unite and to advance the demands of school
students.
They used the slogan "liberation before education”.
They organized school boycotts, stay-away’s, consumer boycotts,
and self-defence structures against the apartheid security forces.
In 1984 there were about 220 000 children absent from school in
various parts of the country.
Many young people sacrificed education and employment
opportunities in order to participate in the struggle against
apartheid.
COSAS and AZASO formed the NEC in 1986.
The NECC united students, parents and teacher structures in an
effort to build democracy in schools and eliminate the Bantu
Education curriculum. The NECC adopted the slogan 'Education for
liberation.'

The South African Council of Churches

The SACC fought for social justice and challenged the apartheid
laws.
Their leaders included Desmond Tutu, Beyers Naude and Frank
Chikane.
In 1985, SACC issued the Kairos (Moment of Truth) Document.
The Kairos document called for the church to stand up for the
poor and the oppressed and stand against the injustices of
apartheid.
The document said Christians should serve the needs of the
struggle for liberation and mobilise its members to work and plan
for a change in government. It also supported civil disobedience.

43
 Trade Unions
They campaigned for the rights of black workers and played a political
role as they put pressure on the government to make changes to its
apartheid policies.
Links between work issues and broader community grievances in the
apartheid state became inseparable.
The Federation of South African Trade Unions (FOSATU) was formed in
1979 and the Council of Unions of South Africa (CUSA) was formed in
1980. It was influenced strongly by the ideas of Black Consciousness
and wanted to work to ensure black leadership of unions.
In 1985 the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) was formed, which followed the non-racial
policies of the (banned) ANC.
A strike was a powerful weapon used by workers. In 1981, 342 strikes took place in South Africa. In 1986,
the number of strikes had risen to 780.
Resistance during the 1980s, which included school boycotts, strikes and guerrilla action of MK, made
South Africa increasingly ungovernable and was one of the forces that led to the collapse of the
apartheid government.

Mass democratic Movement

The UDF was banned in 1988.
The Mass democratic Movement was formed to replace the UDF.
The MDM was a loose coalition of anti-apartheid organisations which adhered to the ANC's Freedom
Charter.
In 1989, the MDM organized a campaign of civil disobedience to defy the State of Emergency.
Protesters entered "whites-only" hospitals and beaches.
People of all races marched peacefully in in several cities to protest against police brutality and repressive
laws.
By 1989 it was clear that the civil disobedience was effective, and that the government could not control it.

The End Conscription

Campaign
The SADF was used: To enforce the government's racist policies.
To act against the banned liberation movements within
South Africa and its neighbouring countries
To repress anti-apartheid activities
For this reason, all white South African men were conscripted into military
service in the SADF.
In 1983, the End Conscription Campaign (ECC) was formed.
Conscientious objectors supported the ECC to oppose the conscription of all
white South African men into military service in the SADF.
White men who refused to do military service fled the country, faced
imprisonment, went AWOL or failed to turn up for their basic training.
By 1985, the number of conscripts who failed to report for so-called National Service was increasing
rapidly.
By 1988, the ECC was undermining the apartheid state to such an extent that the Minister of Law and
Order, Adriaan VIok, banned the organisation.

44
 Black Sash
Was a liberal white organization who wanted to end apartheid.
Campaign
They wore black sashes to demonstrate their opposition against apartheid.
They demonstrated peacefully against the discriminatory laws.

45
 THE INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE TO APARTHEID
The Soweto Uprising exposed to injustices of Apartheid to the international communities.
The international communities criticized the NP and called for economic sanctions and isolation of SA
As a result of this anti-apartheid groups were formed in several countries in Europe.

The Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM)

in AAM
The Britain
was formed in Britain in 1959 by SA
exiles with the aim to end Apartheid through
Campaign
boycotts and isolating SA from the
international community.
They held demonstrations outside: the SA
Embassy in Britain and against companies who
did business with SA.
The result of this action: Barclays Bank sold
their holdings in SA.
They: forced the cancellation of the 1970 SA
cricket tour to Britain
They initiated an international boycott of SA
imports.
They held a star-studded concert at Wembley
to demand the release of Mandela.

