Introduction to Calculus

Calculus is the mathematics of change. For instance, calculus is the mathematics of velocities,
accelerations, tangent lines, slopes, areas, volumes, arc lengths, centroids, curvatures, and a variety
of other concepts that have enabled scientists, engineers, and economists to model real-life situations.
Although precalculus mathematics also deals with velocities, accelerations, tangent lines, slopes, and
so on, there is a fundamental difference between precalculus mathematics and calculus. Precalculus
mathematics is more static, whereas calculus is more dynamic. Here are some examples.
• An object traveling at a constant velocity can be analyzed with precalculus mathematics.
To analyze the velocity of an accelerating object, you need calculus.
• The slope of a line can be analyzed with precalculus mathematics. To analyze the slope of
a curve, you need calculus.
• The curvature of a circle is constant and can be analyzed with precalculus mathematics.
To analyze the variable curvature of a general curve, you need calculus.
• The area of a rectangle can be analyzed with precalculus mathematics. To analyze the
area under a general curve, you need calculus.

Without Calculus With Differential Calculus

Slope of a line Slope of a curve

Secant line to a Tangent line to a curve

curve

Height of a curve when x = c Maximum height of a

curve on an interval

Area under a curve

Area of a rectangle

Centroid of a region
Center of a rectangle

Chapter 1: The Functions

Functions are essential in mathematics as they describe relationships between variables and are used
in various real-world applications.
Learning Objectives:
By the end of this module, you will be able to:

• Define what a function is.

• Understand the key components of a function.
• Identify different types of functions.
• Evaluate functions

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I. What is a Function?
• A function is a mathematical rule that assigns a unique output value to each input value. In
simpler terms, it takes an input, processes it, and produces a specific output. A function can
be represented in various forms, such as an equation, a graph, or a table.

Input Output
Function
x f(x)
Figure 1. A function can be visualized as an input/output

• Function is a special kind of relation. It is a set of ordered-pairs (𝑥,𝑦) of real numbers in which
no two pairs have the same first element.
• It is a relation in which each 𝑥-element has only one 𝑦-element associated with it.
• A function is a correspondence or rule that assigns to each element in one set, called the
domain, exactly one element from a second set, called the range.

II. Key Components of a Function

• Input: This is also known as the "independent variable" or "domain." It's the value you plug
into the function.
• Output: This is also called the "dependent variable" or "range." It's the result the function gives
you.
• Rule: The rule or formula that the function follows to transform the input into the output.

1
2
2
4
3
6
4

Domain Range
Figure 2. A function maps every domain element to one range element. Each input can
only go to one output, however two different inputs can have the same output

Independent
Variables
A graph of a function f
has a domain of {1,2,3}
Range= {1,2}

and a range of {1,2}. The

independent variable is x
and the dependent
variable is y.
Independent
Variables
Domain= {1,2,2}
III. Basic Types of Functions
1. Linear Functions – Linear functions have a constant rate of change. Their graph is a straight
line. The general form of a linear function is: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃, where 𝑚 is the slope and 𝑏 is the
𝑦-intercept.
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3

2. Polynomial Functions – It is a type of mathematical function that is defined by an algebraic

expression involving variables raised to non-negative integer powers and coefficients. In
simpler terms, a polynomial function is a sum of terms, where each term consists of a variable

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 raised to a non-negative whole number exponent, multiplied by a coefficient. Here's the
general form of a polynomial function:
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 .

Polynomial functions can take various forms and degrees, depending on the values of 𝑛 and
the coefficients. Here are a few examples of polynomial functions:
a. Linear Function (Degree 1):
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏

b. Quadratic Functions (Degree 2): Quadratic functions have a squared term. Their graph
is a parabola. The general form of a quadratic function is:
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4

c. Cubic Function (Degree 3): Cubic function has a cubic term.

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅
Example: 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1

3. Algebraic Function – function that involves addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,

rational powers, and roots.
Two types of algebraic functions
a. Rational Function – Just as rational numbers are quotients of integers, rational functions
are quotients of polynomials.
𝒑(𝒙)
𝒇(𝒙) = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞(𝑥) 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠.
𝒒(𝒙)
𝟑𝒙−𝟏 𝟒
Example: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟓𝒙+𝟐 , 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐+𝟏

𝟏
b. Root Functions - A root function is a power function of the form 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝒏 ,where 𝑛 is a
positive integer greater than one.
1
3
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 = √𝑥

4. Transcendental Functions – Some functions, however, cannot be described by basic

algebraic operations. These functions are known as transcendental functions because they
are said to “transcend,” or go beyond, algebra.
Common transcendental functions
are trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions.

a. Trigonometric Functions – Trigonometric functions are based on trigonometric ratios.

