Power System Operation & Control B.E.

Electrical Engineering

Zeal Education Society’s

Zeal College of Engineering & Research,
Narhe, Pune

Power System Operation & Control

Lecture Notes
On
Unit 2

“Reactive Power Control”

Course Code (403141)
B.E. Electrical Engineering
(2019 Course)

As Per Savitribai Phule Pune University Syllabus

Prepared By,
Mr. Chinmay Vivek Deshpande
Assistant Professor
ZES ZCOER

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

Topics to be covered

✓ The necessity of reactive power control,

✓ production and absorption of reactive power,
✓ reactive power requirements for power factor control and voltage
regulation.
✓ the loading capability curve of a synchronous generator,
✓ types of FACTS controller.
✓ Series compensation: reactor and capacitor, TCSC, SSSC.
✓ Shunt compensation: reactor and capacitor, STATCOM, FC-TCR.
✓ Series and shunt compensation: UPFC.
(FACTS devices: working principle, circuit diagram, VI characteristics,
applications)

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

1.0 : Introduction to Reactive Power

• Power in an electric circuit is the rate of flow of energy past a given point
of the circuit.
• In AC circuits, energy storage elements such as inductance and
capacitance may result in periodic reversals of the direction of
energy flow.
• The portion of power that, averaged over a complete cycle of the
AC waveform, results in net transfer of energy in one direction is
known as real power. The portion of power due to stored energy, which
returns to the source in each cycle, is known as reactive power.
• According to IEEE std. 100-8: Apparent power is a product of rms voltage
and rms current in a circuit.
• Reactive power is amplitude of power oscillation with no net transfer of
energy and is caused by energy storage components, such as capacitor
and an inductor.
• Active power is the power delivered as an output in the form of electrical
power, mechanical power, and thermal power.
• Under normal, balanced sinusoidal case:
• Apparent power=Active power + Reactive power (vectorial addition)
• Under non sinusoidal case:
• Apparent power=Active power + Reactive power + Distortion power
(vectorial addition)
• Reactive power is caused entirely by energy storage components.
• These are condenser, capacitor, inductor etc.
• Although it does not contribute to the transfer energy, it loads the
equipment as if it did consume active power.
• Capacitors are positive stores of reactive power. (produces reactive power)
• Inductors are negative stores of reactive power. (consumes reactive
power)
• Reactive Power can best be described as the quantity of “unused” power
that is developed by reactive components, such as inductors or
capacitors in an AC circuit or system.
• While active power is the energy supplied to run a motor, heat a home, or
illuminate an electric light bulb, reactive power provides the important
function of regulating voltage.
• If voltage on the system is not high enough, active power cannot be
supplied.
• Reactive power is used to provide the voltage levels necessary for active
power to do useful work.
• Reactive power is essential to move active power through the
transmission and distribution system to the customer.
• Generally we can define Reactive power as: Exchange of energy between

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

two dissimilar energy storing devices (i.e. L and C)

Importance of inductor L and capacitor C in circuit:

• Two extreme examples of the time relationship between voltage and

current are found in inductors and capacitors.
• An inductor is a coil of wire that is used to make motors. A capacitor is
made of parallel conductive plates separated by an insulating material.
The electrical properties of these two devices are such that if they are
both connected to the same AC voltage source, the inductor absorbs
energy during the same “half cycle” that the capacitor is giving energy.
And similarly, the inductor produces energy during the same “half cycle”
that the capacitor absorbs energy.
• Neither of them absorbs any real power over one complete cycle. Thus,
when a motor needs reactive power, it is not necessary to go all the way
back to electric power generators on the transmission grid to get it. We
can simply put a capacitor at the location of the motor and it will provide
the VARs needed by the motor.
• This relieves the generator and all the lines between the generator and
the motor of having to transmit those VARs. They are provided “locally”
by the capacitor. This means that with the capacitors installed, the
current in the lines will be smaller than when the capacitors are not
installed.
• This is a good thing because current in the lines causes heat and every
line can only handle a limited amount of current.
• Since the line current is smaller when the capacitors are installed, the
voltage drop along all the lines is also less, making it more likely that the
motor will have a voltage closer to the desired value.
• When there are not enough VARs flowing locally to the loads, the
generators must supply them remotely, causing unnecessarily large
currents and a resulting drop in voltage everywhere along the path.