The Irish Anti-Apartheid Movement

(IAAM)
The IAAM was formed in 1963 by Kadar Asmal.
They initiated sport, cultural, academic, and economic sanctions that isolated SA internationally.
Campaign
The International Defence and Aid Fund (IDAF)
Campaign
IDAF was the brainchild of Canon John Collins – he raised money to
pay the legal costs of political activists under the Treason trials
It became an international organisation in 1965 with branches in
Britain, New Zealand, and Holland.
IDAF smuggled 200 million rands into SA
The money was used to: fund the defence of political activists.
: support the dependants of political activists.
Most of the money came from the UN and the Scandinavian countries
particularly Sweden.
IDAF also published material to raise awareness about the conditions
in SA.

46
 Sport Boycotts
Campaign
AAM prevented SA from participating in international
competitions
: The Gleneagles Agreement called on
commonwealth countries to cut all sporting
ties with SA
: AAM disrupted the 1970 SA rugby tour to
Britain by invading the pitch – most games
were cancelled.
: SA was expelled from the International
Olympics

Cultural Boycotts
Campaign
British and American musicians refused to perform in SA.
Britain refused to sell their TV programmes to the SABC.

Academic: Boycotts
SACampaign
academics were barred from attending international academic conferences.
: Some publishes refused to print work produced by SA scholars.
: Overseas institutions refused to recognize SA degrees.
:

Consumer Boycotts
Campaign
The general public was urged to boycott SA products.
In Britain many refused to buy SA wine or fruit – this had a negative impact on White farmers in SA.

47
 Disinvestment
Disinvestment
Campaign means the withdrawal of international money,
shares and business from SA with the aim of forcing the NP to
abandon Apartheid.
The AAM forced Barclays Bank to disinvest.
In America, the Anti-Apartheid movements led to Chase
Manhattan Bank cutting its links with SA.
The European Economic Community banned new investments
in SA in 1985.
1986 America banned all new loans and investments in SA.
Large companies like General Electric, Pepsi Cola, IBM General
Motors and Mobil closed their operations in SA.
In 1987 Israel refused to sell arms to SA.
Without the foreign capital the SA economy could not grow

Sanctions
Campaig As a result of the influence of the ANC and Desmond Tutu sanctions
were applied against SA.
n
They believed that Blacks must make these sacrifices for political
freedom.
In 1977 the UN banned the selling of weapons to SA.
In 1973 OPEC imposed an oil embargo against SA.
Sanctions worsened after Botha’s Rubicon speech reaffirmed his
commitment to Apartheid.
The USA: refused to buy SA agricultural products.
: refused to buy SA iron and steel.
: banned direct air travel between the countries.
Most African countries refused to grant SA overflying rights or landing
facilities.
Impact: SA slipped into a recession.
: SA could not attract new loans.
: Overseas investors lost interest because SA was too unstable.
: It led to increased poverty which in turn led to increased
political instability
: This decline in the economy put pressure on the NP to change
its policies

The role of international trade unions

The UN and the International Labour Organization (ILO) was very active against Apartheid.
Campaign
The ILO organized an International Trade Union Conference against Apartheid in 1977
The International Confederation of Free Trade Unions supported black trade unions in SA.
These trade unions called on the Anti-Apartheid movements to boycott SA goods and to support sanction
and disinvestment initiatives.

48
 The Frontline states
The frontline states played an important role in the struggle against Apartheid by allowing the ANC to
Campaign
establish bases and military training camps in their countries.
These countries also served as a refuge for political activists and freedom fighters.
From here the ANC was able to step up MK raids and intensify the armed struggle.
These countries were however economically dependent on SA which forced them to have friendly
relations with SA.

The beginning of the end

In Campaign
the late 1980’s the SA economy was on the verge of collapse
Sanctions and disinvestment led to increased unemployment and poverty.
This led to increased internal resistance.
All this made it very difficult for the NP to survive in power.
It was thus the combination of internal and external pressures that would lead to the downfall of
Apartheid.

49
 ESSAY: THE ROAD TO DEMOCRACY
In 1989, the NP elected a new leader named F.W. de Klerk.
1989 was also the year in which the Cold War came to an end.
Both the ANC and the NP was now forced to negotiate with
each other.
On 2 February 1990, De Klerk announced the release of
Nelson Mandela.
He also unbanned the ANC, the PAC, the SACP and all other
banned organisations.
On 11 February 1990 Mandela was released

Meetings between the NP and the ANC

4 Campaign
May 1990: Groote Schuur Minute: Both parties agreed to end the violence.
Both parties agreed to a process of negotiation

6 August 1990: The Pretoria Minute: The ANC stopped the armed struggle.
NP stopped the state of emergency.

Negotiation process begins.