They are used to model periodic phenomena. A trigonometric function relates the ratios of
two sides of a right triangle. They are sin 𝑥 , cos 𝑥 , tan 𝑥 , cot 𝑥 , sec 𝑥 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 csc 𝑥.
b. Logarithmic Functions – A logarithmic function is a function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 (𝑥)
for some constant 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1, where 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 (𝑥) = 𝑦 if and only if 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑥.
c. Exponential Functions – Exponential functions have a constant base raised to a variable
exponent. The general form of an exponential function is: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥
NOTES: Other types of functions (parent functions). A parent function is the simplest function in
a family of functions that share similar characteristics. Parent functions are used as a reference point
to compare other functions in the same family. They are also used to identify the domain, range, and
intercepts of the functions in the family.
Examples of parent functions include linear functions, quadratic functions, cubic functions,
absolute value functions, and square root functions.

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IV. Function Notation
To be able to discuss functions and their properties, we use a symbol, usually a letter of the alphabet
to stand for a function. The most often used are 𝑓, 𝑔, 𝐻, 𝛼, 𝛽. Sometimes, subscripts are employed so
that, for example 𝑓1, 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 and 𝑓4 would stand for four different functions. To write a function, we enclose
the independent variable in parentheses preceded by a chosen letter. In symbol form 𝑓(𝑥),read
“function of 𝑥” indicating that there exists a relationship between variable 𝑥 and another variable.
In equation 𝑦 = 𝛼(𝑥) is read is a function of “𝑦 is a function of 𝑥” , with the Greek letter 𝛼 indicating a
relationship between dependent variable 𝑦 and independent variable 𝑥, hence, the ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦)
can be denoted by [𝑥, 𝛼(𝑥)]. Function 𝛼 is a single-valued function.

Moreover, in function 𝑓(𝑥) = −√𝑥 + 1, 𝑓(𝑥) is a double-valued function. For example, when 𝑥 =
3, 𝑓(𝑥) = ±2.
A function that depends on two or more independent variables is symbolically represented in a similar
manner. Hence, a function of variables 𝑥 and 𝑧 is written as 𝛽(𝑥, 𝑧) and is read function “𝛽 of 𝑥 and 𝑧”.
The function 𝛽(𝑥, 𝑧) when 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑧 = 2 is denoted by 𝛽(2,0).

Piecewise-Defined Functions
It is a mathematical function that is defined by different rules or formulas over different intervals or
"pieces" of its domain. In other words, instead of having a single formula that describes the entire
function, a piecewise function has different formulas or rules for different subsets of its domain. The
absolute value function is an example of a piecewise-defined function because the formula changes
with the sign of 𝑥:

 − x, x  0
f ( x) = 
 x, x  0

V. Vertical Line Test

The vertical line test is a graphical way to determine whether a given graph represents a valid function.
It's a simple rule used to check if a relation (a set of ordered pairs) or a graph of points in the Cartesian
plane represents a function or not.
Here's how the vertical line test works:
1. Draw a Vertical Line: Take a vertical line (a line that goes straight up and down), and position
it anywhere on the graph.

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 2. Check for Intersections: Look at the points where the vertical line intersects the graph. If the
vertical line intersects the graph at only one point for each horizontal position along the graph,
then the graph represents a valid function.
3. Multiple Intersections Mean Not a Function: If the vertical line intersects the graph at more
than one point for any horizontal position, then the graph does not represent a valid function.
In simpler terms, the vertical line test helps you determine if every input (𝑥-value) corresponds to a
unique output (𝑦-value) in a given graph. If the vertical line can cross the graph at more than one point
horizontally, it means there are multiple 𝑦-values for a single 𝑥-value, indicating that the graph doesn't
represent a function.
Examples to illustrate the vertical line test:
Example 1: Valid Function

Figure 3. Graph of a valid function: 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)2

Example 2: Invalid Function

Figure 4. Graph of invalid function: 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑦 + 2)2

VI. Function Evaluation

How to Find the Range of a Function?
Step 1: Write down the function in the form: 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

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Step 2: Solve it for 𝑥 to write in the form 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦)
Step 3: The domain of the function 𝑔(𝑦) is the range of 𝑓(𝑥)

To determine the domain and range of function, follow the following steps:

1. Look at the function graph and table values to confirm the actual function behavior.
2. Determine the type of function you’re working with. The domain of the function is all
the 𝑥-values (horizontal axis) that will give you a valid 𝑦-value output. For real-valued
functions: first, you need to identify the values for which the function is not defined
and then exclude them.
3. Write the domain with proper notation. Writing the domain of a function involves the
use of both brackets [, ] and parentheses (, ). You use a bracket when the number is
included in the domain and use a parenthesis when the domain does not include the
number. The letter 𝑈 indicates a union that connects parts of a domain that may be
separated by a gap.
4. To calculate the range, rewrite the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) with the independent variable 𝑥
expressed in terms of 𝑦. That is, in the form 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦).
5. Solve for 𝑦 to find all possible values of 𝑦.
6. Write down your answer using proper notation.

