Physics unit 1

Distance time graph:

Speed= distance/time (gradient)

If the graph is flat
- the object is not moving

Velocity-time graph:

Acceleration= v-u/t (gradient)

Average distance= area under the graph
- u+v/2
Practical to investigate the motion of objects:

Forces
Forces->they push or pull one thing on to another

Friction-> causes moving objects top slow down and stop

- kinetic energy of the moving object is transferred to heat as work is done by friction

Springs can be compressed or stretched by applying forces to them

Hookes law:
- the extension of the spring is proportional to the force
- When the spring is beyond its elastic limit it will not return to its original length

Practical:

Force and movement

An object wont accelerate or decelerate if there are no unbalanced forces acting on it
- the acceleration of the object depends on the size of the force acting on it
The friction between the tyres and the road depends on the condition of the tyres and the
surface of the road
Thinking distance
- the time it takes for the driver to see the object and respond to it
- Factors affecting thinking distance
- Tiredness
- Alcohol
- Drugs
- Poor visibility e.g. fog
- The further it takes for the driver to react the further the car will travel before braking
Air resistance and terminal velocity
When an object is moving through air, it will have resistance that opposes its movement
1. When an object is dropped, its velocity is 0m/s meaning the forces will make the object
accelerate downwards due to the weight
2. When the object starts to move, another force will be acting upon it (air resistance)
- The faster the object is moving the bigger the air resistance force is
3. When the air resistance is increasing, it will be equal to the weight force
- There is now no unbalanced forces acting on the object meaning it has reached terminal
velocity and it wont accelerate or decelerate
4. If the object opens its parachute, the object will decelerate as their is more area for air
resistance to act on

Momentum
Momentum->how difficult it is for an object to stop moving
Momentum is proportional to the force applied
- if the force increases so does the momentum
Momentum before the collision = momentum after the collision
- momentum is conserved

Momentum and car safety:

- Crumple zones
- Absorbs the forces
Newtons laws of motion
- First law
- If there is no unbalanced (resultant force) the object isn’t moving
- Second law
- Force= mass x acceleration
- Third law
- When you push something it pushes you back just as hard but in the opposite directions

Physics unit 2

Mains electricity
Live wire: provides the path for the electrical energy from the power station
Earth wire: has no current, and is there to protect you if the appliance has a fault
- provides a low-resistant path for the current
Neutral wire: completes the circuit

Fuses-> if the current is too large in the appliance the fuse will melt, this makes the circuit
incomplete and no current will flow
- this prevents a shock and electrical fire
Switch-> when it is open no electrical energy can reach the appliance
Wires with low resistance don’t become warm when current is being passed

Current and voltage in circuits

Electric current-> a flow of charge
Metals are good conductors of electricity
Insulators prevent the flow of charge

Ammeter is used to measure current

Voltmeter is used too measure voltage

Circuit symbols:

Series and parallel circuits:

Series:

- if you open a switch, it turns all components off

- If one of the bulbs break, the circuit will stop working
- Voltage is shared everywhere
- The more bulbs the less bright they are
- Current is the same
Parallel:
- adding a switch, bulbs can be switched off individually or all together
- If one bulb breaks, the circuit can still flow
- Voltage is the same everywhere
- Current is shared

Electrical resistance
If a component has high resistance, it will lose energy through heat
Graphs to show the resistance in components:
Resistance/wire:

- the resistance doesn’t change, it is constant

Filament bulb:

- as the resistance increases, the temperature rises and the current decreases
Diode:

- the diode only allows current to flow in one directions

- It has low resistance when current flows in the opposite direction
Resistors are included in circuits to control the size of the current and voltage flow in the circuit
- if resistance decreases, more current can flow and the bulb shines more brightly
Types of resistors:
Thermistor:
- the resistance changes with the temperature

- High temperature, lower resistance

- Low temperature, higher resistance
Light-dependent resistor (LDR)
- The resistance changes with the light intensity

- in bright light, low resistance

- Darkness, high resistance
Diodes
- special resistors that allow charges to flow through them in one direction

Electricity charge (P2)

To charge objects, you can rub them together, but the materials must be electrical insulators
- plastic
- Rubber
- Glass
- Wood
Practical:

Charged objects can exert forces on other charged objects

- similar charge, the objects repel each other
- Opposite charge, the objects attract each other
Uses of static electricity:
Electrostatic paint spraying:
- the paint from the spray gun is positively charged
- Because the paint agave the same charge, the repel and spread out
- The object being painted will be negatively charged and attract the paint