Campaign
CODESA 1
1991
. Nineteen groups present.
The right-wing white Conservative Party and the left-wing
Campaign
Pan Africanist Congress boycotted CODESA.
They discussed the drafting of a new constitution and the
appointment of an interim government.
They failed to reach consensus and the meeting was
abandoned.
They signed the Declaration of Intent promising that they
will draft a new constitution.

Whites only referendum: March 1992

InCampaign
1992, the NP lost three by-elections to the Conservative Party.
If his position was not supported by his own white constituency, the negotiations could not work.
De Klerk announced a ‘whites only’ referendum to test white opinion on reform and negotiations.
The result of the referendum was a landslide ‘yes’.
De Klerk had the mandate he needed.

50
 CODESA II and the continued violence
Campaign Formal negotiations were renewed in May 1992
but did not last because of violence that erupted
in Boipatong.
Armed Inkatha members with the assistance of
the police attacked the residents of Boipatong
killing about 46 people in what became known as
the Boipatong Massacre.
Mandela blamed De Klerk's government of
complicity in the attack.
ANC withdrew from the negotiations, leading to
end of CODESA II.
The ANC took to the streets with a programme of
"rolling mass action".
1992 about 80 000 protested in Bisho Oupa
Gqozo.
Ciskei troops and the South African Defence Force
opened fire on the protesters, killing 28 people.
Goldstone Commission of Inquiry was set up to
investigate the violence.
Found that the government Third Force supplied
Zulus with money and weapons.

Record of Understanding
Behind the scenes talks between the ANC (Ramaphosa) and the NP
(Meyer) continued.
De Klerk's government had been pushing for a two-phase transition,
with an appointed transitional government with a rotating
presidency.
The ANC pushed instead for a transition in a single stage to majority
rule.
Joe Slovo came up with the sunset clause as a compromise.
It allowed the gradual phasing out of white rule rather than one
dramatic handover of power.
They agreed to a Government of National Unity for the first five
years.
The GNU would include all parties which obtained over 5% of the
vote in the elections.
Whites in the public service will keep their jobs for 5 years.
The meant that the National Party was sure to be included.
The negotiation process was about to restart.

51
 World Trade Centre talks and the assassination of Chris Hani
Multi-Party Negotiations began at the World Trade Centre.
Negotiations were stopped by the assassination of Chris Hani.
Saturday 10 April 1993 Hani was shot and killed in the driveway of his
home in Boksburg, by right-winger Janus Walus.
The murder of Chris Hani threatened to derail the negotiation
process.
Nelson Mandela went on national television and called upon South
Africans to act with restraint to prevent the country from being
engulfed in civil war.
The ANC called for the immediate announcement of the date for
general elections.
However, his death ultimately proved a turning point after which the
main parties pushed for a settlement with increased determination.

Elections
A bomb went off outside the African National Congress regional and national headquarters.
Nine people were killed.
On Election Day, a car bomb at Johannesburg's Jan Smuts Airport injured 16 people and caused massive
structural damage to the north face of the building.
These serious incidents of political violence were carried out by members of the AWB in support of the
organisation's struggle to prevent majority rule.
The election took place over three days (27-29 April) in 1994.
For the first time, all South African adults in the country went to the polls.
Nineteen political parties participated, and twenty-two million people voted in a hugely successful
election.
The African National Congress (ANC) won the election with 62.65 % of the vote.
The National Party (NP) received 20.39 %
Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) 10.54 %
Mandela became the first President of the Democratic South Africa.

52
 ESSAY: THE ROAD TO DEMOCRACY
The road to democracy refers to the transfer of power from whites to blacks through a process of
negotiations. In 1989, the NP elected a new leader named F.W. de Klerk. He released Mandela on the 11
February 1990. He also unbanned the ANC, the PAC, the SACP and all other banned organizations.