2.0 : Necessity of Reactive power:

• Reactive power (VARS) is required to maintain the voltage to deliver

active power (watts) through transmission lines.
• Motor loads and other loads require reactive power to convert the flow of
electrons into useful work.
• When there is not enough reactive power, the voltage sags down and it is
not possible to push the power demanded by loads through the lines.
• Voltage control in an electrical power system is important for proper
operation for electrical power equipment to prevent damage such as
overheating of generators and motors, to reduce transmission losses and

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

to maintain the ability of the system to withstand and prevent voltage

collapse.
• Decreasing reactive power causing voltage to fall while increasing it
causing voltage to rise. A voltage collapse may be occurs when the
system try to serve much more load than the voltage can support.
• When reactive power supply lowers voltage, as voltage drops current
must increase to maintain power supplied, causing system to consume
more reactive power and the voltage drops further. If the current increase
too much, transmission lines go off line, overloading other lines and
potentially causing cascading failures.
• If the voltage drops too low, some generators will disconnect
automatically to protect themselves. Voltage collapse occurs when an
increase in load or less generation or transmission facilities causes
dropping voltage, which causes a further reduction in reactive power
from capacitor and line charging, and still there further voltage
reductions. If voltage reduction continues, these will cause additional
elements to trip, leading further reduction in voltage and loss of the load.
The result in these entire progressive and uncontrollable declines in
voltage is that the system unable to provide the reactive power required
supplying the reactive power demands.
• Reactive power can be leading or lagging.
• Active power contributes to the energy consumed, or transmitted,
reactive power does not contribute to the energy.
• Reactive power is an inherent part of the “total power.”
• Reactive power is either generated or consumed in almost every
component of the system, generation, transmission, and distribution and
eventually by the loads.
• The impedance of a branch of a circuit in an AC system consists of two
components, resistance and reactance. Reactance can be either inductive
or capacitive, which contribute to reactive power in the circuit.
• Most of the loads are inductive, and must be supplied with lagging
reactive power. It is economical to supply this reactive power closer to the
load in the distribution system.
• Voltage at terminal in the system should be within acceptable limit which
depends on reactive power.
• Voltage stability and reactive power control have a significant impact on
system stability.
• Reactive power flow is minimized so as to reduce I2R losses to a practical
minimum.
• As load varies, the reactive power requirements of transmission system
vary.
• Since reactive power cannot be transmitted over long distances, voltage
control has to be effected by using special devices dispersed throughout
the system.

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

• The proper selection and coordination of equipment for controlling

reactive power and voltage are among the major challenge of power
system engineering.
• Voltage collapse typically occurs in power systems which are usually
heavily loaded, faulted and/or has reactive power shortage.
• Voltage collapse is system instability and it involves many power system
components and their variables at once.
• The main reason or variable of voltage collapse is
o Limitation of reactive power generation of generator and reactive
power compensator.
o Reduced capacitive reactive power by the line and fixed capacitors.
• Voltage collapse may be gained by examining the generation,
transmission and consumption of reactive power. Voltage collapse can
occur in a transient time scale or in long term time scale.
• To avoid this reactive power control is required at proper point.

3.0 : Production and absorption of Reactive Power:

Various elements in network absorb or generate reactive power.

1. Synchronous generators: They can absorb or generate reactive power
depending on excitation. When the generator is overexcited, its generated
emf is greater than the terminal voltage, and the generator current
injected at the terminal bus lags the terminal voltage. An over-excited
generator generates reactive power. Similarly, an under-excited generator
absorbs reactive power.

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

2. Overhead Lines: Absorb or supply reactive power based on loading

conditions. Overhead transmission lines may draw or supply reactive
power depending on the loading conditions. A line draws reactive
power if loading is higher than the Surge Impedance Loading and
𝐿
generates reactive power otherwise. (Surge impedance loading: 𝑍𝑐 = √𝐶
𝑉20
SIL= )
𝑍𝑐
3. Cables: Surge Impedance of cables can be quite high (higher than the
thermal limits) and they are typically loaded much below their Surge
Impedance Loading. This leads to significant generation of reactive power
and overvoltage problems if cable length is greater than 30-40 km.
4. Transformers: Transformers generally absorb reactive power due to
shunt magnetizing and series leakage reactance.
5. Loads: Normally absorb reactive power.

