Week 1:

UNIT I: MATTER

- explain the properties of the states of matter;

- draw simple diagrams to show the structure of unspecialised plant and animal
cells;
- explain the function of the cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus, chromosomes,
cytoplasm, ribosomes,mitochondria, vacuoles and chloroplast;

Matter – (mass and takes up space)

Properties of matter (materials)

https://youtu.be/NUskg2qWLPQ?si=tqym4x3x-clfXcTW

● Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.

● Matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms, which consist of protons,
neutrons, and electrons.
 ● Matter can exist in different states, such as solid, liquid, gas, or plasma,
depending on its temperature and pressure.
● Matter can also be classified by its structure and bonding, such as crystalline or
amorphous, metallic or nonmetallic, ionic or covalent, etc.
● Matter has the property of inertia, which means it resists changes in its motion
unless acted upon by a force.
● Matter can be transformed into energy and vice versa, according to the famous
equation E = mc2, where E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light.

Solids, liquids and gases

The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. The particle model represents
particles by small, solid spheres. It describes the arrangement, movement and
movement energy of particles in a substance. The model can be used to explain the
physical properties of solids, liquids and gases.

Particle arrangement and movement

The particles in the diagrams could be atoms, molecules or ions depending on the
type of substance, eg ionic compounds, small molecules, giant molecules, and
metals.

Explaining properties

A single particle does not have the properties of the material it is part of. The properties
of a substance are the properties of a huge number of particles together.

Solids: have a fixed shape and cannot flow, because their particles cannot move from
place to place cannot be compressed (squashed), because their particles are close
together and have no space to move into

Liquids: flow and take the shape of their container, because their particles can move
around each other cannot be compressed, because their particles are close together
and have no space to move into.

Gases: flow and completely fill their container, because their particles can move quickly
in all directions can be compressed, because their particles are far apart and have
space to move into.

States of matter 🚗💧☁️| Solid, Liquid & Gas | Learn with examples - YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t6nImlCdWHM

Change of State
Some substances can change directly from solid to gas, or from gas to solid, without
becoming a liquid in between. This is called sublimation. Solid carbon dioxide ('dry ice')
and iodine can sublime.

Explaining change of state

Melting, evaporating and boiling

Energy must be transferred, by heating, to a substance for these changes of state to

happen. During these changes the particles gain energy, which is used to:

​ break some of the bonds between particles during melting

​ overcome the remaining forces of attraction between particles during
evaporating or boiling.

In evaporation, particles leave a liquid from its surface only. In boiling, bubbles of gas
form throughout the liquid. They rise to the surface and escape to the surroundings,
forming a gas.

The amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid, and from liquid to
gas, depends on the strength of the forces between the particles of a substance. The
stronger the forces of attraction, the more energy is required.

Every substance has its own melting point and boiling point. The stronger the forces
between particles, the higher its melting and boiling points.

The strength of the forces between particles depends on the particles involved. For
example, the forces between ions in an ionic solid are stronger than those between
molecules in water or hydrogen. This explains the melting and boiling point data in the
table.
 Substance Bonding type Melting point Boiling point

Sodium chloride Ionic 801°C 1413°C

Water Small molecules 0°C 100°C

Hydrogen Small molecules -259°C -252°C

Evaporation can take place below the boiling point of a substance.

Condensing and freezing

Energy is transferred from a substance to the surroundings when a substance

condenses or freezes. This is because the forces of attraction between the particles get
stronger.

Predicting a physical state

The state of a substance at a given temperature can be predicted if its melting point and
boiling point are known. The table summarises how to work this out.

Temperature Predicted state

Given temperature < melting point Solid

Given temperature is between melting and boiling points Liquid

Given temperature > boiling point Gas

UNSPECIALISED PLANT CELL

The cell is the basic unit of life in all organisms. Like humans and animals, plants are
also composed of several cells. The plant cell is surrounded by a cell wall which is
involved in providing shape to the plant cell. Apart from the cell wall, there are other
organelles that are associated with different cellular activities.

“Plant cells are eukaryotic cells with a true nucleus along with specialized structures
called organelles that carry out certain specific functions.”

Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that vary in several fundamental factors from other
eukaryotic organisms. Both plant and animal cells contain a nucleus along with similar
organelles. One of the distinctive aspects of a plant cell is the presence of a cell wall
outside the cell membrane.