The foundations for negotiations were laid at the meeting between the ANC and the NP at Grootte Schuur.
They signed the Groote Schuur Minute where both parties agreed to end the violence and committed
themselves to the process of negotiation. On 6 August 1990 they signed the Pretoria Minute where the
ANC agreed to stop the armed struggle and the NP agreed to stop the State of Emergency. The National
Peace Accord was signed by 27 political organizations where they pledged themselves to greater tolerance
towards each other on 14 September 1991. This provided a safety net for negotiations.

The first round of talks was called CODESA I. Nineteen political groups attended the meeting. The
Conservative Party and the left-wing PAC boycotted CODESA. Codesa 1 failed but the parties signed the
Declaration of Intent committing themselves to draw up a new constitution and an interim government.

In 1992, the NP lost three by-elections to the Conservative Party. De Klerk became unsure about whether
he should continue with the negotiations. He therefore called for a ‘whites only’ referendum to test white
opinion on reform and negotiations. The result of the referendum was a landslide ‘yes’. De Klerk had the
mandate he needed and therefore negotiations continued called Codesa 2.

CODESA II took place in May 1992 but did not last long because the ANC and the NP could not agree on
the transfer of power and because of the violence that erupted in Boipatong. Armed members of the
Inkatha Freedom Party (Zulus) with the assistance of the police attacked the residents of Boipatong killing
about 46 people in what became known as the Boipatong Massacre. Mandela accused De Klerk's
government of complicity (involvement) in the attack and withdrew the ANC from the negotiations,
leading to the end of CODESA II. In September 1992, a crowd of about 80 000 people gathered in Bisho to
protest the Ciskei “homeland” government of Brigadier Oupa Gqozo. Ciskei troops and the South African
Defence Force opened fire on the protesters, killing 28 people. After massacres at Boipatong and Bisho,
the Goldstone Commission of Inquiry was set up to investigate the violence. The Commission found that
white members of the police and the army (Third Force) were supplying the Zulus with money and
weapons to kill the Xhosas. This was done to ensure white rule in SA.

Behind the scenes talks between the ANC and the NP continued because they realized that if they do not
continue, more people will be killed. They signed a Record of Understanding on 26 September 1992
whereby the government released more political prisoners and the ANC banned the carrying of
‘traditional’ weapons.

The NP wanted a two-phase transition of power, a transitional government with a rotating presidency.
The ANC wanted a single-phase transition to majority rule. Joe Slovo broke the deadlock with his
compromise called the Sunset Clause. According to this compromise a Government of National Unity
would be formed by all parties receiving more that 5% of the vote; this government will govern for 5
years and that whites working for government could keep their jobs for 5 years. The NP accepted this
compromise because they knew that they would be included in this new government. The negotiation
process was now about to restart.

53
On 2 April 1993, negotiation began at the World Trade Centre. This ended because on Saturday 10 April
1993, Chris Hani was shot and killed Janusz Walus. The murder threatened to derail the negotiation
process. Nelson Mandela went on national television and called upon South Africans to act with restraint
to prevent the country from being engulfed in civil war. He called for the immediate announcement of
the date for general elections. The date was set for 27 to 29 April 1994. The AWB interrupted the
negotiations on 15 June 1993, when they stormed the World Trade Centre in an armoured vehicle,
breaking the glass front of the building.

The election went ahead amidst continued violence. The bomb went off outside the African National
Congress national headquarters killing nine people. On Election Day, a car bomb at Johannesburg's Jan
Smuts Airport injured 16 people. For the first time, all South Africans black and white went to the polls.
The African National Congress (ANC) won the election with 62.65 % of the vote. The National Party (NP)
received 20.39 % while the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) 10.54 %. Nelson Mandela became the first
president of the democratic South Africa while De Klerk and Mbeki were appointed as his deputies.

54
 THE TRUTH AND RECONCILLIATION COMMISSION
Both the Apartheid government and the ANC were
condemned for committing atrocities during Apartheid
era.
The apartheid regime had been based on police
brutality, torture, abduction, and killings to ensure
white control and domination.
At the same time, those fighting for liberation and
human rights were responsible for violence and
bloodshed including sabotage, the killing of innocent
civilians and the torturing of informers in the name of
liberation.
It became necessary to heal the divisions of the past.
South Africa could not move forward without looking
at the past. There was a need to investigate the
human rights abuses that was committed during the
apartheid era.