Inject printers:
- the ink has a negative charge and it will fall onto oppositely charged plates and the
electrostatic forces direct the ink to the correct position
Photocopier:

Problems with static electricity:

When aircraft’s fly in the air, the friction between the plane and the air causes the plain
become charged with static electricity
- when the plane lands the charge can be earthed but can escape as a spark or flash of electricity
- Especially during fuelling, it can can cause an explosion

Physics unit 3

Properties of waves
Waves-> a way of transferring energy from place to place
- without matter being transferred
Transverse waves: vibrates (oscillates) at right angles to the direction in which the energy/wave
is moving
E.g
- light waves
- EM waves

Longitudinal waves: the wave vibrates (oscillates) along the direction in which the energy/wave
is moving
E.g.
- sound waves

Low frequency:
- long wavelengths
High frequency:
- short wavelengths
Reflection:
Angle of incidence = angle of reflections

Refraction:
Refraction occurs when light waves enter a different medium
- there is a change in speed therefore causing the light waves to change direction- called
refraction
Doppler effect:
1. When the car isn’t moving, the sound waves have equally speed wavefronts
- People in front and and the back of the car can hear the sound of the same frequency and
wavelength

2. When the car is moving, the wavefronts aren’t evenly spaced anymore
- If the car is moving forward, the person in front of the car will receive a high pitch noise as
the wavefronts will be compressed therefore the waves will have a shorter wavelength and
higher frequency
- However the person at the back will receive a lower pitch as the wavefronts are stretched
out and therefore a longer wavelength and lower frequency

Electromagnetic spectrum

The properties of EM waves:

- they all transfer energy
- They are all transverse waves
- They all travel at 3x10^8 m/s
- Speed of light in a vacuum
- They all can be reflected and refracted

Sources Uses Dangers

Radio waves longest wavelength shortest frequency Radio transmitters, TV transmitters
Long, medium and short wave radio Damage body tissue
Microwaves Microwave transmitters and ovens Mobile phone and satellite communication
and cooking- used for cooking as the water molecules in the food absorb the microwaves and
become very food Heat human body tissues
Infrared (IR) low penetration Hot objects Infrared cookers and heaters,
night vision, remote controls Can harm the human body if too much infrared radiation has
been absorbed and can cause skin burns
visible light Luminous objects Photography, seeing, communication (optical fibres)
ultraviolet (UV)UV lamps and the sun Fluorescent tubes and UV tanning lamps Can cause
skin cancer and blindness, suncream or glasses are used to protect against the UV lights
x-rays X-ray tubes X-rays to observe the internal structure of objects Can cause cancer
therefore lead screens are used and should wear protective clothing
Gamma rays Radioactive materials Sterilising equipments and food, radiotherapy Can cause
cancer, lead screens, boxes and aprons can prevent the damage done by gamma rays

Light waves
Reflection:
Mirrors:
- used to change the direction of light rays

Periscope:
- changing the direction of the light rays allowed the person to use a periscope to see around
objects

Refraction:
If light rays go into a more dense material (e.g. air -> glass) it will slow down and bend towards
the normal
If light rays go into a less dense material (e.g. glass -> air) it will speed up and bend away from
the normal

Refractive index:
Refractive index-> a way to describe the different materials bending light rays in different
amounts
Refractive index of glass: 1.5
Refractive index of water: 1.3
Practical to investigate refractive index:

Total internal reflection:

TIR occurs when a light ray is travelling into a less optically denser medium

Critical angle is when the angle of reflection= 90 degree

When the the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the light is reflected
- no light is refracted
- This is known as TIR

Practical to investigate TIR:

Using TIR:
Periscope

Optical fibres

Sound
Sound is produced by objects that vibrate
Practical to investigate the speed of sound (P2):

Reflection:
Ships use echoes to find out the depth of the water
1. sound waves are emitted from the ship and travel to the sea floor
2. Some of the sound waves are reflected back to the ship
3. Equipment used on the ship detect the sound waves
4. The time it takes for the sound waves to return is measured- the depth of the sea can be
measured
Pitch and frequency (P2)
High frequency means high pitch
Lower frequency means low pitch
Practical: investigate the frequency of a sound wave using an oscilloscope(P2):

Audible range(P2):
An average person hears between 20Hz and 20,000Hz
Loudness(P2):
Large amplitude means a loud sound
Small amplitude means a soft sound

Physics unit 4

Energy transfer
Stores of energy:
- thermal energy
- Kinetic energy
- Electrical energy
- Chemical energy
- Nuclear energy
- Gravitational potential energy
- Elastic potential energy
Dynamo or generator:
- the bicycles wheel transfers the movement energy to electrical energy for the dynamo
- The dynamo than transfers the electrical energy to light and heat
Conservation of energy
Energy is not related or destroyed in any process
Sankey diagrams
- shows the energy input and output plus the wasted energy
E.g.