The plant cell is rectangular and comparatively larger than the animal cell. Even though
plant and animal cells are eukaryotic and share a few cell organelles, plant cells are
quite distinct when compared to animal cells as they perform different functions. Some
of these differences can be clearly understood when the cells are examined under an
electron microscope.
UNSPECIALISED ANIMAL CELL

“An animal cell is a type of eukaryotic cell that lacks a cell wall and has a true,
membrane-bound nucleus along with other cellular organelles.”

Animal cells range in size from a few microscopic microns to a few millimetres. The
largest known animal cell is the ostrich egg, which can stretch over 5.1 inches across
and weighs about 1.4 kilograms. This is in stark contrast to the neuron in the human
body, which is just 100 microns across.

The shape of animal cells also varies, with some being flat, others oval or rod-shaped.
There are also more intriguing shapes such as curved, spherical, concave and
rectangular. Most of the cells are microscopic in size and can only be seen under the
microscope.
As stated before, animal cells are eukaryotic cells with a membrane-bound nucleus.
Furthermore, these cells exhibit the presence of DNA inside the nucleus. They also
comprise other membrane-bound organelles and cellular structures which carry out
specific functions necessary for a cell to function properly.

Introduction to cells - plant and animal cells - YouTube

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9W7sBBrQnQI

Cell Wall:

It is a rigid layer which is composed of polysaccharides cellulose, pectin and

hemicellulose. It is located outside the cell membrane. It also comprises glycoproteins
and polymers such as lignin, cutin, or suberin.
The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and provide structural support to the
cell. The plant cell wall is also involved in protecting the cell against mechanical stress
and providing form and structure to the cell. It also filters the molecules passing in and
out of it.

The formation of the cell wall is guided by microtubules. It consists of three layers,
namely, primary, secondary and the middle lamella. The primary cell wall is formed by
cellulose laid down by enzymes.

Cell membrane:

A thin semipermeable membrane layer of lipids and proteins surrounding the cell. Its
primary role is to protect the cell from its surroundings. Also, it controls the entry and
exit of nutrients and other microscopic entities into the cell. For this reason, cell
membranes are known as semi-permeable or selectively permeable membranes.

Nucleus:

The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The
vital function of a nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell
division, metabolism and growth.

1. Nucleolus: It manufactures cells’ protein-producing structures and ribosomes.

2. Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is perforated with holes called nucleopore that
allow proteins and nucleic acids to pass through.

Chromosomes:
Chromosomes are structures within the nucleus that are made up of DNA, the
hereditary material. DNA is organized into a single circular chromosome. In eukaryotes,
chromosomes are linear structures. Every eukaryotic species has a specific number of
chromosomes in the nucleus of each cell. Chromosomes are only visible and
distinguishable from one another when the cell is getting ready to divide.

Cytoplasm:

A jelly-like material which contains all the cell organelles, enclosed within the cell
membrane. The substance found within the cell nucleus, contained by the nuclear
membrane is called the nucleoplasm.

Ribosomes:

They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which comprise RNA and protein.
They are the sites for protein synthesis, hence, also referred to as the protein factories
of the cell.Microbes are organisms that are too small to be seen without using a
microscope, so they include things like bacteria, archaea, and single cell eukaryotes —
cells that have a nucleus, like an amoeba or a paramecium. Sometimes we call viruses
microbes too.
Microbes are an integral and essential part of the web of life. They carry out a variety of
important ecological functions, from recycling organic matter to aiding in the carbon and
nitrogen cycles.

Mitochondria:

They are the double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic
cells. They provide energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar molecules, hence
they are also referred to as the “Powerhouse of the cell.”

Vacuoles:

A membrane-bound organelle present inside a cell involved in maintaining shape and

storing water, food, wastes, etc.

Chloroplast:

It is an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid membrane in plant cells. The

chloroplast is shaped like a disc and the stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that
comprises a circular DNA. Each chloroplast contains a green coloured pigment called
chlorophyll required for the process of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll absorbs light
energy from the sun and uses it to transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose.

Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells
Cell Structure

https://youtu.be/URUJD5NEXC8?si=cLU6E8G5CGmZZYf6
WEEK 2:

- discuss the importance of selected microbes; and

- explain the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport.

UNIT II: REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH

- distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction;

- describe various methods of asexual reproduction in plants and anima

Microbes

Microbes play an intrinsic role in almost every natural cycle. Found in most
environments, from aquatic to land, air, inside the human body, and even in extreme
environments such as hydrothermal vents and volcanoes, microbes are an essential
part of the web of life.