What were the aims of the TRC?

To investigate human rights abuses that happened during
Apartheid.
To give amnesty (official pardoning) to those who committed
politically motivated crimes.
It was expected from the victim to forgive the perpetrator.
To facilitate reconciliation as to ensure the survival of the new
democracy.
To facilitate closure.
So that SA can move forward as a united nation.

How did the TRC function?

The TRC consisted of three committees.
The Human Rights Violations Committee investigated human rights abuses.
The Amnesty Committee gave amnesty to those who committed politically motivated crimes.
The Reparation and Rehabilitation Committee restored the victims' dignity by giving them support and
compensation.
Perpetrators had to testify voluntary in public which was televised on TV.
The TRC decided to function on the principle of restorative justice – repairing the harm that was done
because of the human rights abuse.
Restorative justice had to facilitate national reconciliation and promote forgiveness.

55
 What were the pre-conditions for amnesty?
Perpetrators had to disclose the whole truth.
Perpetrators had to show they had a political motive.
Perpetrators had to show remorse.

Case study: The Cradock Four

On? June 27th, 1985 Matthew Goniwe, Fort Calata, Sparrow Mkhonto, and Sicelu Mhlawuli left Port
Elizabeth, a coastal city on South Africa’s Eastern Cape and headed toward Cradock, a small community
approximately 190 km to the north. They never arrived. Indeed, they never made it out of the greater Port
Elizabeth region. After they had been missing for several days, which greatly alarmed and disturbed the
black community up and down the Eastern Cape, their charred remains were discovered. Badly burned,
their bodies each bore numerous stab wounds; and although it would take a coroner to determine as
much, their bodies also revealed numerous other signs of physical harm. Some distance away stood their
car, which also had been burnt almost beyond recognition. The six police officers involved in the killing
applied for amnesty.

56
This is an extract from a book by Alister Sparks called Beyond the Miracle.

Among the 8 000 applicants to the Amnesty Committee [of the TRC] were the killers of ... the Cradock
Four ... six senior Security Police officers ... applied for amnesty for killing the Cradock Four. By now Col
Snyman was on his deathbed, stricken with terminal cancer, and could appear at the hearing. The other
five - Sakkie van Zyl, Nic van Rensberg, Hermanus du Plessis, Gideon Lotz and Eric Taylor - claimed they
acted under Snyman's command and did not know who had instructed him to carry out the
assassinations. So the line to the top remained blurred, the destination of the signal message to the
State Security Council requesting permission to kill Matthew Goniwe and his colleagues still undisclosed.
And so the involvement of the political leadership, including President P.W. Botha and his top ministers
and generals, remained wrapped in secrecy. Significantly Gen. Joffel van der Westhuizen, who had sent
the signal, did not apply for amnesty ...

In the following extract from the TRC transcripts, Mr Van Zyl is questioned about his motives for the
killings.

Adv. Booyens: As you see it yourself here today, you as Security policeman, take us back to 1985. You as
Security policeman when you became involved in the murder of the four activists, what
was your objective?

Mr Van Zyl: I agreed with the principle that the situation was so desperate that only desperate action
could stabilise the situation, whether it be permanent or temporary. But apparently no help
came from the political side that could render a solution to the situation at that stage. At
that stage I did not like it, but I agreed that the elimination of certain activists were
necessary. But the foundation was laid down according to me, that violent revolutionary
war is in the country and there was nothing being done by the political people.

Adv. Booyens: ... Did you have any knowledge about any instructions of the stabilisation of the situation;
did you have any knowledge of that?

Mr Van Zyl: The pressure was there, and the pressure worked up to my level and lower, that legal
activity was counter productive. The lawful detentions would simply lead to an escalation of
the violence and the violent crime at the time ...

Adv. Booyens: Mr Van Zyl, what have you done, do you agree that this was in contradiction with the
laws of the country, did you act on your own initiative, did you receive instructions, was
this an authorised operation, what is the position?

Mr Van Zyl: I knew strictly speaking that it was an illegal operation, but I knew and I felt that if was an
authorised operation and that I could never be covered because it was not authorised, but it
was decided on such level as an authorised operation, that I could and should continue with
it.