4.0 : Generator Capability Curve:

➢ Every device has some constraints within which it should be operated.

An alternator delivering power to grid has to operate within some limits.
➢ The Capability Curve of a Synchronous Generator defines a boundary
within which the machine can operate safely. It is also known as
Operating Charts or Capability Charts.
➢ Synchronous generators are rated in terms of the maximum MVA output
at a specified voltage and power factor (usually 0.85 or 0.9 lagging) which

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Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

they can carry continuously without overheating.

➢ When synchronous machine is connected to an infinite bus, its speed
and terminal voltages are fixed and unalterable. Assume that generator
delivers power so that a certain angle exists between terminal voltage 𝑉𝑡
and generated voltage 𝐸𝑖 of the machine.

Fig. 1. Synchronous machine

From above fig, we can write equation of 𝐸𝑖 .

𝐸𝑖 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝑋𝑑 )

Neglect armature resistance 𝑅𝑎

𝐸𝑖 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑗𝑋𝑑 )

From above equation, we can draw phasor diagram

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Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

Fig. 2. Phasor Diagram

Generator load capability curve is graph between P and Q.
The complex power delivered to the system by generator in pu is,

𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑎 ∗ = |𝑉𝑡 ||𝐼𝑎 | (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)

Equating real and imaginary quantities,

𝑃 = |𝑉𝑡 ||𝐼𝑎 | cos 𝜃

𝑄 = |𝑉𝑡 ||𝐼𝑎 | sin 𝜃

Hence multiply above phasor by 𝑉𝑡 /𝑋𝑑 . The new phasor diagram obtained after
rescaling above fig. 02 is as below,

Fig. 3. Phasor Diagram obtained by multiplying (rescaling) all distances by

𝑉𝑡 /𝑋𝑑

The mirror image of above fig. 03 is taken as below.

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

Now rotate above figure (second part) in clockwise direction by 900, we will get
following figure.

The image shown on right hand side gives five loci passing through operating
point m. The loci corresponds to five possible operating modes is as follows,

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Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

Fig. 4. Generator load capability curve

Explanation about how to draw generator load capability curve:

Sr.
Five Loci Description
No.
1. Constant Active We Know that,
Power P 𝑷 = 𝑰𝒂 𝑽𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
As is 𝑉𝑡 is constant i.e. n-o is constant
Vertical line m-p at fixed distance 𝐼𝑎 𝑉𝑡 cos θ from
vertical axis n-o represents locus of operating
point for constant P.
The MW of generator is always positive regardless
of the power factor of the output
2. Constant We Know that,
Reactive Power 𝑸 = 𝑰𝒂 𝑽𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
Q As is 𝑉𝑡 is constant i.e. n-o is constant horizontal
line q-m at fixed distance 𝐼𝑎 𝑉𝑡 sin θ from horizontal
axis represents locus of operating point for
constant Q.
If power factor, 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 = 𝟏
𝛉 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎
And 𝑸 = 𝟎

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

When Q=0, it is corresponding to horizontal axis

o-p.
3. Constant 𝑬𝒊 Point 𝑛 = as center
Radius of length 𝑛 − 𝑚 = 𝐸𝑖
Which can be maintain constant by holding dc
current 𝐼𝑓 .
4. Constant 𝑰𝒂 Point 𝑜 = as center
Radius of length 0 − 𝑚 = fix value of 𝐼𝑎
5. Constant power Point 𝑜 = as starting point
factor 0 − 𝑚 = fix power factor angle 𝛉 between 𝐼𝑎 and 𝑉𝑡 .

1) Armature current limit:

➢ The armature current limit defines the right side of the capability curve.
The armature current result in an 𝐼 2 𝑅 power loss and the energy
associated with this loss must be removed so as to limit the increase in
temperature of the conductor and its immediate environment.
➢ Therefore, one of the limitations on generator rating is the maximum
current that can be carried by the armature without exceeding the
heating limitations.
➢ If P is per unit active power and Q is per unit reactive power then per
unit apparent power is given by, The PU complex power is given by,

Apparent Power = 𝑆 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 = 𝑉𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑡

√𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 = 𝑉𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑡

By Squaring,
𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 = (𝑉𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑡 )2

The above equation represents a circle with center at origin and radius
equal to 𝑉𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑡 = 𝑆 = 𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

➢ Therefore, in the P-Q plane the armature current limit as shown in figure
above which appears as a circle with center at the origin and radius
equal to the MVA rating.