For each of the following functions, find the domain and range.
3𝑥−1
1. 𝑓(𝑥) =
5𝑥+2

Solution: Write down the function in the form: 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

3𝑥−1 3𝑥−1
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥+2, we can simplify to 𝑦 = 5𝑥+2
2
Looking at the denominator, if the 𝑥 = − 5, this equation has no solution. It is not possible to divide by
zero, so the domain is the set of real numbers 𝑥 such that 𝑥 ≠ −2/5. To find the range, we need to
find the values 𝑦 for which there exists a real number.
3𝑥−1
From 𝑦 = 5𝑥+2, then multiply both sides by 5𝑥 + 2

3𝑥 − 1
(5𝑥 + 2)𝑦 = (5𝑥 + 2)
5𝑥 + 2
y (5 x + 2) = 3x − 1
5 xy + 2 y = 3x − 1
2 y + 1 = 3x − 5 xy
2 y + 1 = x (3 − 5 y )

If 𝑦 = 3/5, this equation has no solution. On the other hand, as long as 𝑦 ≠ 3/5,

2 y + 1 = x (3 − 5 y )

2 y +1 x (3 − 5 y )
=
( 3 − 5 y ) ( 3 − 5y )
2 y +1
x=
3 − 5y

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 3
satisfies this equation. We can conclude that the range of 𝑓 = {𝑦|𝑦 ≠ 5}

𝟐 𝟑
Domain = {𝒙|𝒙 ≠ − } and Range = {𝒚|𝒚 ≠ }
𝟓 𝟓

Function Evaluation is the process of finding the output value of a function for a given input value.
1. Example, if you have the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥, evaluating the function for 𝑥 = 2 results in a 𝑦-
value of 2 ∗ (𝑥) = 4.
2. Suppose that is a function defined by the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3. Evaluate
𝑓(0), 𝑓(−1), 𝑓(−2), 𝑓(1), 𝑓(2), 𝑓(3), 𝑓[𝑓(𝑥)]. Draw the graph of 𝑓 for the portion of the domain
−2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3.
Solution: Substituting the given value of the independent variable 𝑥, we have
• 𝑓(0) = 02 − 2(0) − 3 = −3
• 𝑓(−1) = (−1)2 − 2(−1) − 3 = 1 + 2 − 3 = 0
• 𝑓(−2) = (−2)2 − 2(−2) − 3 = 4 + 4 − 3 = 5
• 𝑓(1) = (1)2 − 2(1) − 3 = −4
• 𝑓(2) = (2)2 − 2(2) − 3 = 4 − 4 − 3 = −3
• 𝑓(3) = (3)2 − 2(3) − 3 = 9 − 6 − 3 = 0
• 𝑓[𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 2)
= (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3)2 − 2(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3) − 3
= 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 9 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6 − 3

= 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 + 12
Tabulating the 𝑥 values and the corresponding 𝑦 or 𝑓(𝑥) values,

𝑥 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 5 0 −3 −4 −3 0
(𝑥, 𝑦) (−2,5) (−1,0) (0, −3) (1, −4) (2, −3) (3,0)

The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 is a parabola with vertex at (1, −4).

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) 1
3. Find the value of ℎ
,ℎ ≠ 0, given function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .
1
Solution: Evaluate 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = (𝑥+ℎ)2

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 1 1 𝑥2 −(𝑥+ℎ)2
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) −
(𝑥+ℎ)2 𝑥2 𝑥2 (𝑥+ℎ)2
Therefore, ℎ
= ℎ
= ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 − 2ℎ𝑥 − ℎ2 −ℎ(2𝑥 + ℎ) −(ℎ + 2𝑥)
= = = =
𝑓 ℎ𝑥 2 (𝑥 + ℎ)2 ℎ𝑥 2 (𝑥 + ℎ)2 𝑥 2 (𝑥 + ℎ)2

References:

• Parent Functions – Visual Fractions

• Free Calculus Volume 1 Textbook Available for Download - OpenStax
• Larson, R., & Edwards, B. H. (n.d.). Calculus : with CalcChat and CalcView.
• Finding the Domain and Range of a Function: Check the Method - Embibe

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