57
 Case study: Sicelo Dlomo
Sicelo Dlomo was an activist a thorn in the flesh of the security forces. When his body was discovered with
?
a single bullet wound in his head on the outskirts of Soweto in January 1988, many blamed the police for
his execution.
More than 3000 people attended his funeral, and many condemned the apartheid regime. It therefor came
as a shock when the former Umkhonto we Sizwe special operation member, John Itumeleng Dube, and
three other cadres Clive Makhubu, Sipho Tshabalala and Precious Zungu, applied for amnesty for the
murder of Dlomo who, according to them, was an informer.

However, Stanza Bopape's father - now deceased - said at the time: I don't want to know what they did
to my son in the last hours of his life... it would simply be too painful. I just want the bones of my son
back so that I can bury him with dignity."
By contrast, the mother of slain student leader Sicelo Dlomo is not only demanding an opportunity to tell
her story, she's also saying: "I want to hear about it from those who killed my son". In her different and
complex need, Mrs Dhlomo represents some of the most difficult and terrifying dilemmas in the search
for reconciliation - because having lived with the assumption for over a decade that her son was
murdered by the police, she's now receiving information through a TRC amnesty application that in fact
he was murdered by some of his colleagues in the ANC.

Was the TRC a success?

7116
? cases were heard, 5392 (75.8%) were refused amnesty, 849 (11.9%) granted amnesty.
Both the Apartheid government and the ANC were condemned for committing atrocities
Research showed that: the population felt that the TRC failed to achieve reconciliation between blacks
and whites.
Justice was a prerequisite for reconciliation.
The TRC was in favour of the perpetrators.

Successes of the TRC

?
The unknown/hidden years of apartheid was revealed to a certain extent.
Some victims found closure.
Reconciliation achieved to a certain extent.
Civil war was avoided.

The Failures/Limitations of the TRC

It ?ignored the early years of apartheid.
Racially motivated crimes were neglected.
Some perpetrators blamed the politicians who gave them the orders.
Atrocities committed by the IFP/Zulus were largely ignored.
The TRC failed to deal with human rights violations committed by SA forces in Namibia.
The report focussed more on what happened instead of trying to explain why it happened (thus making it
perpetrator-friendly)
Apartheid agents perceived the TRC as a witch hunt against them who only acted on orders.
Leading figures in the NP like De Klerk, PW Botha never testified.

58
De Klerk was also critical of the TRC for alleging that he was responsible for human rights violations while
he was president – he said he did not know of these crimes.
The ANC members felt that the TRC was criminalizing the liberation struggle.
The TRC responded by stating that that those who fought for justice should not have violated human
rights.
Some victims were angry because people got away with murder.
The Biko family was opposed to the amnesty process because it robbed them of justice.
Many people believe that those who did not seek amnesty or refused amnesty should have been tried.
Other leading figures of the Apartheid regime also escaped the net of the TRC because few of them
testified but none was punished.

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 THE IMPACT OF THE COLLAPSE OF COMMUNISM ON
SOUTH AFRICA

By the 1980’s the USSR was in crisis because:

1. The Russian economy was very weak. The government’s economic policies did not change to
adapt to modern conditions. The quality of goods and services had fallen. The living standards
was there for very poor.
2. The arms race with the USA was very expansive and drained government finances.
3. Russian farming was insufficient – there was not enough food and millions of tonnes of grain had to
be imported from the USA.
4. The war in Afghanistan was a disaster – the war cost $8 billion per year.

Gorbachev introduced Glasnost and Perestroika.

Gorbachev determined to revitalise Russian economy.
He introduced Glasnost and Perestroika.

Means openness – greater civil and political freedom e.g., freedom

of speech was allowed.
People were allowed to criticize government policies which would
Glasnost lead to the end government corruption.
It allowed for elections within the socialist framework.
Thousands of political prisoners were released.

Means the restructuring of the Russian economy by allowing small

scale private ownership.
Perestroika He removed the central planners’ complete control over
production quotas and trade.
Military spending was reduced.

Gorbachev ends the Cold War.

.
1. In 1987 he signed a disarmament treaty with America.
2. In 1988 he announced that Russia would not interfere in Eastern Europe.
3. In 1989 he withdrew Russian troops from Afghanistan.
4. In 1990 the Berlin Wall was dismantled, and Germany was united.