2) Field current limit:

➢ The field current limit defines the top portion of the capability curve.
➢ Because of the heat resulting from the power loss, the field current
imposes a second limit on the operation of the generator.
➢ The constant field current locus may be developed by the steady-state
equivalent circuit developed.
➢ Consider the alternator to be operating at constant terminal voltage and
field current (hence E) is limited to a maximum value obtained by
heating limits.
➢ Thus induced voltage E is given by,
𝐸 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝑋𝑠 )

If 𝑅𝑎 = 0
𝐸 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝑗 ∗ 𝐼𝑎 (𝑋𝑠 )

𝐸 − 𝑉𝑡
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑗𝑋𝑠

The apparent power can be written as,

𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑎

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

𝐸 − 𝑉𝑡
𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉𝑡 ∗ ( )
𝑗𝑋𝑠

𝑉𝑡 ∗ 𝐸 (𝑉𝑡 )2
𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄 = −
𝑗𝑋𝑠 𝑗𝑋𝑠

−𝑗 ∗ 𝑉𝑡 ∗ 𝐸 (𝑉𝑡 )2
𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄 = +𝑗∗
𝑋𝑠 𝑋𝑠

(𝑉𝑡 )2 −𝑗 ∗ 𝑉𝑡 ∗ 𝐸
𝑃 − 𝑗 (𝑄 + )=
𝑋𝑠 𝑋𝑠
Taking magnitudes,
(𝑉𝑡 )2 𝑉𝑡 ∗ 𝐸
√𝑃 + (𝑄 + )=
𝑋𝑠 𝑋𝑠

Squaring,
2
2
(𝑉𝑡 )2 𝑉𝑡 ∗ 𝐸 2
𝑃 + (𝑄 + ) =( )
𝑋𝑠 𝑋𝑠

−(𝑉𝑡 )2
➢ This equation also represents a circle with center at (0, ). These two
𝑋𝑠
circles are represents in as shown in figure below.

3) End region Heating limit:

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

➢ The localized heating in the end region of the armature impose a third
limit on the operation of a synchronous machine.
➢ This limit affects the capability of the machine in the under excited
condition.
➢ This is illustrated in Fig which also includes the limit imposed by the
armature current heating effects.
➢ The field current and armature current heating limits when plotted on a
P-Q plane depend on the armature voltage. Figure below is schematic of
the end-turn region of generator. The end flux as shown in the figure
enters and leaves in a direction perpendicular (axial) to the stator
laminations.

5.0 : Comparison between Shunt capacitor and series

capacitor:

Sr. Shunt capacitor Series capacitor

No.
1. Supplies fix amount of reactive Quantum of compensation is
power to the system at the point independent of load current and
where they are installed. Its effect instantaneous changes occur. Its
felt in circuit from the location effect is from its location towards
towards supply source only. the load end.
2. As p.f. approaches unity, larger As series capacitors carry fault
compensation is required for the current, special protection is
improvement of p.f. required to protect from fault
current.

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

3. Cost of compensation is lower Cost of series capacitor is higher

than that of the cost required for than that of shunt capacitor.
series capacitor.
4. The location has to be nearer to As a thumb rule, the best location
the load point as possible. is one third of electrical impedance
from the source bus.
5. It reduces the reactive power It is effective:
flowing in the line and causes: a) On tie lines, the power
a) Improvement of p.f. of a transfer is greater
system. b) Specifically, suitable for
b) Voltage profile situations when flickers due
improvement. to respective load functions
c) Decreases KVA loading on occur
source, i.e. generators,
transformers, and line up
to location and thus
provides an additional
capacity.

6.0 : Types of FACTS controller

Definition of FACTS:
A FACT is defined by the IEEE as "a power electronic based system and other
static equipment that provide control of one or more AC transmission system
parameters to enhance controllability and increase power transfer
capability."

Objective of FACT Technology:

• Control power so that it flows on the desired routes. Power may be
controlled by applying a voltage in the midpoint or by applying a voltage
in series with the line and in phase quadrature with the current flow or
by regulating the magnitude of sending and receiving end voltages (This
is more effective than the previous techniques)
• Increase loading capacity of transmission lines.
• Prevention of cascading outages by contributing to emergency control.
• Improve generation productivity.