Thermal energy
Conduction:
Thermal conduction-> the transfer of heat energy through a substance by vibration of the atoms
within a substance (usually a solid)
- the heat energy causes the particles to vibrate, transferring the heat energy to the kinetic
energy causing them to move, the kinetic energy of the particles allows the particles to bump
into their neighbours transferring the kinetic energy to the neighbours
Practical: investigate how well different metals conduct heat

Convection:
Convection-> the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and gases)
In a liquid, it can be heated causing a convection current
- the heated water expands and becomes less dense, therefore moving upwards and displaces
the other water particles
- Cold water sinks to the bottom as it is more dense and will be heated as well
- This process is repeated- therefore it is a convection current
Practical to investigate convection currents in water:

Work and power

Energy is the ability to do work
Gravitational potential energy
if we lift an object off the ground, the GPE of an object will increase
Power
The rate of transfer of energy or the rate of doing work

Energy resources and electricity generation (P2)

Non-renewable energy resources:
Something of limited supply
Fossil fuels
- coal
- Oil
- Natural gas
Burning fossil fuels affects the environment as it releases CO2 high is a greenhouse gas
- greenhouse gases trap the suns heat in the earths atmosphere causing the temperature to rise
Nuclear fuel
Nuclear reactors use uranium to produce energy
- limited supply
However unlike the fossil fuels, it doesn’t produce greenhouse gases however, it contains
radioactive material and it might cause a leakage
Renewable energy resources
Something of unlimited supply
Hydroelectric power:
- use stored GPE of water in high reservoirs built in mountains
- GPE is transferred to KE when the water flows down the mountain to the power station
- And then the water causes a turbine to turn which causes a generator to turn which eventually
produces electricity
Tidal power:
- sea -> river
- The tide of the sea is blocked, and when it falls, the water with transfer its GPE to KE and drive
the turbine
- The turbine with cause the generator to turn which produces electricity
Wind power:
- the wind causes the turbines to move which causes the generator to turn therefore producing
energy
Solar power
Geothermal energy:
Geothermal energy is thermal energy stored deep inside the earth
- Tubes are pout into the earths core, and water is flown through, due to the warmth of the hot
rocks in the core, it will heat up the water
- The water is then converted to steam and this will drive the turbines which generates
electricity
- The hot water can also produce domestic heating

Physics unit 5

Density and pressure

Density
Solids are very dense
Liquids are less dense than solids
Gases have very low densities
Practical: investigate the density of solids

Pressure in liquids
Pressure in liquids act equally in all direction
- only when its not moving

Solids, liquids and gases

States of matter (P2)

Properties:
Solids
- Define rigid shape
- Very dense
- Particles are closely packed in a regular arrange,meaning strong forces between the particles
- The particles vibrate in their fixed positions
- If the substance is heated, the particles will have an increase in KE
Liquids
- no definite shape
- Greater densities than gases
- Particles are still quite close
- No fixed position
Gases
- particles are very spread out
- No forces between the particles
- Low densities
- No definite shape
- Move randomly
- When the particles bump into stuff the forces will exert a pressure
Practical: investigate the specific heat capacity of a substance (P2)

Practical: investigate temperature during a change of state (P2)

Gas laws (P1)

Boyle’s law:
Pressure(1) x volume(1) = pressure(2) x volume(2)

Gases can be compressed as the molecules are spread out

- this increases the pressure
- If the KE of the particles and the temperature stays the same, and the gas particles get
squeezed into a smaller volume, they will collide will the walls more often causing more forces to
be exerted therefore an increase of pressure
Pressure(1) / temperature(1) = pressure(2) / temperature(2)
Physics unit 6

Magnetism and magnetic materials

Magnets are able to attract objects made from magnetic materials
Magnetic materials:
- iron
- Steel
- Nickel
- Cobalt

Permanent magnets-> made from magnetically hard materials such as steel

- magnetically hard materials keeps its magnetisms once it has been magnetised
- Magnetically soft materials lose their magnetic easily and are useful as temporary magnet