The Soviet Union was no more and the Cold War came to an end.
60
 The impact of South Africa
. the ANC and the NP realised that communism was no longer a threat
Both
.

Impact on NP

During the Cold War After Cold War Ended

NP portrayed SA as country of the “free SA no longer significant in Cold War politics because
world” that opposed communism there was no communist threat any more
SA was seen as pro-Western ally that The West no longer needed SA as an anti- communist
protected Africa against communism ally
Many western countries supported SA Western governments applied pressure on SA to end
despite the UN and OAU’s call for sanctionsApartheid
The NP believed that the ANC would be weak without
Russian support
De Klerk was now open to the possibility of negotiating with the ANC

Impact on ANC

During the Cold War After the Cold War

ANC financially supported by USSR Military and financial support from the USSR to the ANC
MK fighters received military training and was stopped
were supplied with Soviet weapons
The ANC was now forced to negotiate with the NP regarding the end of Apartheid

61
 The Impact of Cuito Cuanavale.
.
South African forces in Angola were held back by a combined force of Cubans and Angolans.
.
South Africa withdrew from Angola and negotiated a settlement over Namibia.
Namibia became independent - this peaceful transition to majority rule encouraged both the
SA government and the ANC
- NP realized that majority rule did not necessary mean
communism
The Battle created a stalemate that facilitated the search for political solutions to problems instead
of fighting

De Klerk embarked on a policy of reform.

He unbanned the ANC and other parties.
Political prisoners were set free.
He released Mandela in 1990.
Scene was now set for negotiations between the ANC
and the NP towards a democratic South Africa.

62
 THE IMPACT OF THE COLLAPSE OF COMMUNISM ON
SOUTH AFRICA
By the late 1980’s the Russian economy was very weak. The government’s economic policies did not adapt
to the modern conditions. The quality of goods and services had fallen, and the living standards were very
poor. The arms race with the USA was very expansive and drained their finances. The Russian farming was
insufficient and therefore they could not produce enough grain – grain was imported from the USA. The
war in Afghanistan was a disaster and cost $8 billion per year. This made the economy very weak.
To revitalize the economy Gorbachev introduced Glasnost and Perestroika. Glasnost means openness and
gave the people freedom of speech which allowed them to criticize the government. This led to the
beginning of the collapse of the communist state. Perestroika means restructuring – small scale private
ownership was introduced and that allowed people to make a profit. It also removed the government’s
control over the production. These reforms led to the expectation of further political changes. People
demanded the end of communism and the establishment of full democratic rule.
Therefore, Russia signed the disarmament treaty with the USA in 1987. In 1988 Russia withdrew all their
troops from Eastern Europe and in 1989 they withdrew their troops from Afghanistan. In the same year
they withdrew from Berlin and that signalled the end of the Cold War – communism has collapsed.
This collapse had a major impact on South Africa. During the Cold War, the NP was supported by the West
because they protected Africa against the expansion of communism. With the collapse of the Soviet Union,
communism was no longer a threat. The NP could no longer hide under the Cold War and the communist
threat. The West now put pressure on the NP to negotiate with the ANC or face continued sanctions. De
Klerk believed that the ANC was now weak and that this was the best time to negotiate a settlement with
the ANC. He therefore signalled that the NP was prepared to negotiate with the ANC.
The collapse of communism also had a major effect on the ANC. During the Cold War they were funded
and provided with weapons by the Soviet Union. After the collapse of communism, they lost the economic
and military support from Russia. The ANC was therefore unable to continue the struggle against the NP.
The West and the African countries now put pressure on the ANC to negotiate with the NP and to end the
armed struggle. Negotiations were seen as an alternative to violence.
The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale also contributed to the negotiations process. The battle ended in a stalemate
and forced both the South African Army and the Cubans to withdraw from Angola. The NP realized that the
war would cost more lives and more money. As part of the peace agreement SA withdrew from South
West Africa. This country became independent in 1990 and became known as Namibia. This peaceful
transition from white minority rule to Black majority rule now served as a blueprint for SA to do the same.
In this regard the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale became a turning point in the history of SA.
In 1990 De Klerk became the new leader of South Africa. He began with a policy of reform. He unbanned
the ANC and other political parties and also released Nelson Mandela in 1990. The scene was now set for
negotiations between the ANC and the NP for a democratic South Africa.

63