FACTS controllers can be broadly divided into four categories, which

include series controllers, shunt controllers, combined series-series controllers,
and combined series-shunt controllers. Their operation and usage are
discussed below.

a) Series Controllers:

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

• A series controller may be regarded as variable reactive or

capacitive impedance whose value is adjusted to damp various
oscillations that can take place in the system.
• This is achieved by injecting an appropriate voltage Phasor in
series with the line and this voltage phasor can be viewed as the
voltage across impedance in series with the line.
• If the line voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current (V
is on Y axis and I is on X axis with angle 90 degree), the series
controller absorbs or produces reactive power, while if it is not,
the controllers absorb or generate real and reactive power.
(Note: P=V*I*cos(phi) and Q=V*I*Sin(phi), meaning of phase
quadrature is angle between V and I is phi=90 degree, from
formula of P and Q, when phi=90 degree, P=0 and Q=+ve, hence
it deals with only Q)
• Examples of such controllers are Static Synchronous Series
Compensator (SSSC), Thyristors-Switched Series Capacitor
(TSSC), Thyristors-Controlled Series Reactor (TCSR), to cite a few.
• They can be effectively used to control current and power flow in
the system and to damp oscillations of the system.

b) Shunt Controllers:
• Shunt controllers are similar to the series controllers the
difference being that they inject current into the system at the
point where they are connected.
Variable shunt impedance connected to a line causes a variable
current flow by injecting a current into the system. If the injected
current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, the
controller adjusts reactive power while if the current is not in
phase quadrature, the controller adjusts real power.
(Note: P=V*I*cos(phi) and Q=V*I*Sin(phi), meaning of phase
quadrature is angle between V and I is phi=90 degree, from
formula of P and Q, when phi=90 degree, P=0 and Q=+ve, hence
it deals with only Q)
• Examples of such systems are Static Synchronous Generator
(SSG), Static VAR Compensator (SVC).
• They can be used as a good way to control the voltage in and
around the point of connection by injecting active or reactive
current into the system.

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

c) Combined Series-Series Controllers:

• A combined series-series controller may have two configurations.
• One configuration consists of series controllers operating in a
coordinated manner in a multi-line transmission system. The
other configuration provides independent reactive power control
for each line of a multi-line transmission system and, at the
same time, facilitates real power transfer through the power link.
• An example of this type of controller is the Interline Power Flow
Controller (IPFC), which helps in balancing both the real and
reactive power flows on the lines.

d) Series-Shunt Controllers:
• A combined series-shunt controller may have two configurations,
one being two separate series and shunt controllers that operate
in a coordinated manner and the other one being an
interconnected series and shunt component.
• In each configuration, the shunt component injects a current
into the system while the series component injects a series
voltage. When these two elements are unified, a real power can
be exchanged between them via the power link.
• Examples of such controllers are UPFC and Thyristors-
Controlled Phase-Shifting Transformer (TCPST). These make use
of the advantages of both series and shunt controllers and,
hence, facilitate effective and independent power/current flow

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

and line voltage control.

7.0 : Thyristors Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC)

• The basic conceptual TCSC module comprises a series capacitor,

C, in parallel with a thyristor-controlled reactor, LS, as shown in
Fig. below. However, a practical TCSC module also includes
protective equipment normally installed with series capacitors.
• A metal-oxide varistor (MOV), essentially a nonlinear resistor, is
connected across the series capacitor to prevent the occurrence
of high-capacitor over- voltages. Not only does the MOV limit the
voltage across the capacitor, but it allows the capacitor to remain
in circuit even during fault conditions and helps improve the
transient stability.

Operation of TCSC:
• A simple understanding of TCSC functioning can be obtained by
analyzing the behavior of a variable inductor connected in
parallel with an FC.