Microbes help to break down organic matter from plants, animals, and other microbes.
They are involved with the nitrogen and carbon cycles. Microbes help to generate
 oxygen and carbon dioxide, as well as fix atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms for
multiple organisms. They also help animals ingest food by being part of the gut. Some
species of microbes are symbiotic in nature. It is estimated that the total number of
bacteria and archaea on Earth is in the region of 1030.

Microbes have the potential to improve plant growth under abiotic stress conditions by
promoting the production of low-molecular-weight osmolytes, such as proline, and other
amino acids.

Gastrointestinal microbes exist in symbiotic associations with animals. Microorganisms

in the gut assist in the digestion of feedstuffs, help protect the animal from infections,
and some microbes even synthesize and provide essential nutrients to their animal
host.

Microorganisms | Genetics | Biology | FuseSchool - YouTube

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YSitT0oOoyc

Transport in cells

Diffusion, osmosis, and active transport are three distinct processes that are essential for
the movement of molecules across cellular membranes.

1. Diffusion: is the process by which molecules move from an area of high

concentration to an area of low concentration, until equilibrium is reached.
This movement occurs due to the random motion of the molecules and
does not require energy. Diffusion can occur across a semi-permeable
membrane or in a solution.
2. Osmosis: is a specific type of diffusion that involves the movement of water
molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration, across a semi-permeable membrane. Like diffusion,
osmosis does not require energy.
3. Active transport: is the movement of molecules against their concentration
gradient, from an area of low concentration to an area of high
concentration. This process requires energy in the form of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) and the help of membrane-bound transport proteins. Active
transport is important for maintaining concentration gradients and for
moving molecules into or out of cells when diffusion or osmosis is not
sufficient.
Overall, while all three processes involve the movement of molecules across cellular
membranes, they differ in their mechanisms, the type of molecules involved, and
whether or not energy is required.
Reproduction:

Reproduction is the production of offspring. There are two main forms: sexual and
asexual reproduction. In sexual reproduction, an organism combines the genetic
information from each of its parents and is genetically unique. In asexual reproduction,
one parent copies itself to form a genetically identical offspring. Sea turtles are an
example of an animal that reproduces sexually, a volvox (green algae) is an example of
an organism that reproduces asexually, and a brittle star can reproduce in either way.

The Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction are:

Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

It requires the fusion of the male and It does not requires the fusion of the male
female gamete. and the female gamete

It involves two (usually) different It involves only one individual.

individuals.

It involves germ cells of the body It involves somatic cells of the body

Offsprings produced in sexual Offsprings produced in asexual

reproduction are different from their reproduction are exactly similar to their
parents. Hence, show variation. parent. Hence, called clones.
They are evolutionary advantageous They are not evolutionary advantageous

Meiosis and mitosis division both take Only mitosis division takes place.
place.

It is a slow process. It is a fast process.

Found in higher plants and animals. Found in only lower invertebrates and
lower chordates.

Asexual and Sexual Reproduction - YouTube

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fcGDUcGjcyk

Asexual reproduction in plants

“Asexual reproduction is the mode of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of
male and female gametes and produces individuals that are genetically identical to the
parent.”

Asexual reproduction in plants occurs through budding, fragmentation, vegetative

propagation, and spore formation. No flowers are required for this method. The plants
produced by asexual reproduction thrive well in stable environments.
Types Of Asexual Reproduction In Plants

Asexual reproduction in plants takes place in two ways:

● Naturally
● Artificially

Natural Methods

Natural methods of asexual reproduction include self-propagation. The different ways in

which a plant self propagates are mentioned below:

● Plants such as ginger, onion, potato, grow from the buds present on the surface
of the stem. A stem tuber has several eyes on the surface. Under favourable
conditions, these eyes sprout producing leafy shoots.
● In sweet potato, new plants can grow from the adventitious buds or stolons.
● In Byophyllum, the small buds o the margin of the leaves gets detached and
grows into an independent plant.

Budding

Budding is the mode of asexual reproduction wherein a new plant is developed from an
outgrowth known as the bud. A bud is generally formed due to cell division at one
particular site.

For example, if you keep a potato for a long time, you can notice a number of small
outgrowths, which are commonly referred to as ‘eyes’. Each of them can be planted
which will grow up like a clone of an original potato plant.

