Cell structure

and levels of
organizations
Key concept Related Global context
concept(s)

Systems Function Orientation in

Form Space and time
Adaptation

Statement of inquiry

Conceptual understanding: systems should have

various forms of organization, which have different
functions.
Statement of inquiry: The adaptation of systems is
based on the function of various forms of organization
within it.
 All answers, questions and class
discussions should be in English
language only.

Mutual respect - Don’t disrupt your

Essential teacher or classmates. RAISE YOUR
HAND

agreemen Don’t hesitate to ask, participate,

t share your ideas and thoughts, but
RAISE YOUR HAND first.

Have your Biology book, copybook

next to you before each class.
 Recall Cell structure

Objectives
:
Describe Levels of
organisation
 Cell structure and
organisation

Using a microscope, we can

explore cell structures that are
too small to see with the naked
eye.
By focusing on a prepared slide,
we can identify key parts like the
nucleus, cell membrane, and
cytoplasm.
Photographs taken through a
microscope are called
photomicrographs.
Preparing Microscope Slides
1. Making Sections: It is easy to cut plant
tissue using a razor blade, but animal
tissue is softer and requires soaking in
melted wax before cutting. After the
section is made, the wax is dissolved
away. Sections are often treated with
stains to make cell structures clearer.
2. Squashing or Smearing: Tissue
samples can be gently squashed or
smeared on a microscope slide to spread
the cells for easier observation.
3. Chemical Treatment: Chemicals are
used to separate the cells, making it
easier to study individual cell structures
under the microscope.
Cells can be observed in
different ways.
Cell structure
Cytoplasm Under the ordinary microscope (light microscope), cytoplasm
looks like a thick liquid with particles in it.
The liquid part of cytoplasm is about 90% water with molecules of salts and
sugars dissolved in it.
Organelles, which have functions are seen in the cytoplasm.
Larger molecules of fats (lipids) and proteins are found suspended in this
solution.
 Lipids and proteins may be used to build up the cell structures, such as
the membranes.
 Some of the proteins are enzymes that control the rate and type of
chemical reactions which keep the cell alive by providing energy and
making substances that the cell needs.
 Some enzymes are attached to the membrane systems of the cell,
whereas others float freely in the liquid part of the cytoplasm.
Cell membrane This is a thin layer outside the cytoplasm around the
cell. It stops the cell contents from escaping and controls the substances
which are allowed to enter and leave the cell.
In general, oxygen, food and water are allowed to enter; waste products
are allowed to leave, and harmful substances are kept out. In this way
the cell membrane maintains the structure and chemical reactions of the
cytoplasm.
Nucleus (plural: nuclei) Most cells contain
one nucleus, which is usually seen as a
rounded structure enclosed in a membrane
and embedded in the cytoplasm.
In prepared sections, it takes up certain
stains more strongly than the cytoplasm.
The function of the nucleus is to regulate
the chemical changes which take place in
the cell by controlling the type and
quantity of enzymes produced by the
cytoplasm.
The nucleus also controls cell
division(reproduce).
Inside the nucleus are thread-like
structures called chromosomes, which can
be seen most easily at the time when the
cell is dividing.
Plant cells differ from animal
cells in several ways.

1 Outside the cell membrane they all have a cell wall

which contains cellulose and other compounds.
It is non-living and allows water and dissolved
substances to pass through.
The cell wall is not selective like the cell membrane.
Under the microscope, plant cells are quite distinct
and easy to see because of their cell walls.
Each plant cell has its own cell wall but the boundary
between two cells side by side does not usually show
up clearly. Cells next to each other therefore appear to
be sharing the same cell wall.
2 Most mature plant cells have a large, fluid-filled space called a
vacuole. The vacuole contains cell sap, a watery solution of sugars,
salts and sometimes pigments.
This large, central vacuole pushes the cytoplasm aside so that it forms
just a thin lining inside the cell wall.
It is the outward pressure of the vacuole on the cytoplasm and cell wall
which makes plant cells and their tissues firm.
Animal cells may sometimes have small vacuoles in their cytoplasm, but
they are usually produced to do a particular job and are not permanent.