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

• By varying the firing angle of the TCR, the effective capacitive

reactance across TCSC can be varied. TCSC can be used to
mitigate the problem of SSR and protect against overvoltage.
• A TCSC is a series-controlled capacitive reactance that can
provide continuous control of power on the ac line over a wide
range. From the system viewpoint, the principle of variable-series
compensation is simply to increase the fundamental-frequency
voltage across a fixed capacitor (FC) in a series compensated line
through appropriate variation of the firing angle, 𝛼. This
enhanced voltage changes the effective value of the series-
capacitive reactance.
• The impedance across the TCSC is given by,

−𝑗𝑋𝐶
𝑍𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶 = 𝑋𝐶
1−𝑋
𝑇𝐶𝑅

• When the Thyristors are blocked, 𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑅 = ∞ and it behaves as the

capacitor of reactance 𝑋𝐶 . As long as 𝑋𝐶 < 𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑅 , 𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶 is
capacitive.
• When 𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑅 , it behaves as an inductor. The variation of the
impedance w.r.t. the delay angle (firing angle) is as shown below.
• In the fig. below, 𝛼 is measured from zero crossing of line current
(or crest of capacitor voltage). In the general TCSC arrangement,
the impedance of TCR (𝐿𝜔) is smaller than that of the capacitor
1
[𝐶𝜔].
• The TCSC has two operating ranges:
𝜋
1. 𝛼𝐶𝑙𝑖𝑚 < 𝛼 < 2 where 𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶 is capacitive.
2. 0 < 𝛼 < 𝛼𝐿𝑙𝑖𝑚 where 𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶 is inductive.
• The TCSC forms a parallel resonant circuit at 𝛼 = 𝛼𝑟 , where the
impedance is theoretically infinite. The TCSC is never operated
near the resonance.
• In practical situation, the TCSC controller can be designed to
control line current, control active power flow through the line,
damp oscillations and mitigate SSR.

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

Advantages of TCSC:
• Continuous control of the transmission-line series-compensation
level.
• Dynamic control of power flow in selected transmission lines
within the network to enable optimal power-flow conditions and
prevent the loop flow of power.
• Suppression of sub synchronous oscillations.
• Decreasing dc-offset voltages.
• Enhanced level of protection for series capacitors.
• Voltage support.
• Reduction of the short-circuit current. During events of high
short-circuit current, the TCSC can switch from the controllable-
capacitance to the controllable-inductance mode, thereby
restricting the short-circuit currents.

8 : Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM):

• The STATCOM is a shunt-connected reactive-power
compensation device that is capable of generating and/ or
absorbing reactive power and in which the output can be varied
to control the specific parameters of an electric power system.
• It is in general a solid-state switching converter capable of

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

generating or absorbing independently controllable real and

reactive power at its output terminals when it is fed from an
energy source or energy-storage device at its input terminals.

Principle operation of STATCOM and its Construction:

• A STATCOM incorporate a voltage source inverter (VSI) that
produces a set of three phase ac output voltages, each of which is
in phase with, and coupled to the corresponding ac system
voltage via a relatively small reactance.
• This small reactance is usually provided by the per phase leakage
reactance of the coupling transformer. The VSI is driven by a dc
storage capacitor. By regulating the magnitude of the output
voltage produced, the reactive power exchange between
STATCOM and the ac system can be controlled.
• In case of two AC sources, which have the same frequency and
are connected through series reactance, the power flows will be:
➢ Active or real power flows from the leading source to the
lagging source.
➢ Reactive power flows from the higher to lower voltage
magnitude source.
• The exchange of reactive power between the converter and the ac
system can be controlled by varying the amplitude of the 3-phase
output voltage, 𝑉𝑠ℎ , of the converter.

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

Let 𝑉𝑠ℎ = amplitude of output voltage.

Let 𝑉𝑚 = ac system voltage.

(Note: In order to understand this derivation, study complex power at

sending and receiving end from unit 2.)

Active power is given by,

|𝑉𝑚 ||𝑉𝑠ℎ |
𝑃𝑠ℎ = sin (𝜃𝑠ℎ − 𝜃𝑚 )
𝑥𝑡

Reactive power is given by,

|𝑉𝑚 ||𝑉𝑠ℎ | |𝑉𝑚 |2

𝑄𝑠ℎ = cos(𝜃𝑠ℎ − 𝜃𝑚 ) −
𝑥𝑡 𝑥𝑡

If 𝜃𝑠ℎ = 𝜃𝑚 , then by putting it in 𝑃𝑠ℎ , it will give zero answer i.e. 𝑃𝑠ℎ = 0.