Vegetative Propagation

It is any form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants, in which new plants are
produced from the vegetative parts of the plants, i.e. roots, stems or buds. Vegetative
propagation in plants can occur both by naturally.

The most common techniques of vegetative propagation are:

Stems – Runners are the stems which usually grow in a horizontal form above the
ground. They have the nodes where the buds are formed. These buds usually grow into
a new plant.

Roots – A new plant is developed from modified roots called tubers. Example: Sweet
Potato

Leaves – In some plants, detached leaves from the parent plant can be used to grow a
new plant. They exhibit growth of small plants, called plantlets, on the edge of their
leaves. Example: Bryophyllum.

Fragmentation

This is a mode of asexual reproduction in which a new plant is produced from a portion
of the parent plant. Each section or a part of the plants develop into a mature, fully
grown individual. Some plants possess specialized structures for reproduction through
fragmentation. This type of reproduction happens naturally where the small part of the
plant fall off onto soil and then begin to grow up into a new plant. This mode is often
used by nurseries and greenhouses to produce plants quickly.

Spore Formation

Many plants and algae form spores in their life cycle. A spore is an asexual reproductive
body, surrounded by a hard protective cover to withstand unfavourable conditions such
as high temperature and low humidity. Under favourable conditions, the spores
germinate and grow into new plants. Plants like moss and ferns use this mode of
reproduction.

Artificial Methods

Following are the artificial methods of asexual reproduction in plants:

Cutting
 ● In this method, a part of a plant is cut along with the node and is buried in the
soil.
● The cutting is watered regularly.
● this is the cheapest method of vegetative propagation in plants.

Grafting

● In this method, the parts of two different plants are joined together such that they
continue to grow as a single plant.
● The rooted plant is known as the stock. The other plant is known as the graft.

Layering

It is the method in which a stem attached to a plant is lowered in the ground and
covered with soil. The stem grows roots while attached to the parent plant and then
detaches as an independent plant.

Micropropagation

This is the method of producing a large number of plants from an explant under
laboratory conditions within a short time interval. This facilitates the growth of rare and
endangered plant species that are difficult to grow under natural conditions.

Asexual Reproduction in animals

Asexual reproduction is the production of new individuals from a single parent. This type
of reproduction is generally observed in single-celled organisms. Here no fusion of
gametes is involved and a single parent divides into two or more daughter cells. The
offsprings produced are genetically and physically identical to the parent and are known
as clones.

Features of Asexual Reproduction

Following are the important features of asexual reproduction:

● No formation of gametes or fertilization takes place.

● Only one parent is involved.
 ● The process occurs in very less time.
● The offsprings produced are exact copies of the parent, there is no variation.
● The growth of the offspring is rapid.

Asexual Reproduction Examples

Asexual reproduction takes place in different ways. The different asexual reproduction
examples include:

Binary Fission

In this type of reproduction, parent cell divides into two equal parts each containing a
nucleus. These are called daughter cells. The daughter cells are genetically and
physically similar to the parent cell. This type of asexual reproduction can be seen in
organisms such as amoeba, bacteria, euglena, etc.

Budding
Budding is another method of asexual reproduction where a new organism develops
from an outgrowth from the parent body known as a bud. These derive nutrition from the
parent for growth and development. Once grown, the new organism detaches from the
parent body. This process is called budding. This types of reproduction can be seen in
Hydra.

Fragmentation

This type of asexual reproduction is exhibited by Planaria. In this, the parent body
breaks into several pieces where each piece grows into a new individual. The
detachment of the body parts is intentional.

Regeneration

In this, if a part of the body of an organism is detached, the detached part grows into a
completely new individual. Regeneration is observed in Echinoderms.
Advantages and Disadvantages Of Asexual Reproduction

Following are some of the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction:

Advantages Of Asexual Disadvantages Of Asexual Reproduction

Reproduction

The process requires less Since the offspring is an exact copy of the
energy. parent, any negative mutation will also pass
on to the offspring.

It takes place in various There is limited diversity within life forms.

environments.
 It allows for the survival of It is difficult to control the increasing
species. population.

A single organism can develop a The organisms produced cannot adapt to the
colony. changing environments.

All the positive traits of the There is a huge competition for food and
species are transferred to future space among the species.
generations.

The organisms mature rapidly. They have short lifespans.

This was a brief overview of asexual reproduction in animals.