3 In the cytoplasm of plant cells are many organelles called plastids.

These are not present in animal cells.
If they contain the green substance chlorophyll, the organelles are
called chloroplasts.
Colorless plastids usually contain starch, which is used as a food store.
Cell structure under electron
microscope
When studied at much higher magnifications with the electron microscope, the
cytoplasm of animal and plant cells no longer looks like a structureless jelly but
appears to be organized into a complex system of membranes and vacuoles.
Organelles present include the rough endoplasmic reticulum, a network of
flattened cavities surrounded by a membrane, which links with the nuclear
membrane. Rough endoplasmic reticulum has the function of producing,
transporting and storing proteins.
The membrane holds ribosomes, giving its surface a rough appearance.
Ribosomes can also be found free in the cytoplasm. They build up the cell’s
proteins.
Mitochondria are tiny organelles, which may appear slipper-shaped, circular or
oval when viewed in section. In three dimensions, they may be spherical, rod-like
or elongated. They have an outer membrane and an inner membrane with many
inward-pointing folds. Mitochondria are most numerous in regions of rapid
chemical activity and are responsible for producing energy from food substances
through the process of aerobic respiration.
Note that prokaryotes do not possess mitochondria or rough endoplasmic
reticulum in their cytoplasm.
Table 2.1 Summary: the parts of a cell
Refer back to page 28 as this table is missing mitochondria and
ribosomes
The Prokaryote
kingdom

Bacteria (singular: bacterium)

are very small organisms
consisting of single cells.
They can be seen only with the
higher powers of the
microscope.
Individual bacteria may be
spherical, rod-shaped or
spiral.
Their cell walls are not made of cellulose,
but of a complex mixture of proteins, sugars
and lipids.
Some bacteria have a slime capsule outside
their cell wall.
Inside the cell wall is the cytoplasm, which
may contain granules of glycogen, lipid and
other food reserves.
Each bacterial cell contains a single
chromosome, consisting of a circular strand
of DNA not enclosed in a nuclear membrane
but is coiled up to occupy part of the cell.
some have flagella, projecting from them.
The flagella can flick and so move the
bacterial cell about.
Refer back to page 30

Table 2.2 Summary : the parts of bacterial cell

Virus particles
All viruses have
a central core of RNA or DNA
surrounded by a protein coat
(capsid)

The coat is made up of regularly

packed protein containing many
protein molecules.

Virus particles are not cells

Objectives:

 Describe specialization in cells

 Identify cell structures and functions
Specialization of cells
Most cells, when they have finished dividing and growing, become
specialized. When cells are specialized:
 they do one particular job
 they develop a distinct shape
 special kinds of chemical change take place in their cytoplasm.

The specialization of cells to carry out particular functions in an

organism is sometimes referred to as ‘division of labor’ within the
organism.
Organization of Multicellular
Organisms
In multicellular organisms:
 Cells may be grouped together to form tissues
 Organs are then formed from the functional grouping of multiple
tissues
 Organs that interact may form organ systems capable of
carrying out specific body functions
 Organ systems collectively carry out the life functions of the
complete organism
Organization of Multicellular
Organisms
Objectives:

 DescribeCell Specialization via Differential

Gene Express
 Identifycell structures and functions through
a variety of specialized cells.
Cell Differentiation

Watch the following video then answer the questions below:

 What type of organism has differentiated cells?
 How embryonic cells become specialized cells?
 Why cell differentiation is important?

How does a single fertilized egg grow to become a fully formed human being? Many of the
most critical stages happen in the first few days following conception. In this video segment
from The Secret of Life, a fertilized egg cell progresses from its earliest stages through cell
differentiation and ultimately the development of an embryo, with simple but identifiable body
parts including a spinal cord, a heart, and eyes.

https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/tdc02.sci.life.stru.different/cell-differentiation/
 What type of organism has differentiated cells?
Multicellular Eukaryotes.

 How embryonic cells become specialized cells?

Cells undergo a process called differential gene expression.

 Why cell differentiation is important?

Creates diversity within the cells of our body and allows cells to create
unique structures that fit their individualized functions.
 Differentiation is the process during development whereby
newly formed cells become more specialized from one
another as they mature.

 All cells of an organism share an identical genome – each

cell contains the entire set of genetic instructions for that
organism.

 The activation of different instructions (genes) within a

given cell by chemical signals will cause it to differentiate.
Cell Specialization via Differential Gene
Expression
Specializes cells found in animals
Specializes cells found in plants
Page 33