Reactive power under this condition will be,

|𝑉𝑚 ||𝑉𝑠ℎ | |𝑉𝑚 |2

𝑄𝑠ℎ = −
𝑥𝑡 𝑥𝑡
i.e.
|𝑉𝑚 |
𝑄𝑠ℎ = (|𝑉𝑠ℎ | − |𝑉𝑚 |)
𝑥𝑡

From above equation, we can get three conditions.

Amplitude
Sr. Reactive Power
of Direction of Current
No. exchange
voltages
1. 𝑉𝑠ℎ > 𝑉𝑚 Current flows from As 𝑄𝑠ℎ = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒,
converter to ac system Converter
through tile line reactance generates reactive
(capacitive) power
for the ac system.
Or simply reactive
power is injected
into system.
2. 𝑉𝑠ℎ < 𝑉𝑚 Current flows from ac As 𝑄𝑠ℎ = 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
system to converter Converter absorbs
through tile line reactance Reactive (inductive)
power. Or reactive

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

power is drawn
from system.
3. 𝑉𝑠ℎ = 𝑉𝑚 No current flows Zero

• Adjusting the phase shift between the converter-output voltage

and the ac system voltage can similarly control real-power
exchange between the converter and the ac system. In other
words, the converter can supply real power to the ac system from
its dc energy storage if the converter-output voltage is made to
lead the ac-system voltage.
• If the converter output voltage i.e. 𝑉𝑠ℎ is made to lead the ac
system voltage i.e. 𝑉𝑚 (means angle 𝜃𝑠ℎ > 𝜃𝑚 , equation of 𝑃𝑠ℎ is
positive), then the converter can supply real power to the ac
system from its dc energy storage. If its voltage lags behind the
ac-system voltage (means angle 𝜃𝑠ℎ < 𝜃𝑚 , equation of 𝑃𝑠ℎ is
negative), then the it absorb real power from the ac system for
the dc system.

VI Characteristics of STATCOM:
• A typical V-I characteristic of a STATCOM is depicted in Fig.
below. As can be seen, the STATCOM can supply both the
capacitive and the inductive compensation and is able to
independently control its output current over the rated maximum
capacitive or inductive range irrespective of the amount of ac-
system voltage. That is, the STATCOM can provide full
capacitive-reactive power at any system voltage—even as low as
0.15 pu.

Advantages of STATCOM:

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

1. It has no rotating part.

2. Very fast in response.
3. It requires less space as Bulky passive elements are eliminated.
4. No problem as loss of synchronism and less maintenance.
5. It can be interfaced with real power source viz. battery.

09 : Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)

• A static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) is a type
of flexible AC transmission system which consists of a solid-
state voltage source inverter coupled with a transformer that is
connected in series with a transmission line.
• The SSSC works like the STATCOM, except that it is serially
connected instead of a shunt. This device can inject an almost
sinusoidal voltage in series with the line. The injected voltage
affects the active and reactive power flow in the transmission
line. The SSSC represents an alternative to the series capacitors
compensation of the transmission lines.
• Its output is a series injected voltage, which leads or lags the line
current by 90°, thus emulating a controllable inductive or
capacitive reactance.
• It is a power electronic-based Synchronous Voltage Generator
(SVG) that generates a three-phase voltage, from a dc capacitor
bank, in quadrature with the line current.
• SSSC has three basic components
1. Voltage Source Converter (VSC) – the main component
2. Transformer – couples the SSSC to the transmission
line
3. Energy Source – provides voltage across the DC
capacitor and compensates for device losses.

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

• Fig. 1 shows the basic diagram of the SSSC. The SSSC is a solid
state voltage source inverter coupled with a transformer,
connected in series with a transmission line. It can improve
power transfer capability, transient stability, and power
oscillation damping because it can change the power flow on the
transmission line by providing inductive or capacitive
compensation.
• When SSSC injects sinusoidal voltage leading the line current, it
emulates an inductive reactance (XL) in series with a
transmission line, which causes the power flow as well as the line
current to decrease as the level of compensation increases. Hence
the SSSC is operating in inductive mode.
• When SSSC injects voltage lagging the line current, it emulates
the capacitive reactance (XC) in series with the transmission line
causing the power flow and the line current to increase, as the
level of compensation increases. Hence the SSSC is operating in
a capacitive mode

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

• The applications of the SSSC are,

1. To control the power flow,
2. To increase the power transfer limits
3. To improve the transient stability
4. To damp out the power system oscillations
5. To damp out Sub-Synchronous Resonance (SSR)

10 : Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)

• The UPFC is the most versatile FACTS controller with
capabilities of voltage regulation, series compensation, and
phase shifting. The UPFC is a member of the family of
compensators and power flow controllers. The Unified Power
Flow Controller (UPFC) concept was proposed by Gyugyi in
1991.
• The UPFC is able to control simultaneously or selectively all
the parameters affecting power flow patterns in a
transmission network, including voltage magnitudes and
phases, and real and reactive powers. These basic capabilities
make the UPFC the most powerful device in the present day
transmission and control systems.
• The Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) is used to control
the power flow in the transmission systems by controlling the
impedance, voltage magnitude and phase angle.

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

Operating Principle of UPFC:

• The basic structure of the UPFC consists of two voltage source

inverter (VSI); where one converter is connected in parallel to the
transmission line while the other is in series with the
transmission line. This configuration facilitates free flow of real
power between the ac terminals of the two converters in either
direction while enabling each converter to independently generate
or absorb reactive power at its own ac terminal.

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

• The UPFC consists of two voltage source converters; series and

shunt converter, which are connected to each other with a
common dc link.
• Series converter referred to as Converter 2 or Static Synchronous
Series Compensator (SSSC) is used to add controlled voltage
magnitude (𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑝𝑞 ) and phase angle in series with the line via
an insertion transformer, thereby providing the main function of
the UPFC.
• This injected voltage phasor acts as a synchronous ac voltage
source that provides real and reactive power exchange between
the line and the ac systems.
• Shunt converter or Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
is used to provide reactive power to the ac system, besides that,
it will provide the dc power required for both inverters.
• Each of the branch consists of a transformer and power
electronic converter. These two voltage source converters share a
common dc capacitor.
• The energy storing capacity of this dc capacitor is generally
small. Therefore, active power drawn by the shunt converter
should be equal to the active power generated by the series
converter. The coupling transformer is used to connect the device
to the system.
• The reactive power exchanged at the terminal of series insertion
transformer is generated internally while the real power
exchanged is converted into dc power and appears on the dc link
as a positive or negative real power demand.
• By contrast, the shunt converter, referred to as Converter 1,
supplies or absorbs the real power demanded by Converter 2 on
the common dc link and supports the real power exchange
resulting from the series voltage injection. It converts the dc
power demand of Converter 2 into ac and couples it to the
transmission line via a shunt connected transformer.

11 : Series Reactor
• Series reactors are mostly used to limit the current and to
increase the impedance. They are designed for different purposes,
such as current limiting, neutral / earthing, motor starting, arc

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
Power System Operation & Control B.E. Electrical Engineering

furnace series reactors, and duplex reactors.

• The series reactor is also called the current limiting reactor. The
series reactor is connected in series with the line in the system.
These reactors are used to minimize the fault currents in the
system. Three-phase short circuit faults are mainly rectified
using the series reactor.
• The main advantage of the series reactor is that it can be
connected in the series with the feeder to minimize the short
circuit faults in the power system. The stability of the system can
be equally maintained using the series capacitor. The series
capacitor used between the neutral and earth to limit the line to
earth current then is called the Neutral Earthing reactor.
• The main purpose of the reactor in the substation is to
compensate for the reactive power and the currents at the
receiving end of the substation.
Advantages Of Series Reactor
▪ The reactors resist the high currents and voltages due to the
inductive reactance properties
▪ They are made up of inductive material which needs less
maintenance
▪ Reactors are cost-effective and provide the high efficiency
▪ Increase the stability of the substation
▪ Reactors also work as the protective elements
Disadvantages Of Series Reactor
▪ The constant voltage drop in the reactor is more
▪ There is even power loss during the normal operation
▪ The feeder reactor protection is sometimes limited according to
its usage.
▪ The compensation failure may occur when the high currents
cannot be limited
Applications Of Reactor:
▪ Reactors are used in the substation to limit the fault currents
and the short circuit currents.
▪ Reactors are also used as the protective element for the
substation equipment.
▪ The reactors limit the currents according to the capacity of the
circuit breaker.

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Mr. Chinmay Deshpande, Asst. Professor, ZES ZCOER
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