Magnetic fields
Magnetic fields can’t be seen, but iron fillings can be used to show its shape and compasses to
discover its direction
Practical: investigate the magnetic field patterns of bar magnets

The magnetic field lines show:

- shape of magnetic field
- The direction of the magnetic force
- Always from north to south
- The strength of the magnetic field
- The closer the lines are together the stronger the magnetic field is
Creating a uniform magnetic field
A uniform magnetic field is when the magnetic fields’ strength and direction is the same
everywhere

Place two opposite poles of the magnets close to each other and it will produce a uniform
magnetic field
- strength and direction is constant

Induced magnetism
Induced magnetism is when a magnetically soft materials has been magnetised so it is called
induced
Magnetically soft materials induced magnetism is temporary and disappears after the permanent
magnet has been removed

Electromagnetism (P2)
Electromagnetism-> when there is a current in a wire and a magnetic field is created around it
Right hand rule
- can work put the direction of the field

Wire:

How to increase the strength of the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire:
- increase the current
- Wrap more coils
Solenoid: (a long coil)

The strength of the magnetic field around a solenoid can be increased:

- increasing the current
- Increasing the number of turns
- Wrapping a magnetically soft materials around the solenoid

Movement from electricity

- when a charged particle moves through a magnetic field, it experiences a force

Due to the overlapping of two magnetic fields, it produces a motion

- known as the motor effect
A stronger force will be produced if the magnetic field is stronger or the current is increased
Flemings lefthand rule

Loudspeaker
Loudspeakers uses the motor effect to transfer electrical energy to sound energy
- electric current from a source passes through the coils of the speaker
- The current (represents sounds) always change in size and direction (just like vibrating
sound waves)- Alternating current
- The fields of the coil and the permanent magnets are then always creating a field that
continuously change in directions and strength
- Due to the fields changing, the forces in the wire of the could causes the speaker cone to
vibrate
- These vibrations creates sound waves

Electric motors
D.c. electric motor:

- When there is current in the loop of wire one of the sides will experience force pushing it
upwards and the other side will experience a force pushing is downwards, causing it to rotate
- When the loop is in a vertical position, the forces change causing the rotation to be reversed
- This is allowed due to the split-ring commutator
- As the loop changes position, the direction of the current will change meaning the forces
will cause the loop to change direction
To increase the rate at which the motor turns:
- increase n.o. Turns
- Increase the strength of the magnetic field
- Increase the current in the loop of wire

Electromagnetic induction
Generators and alternators use motion to produce electricity
- this is known as electromagnetic induction

How to increase the size of induced voltage and current:

- move the wire more quickly
- Use a stronger magnet
- Wrap the wire into a coil
How to generate voltage:
By pushing a magnet into a coil
By ‘cutting’ into the magnetic field it will generate a voltage

How to increase the size of the induced voltage:

- move the magnet more quickly
- Use a stronger magnet
- Use a coil with more turns
A voltage is induced when a conductor cuts through magnetic field lines

Generators
A dynamo- used to generate electricity:

1. As the cyclist pedals, the wheel rotates and makes a small magnet turn
- Because the magnet turns, its field turns too
2. The field lines cut through the coil inducing a current in it, this causes electricity to be
produced therefore producing light

Transformer (P2)
When there is an alternating current in a coil, the magnetic field around the coil is continuously
changing
- as the size of the current increased, the field increases
- known as a transformer

Input voltage / output voltage = number of turns on primary coil / number of turns on
secondary coil
Energy in transformers
- transformers should be as efficient as possible
- To reduce energy los there is a thick copper wire and use a soft iron core to connect the two
coils
Input power = output power

Transformers and national grids (P2)

Physics unit 7
Atoms and radioactivity

Atomic particleRelative mass of particle Relative charge of particle

Electron 1 -1
proton 2000 +1
neutron 2000 0
The chemical behaviour and properties of an element depends upon how the atoms combine
with other atoms
- this is determined by the number of electrons in an atom

Isotopes
The chemical behaviour of an element depends on the number of electrons it has
Isotopes-> similar element but different number of neutrons, but same number of protons
Isotopes have different physical properties from other isotopes of the same element
The protons are held in the nucleus by the nuclear
- the force is strong and acts over a very small distance
The presence of neutron in the nucleus affects the balance between these forces
- too many or too few neutrons will make the nucleus unstable
- This causes the unstable nucleus to decay
- It will emit radiation such as alpha or beta particles

Ionising radiation
When an unstable nuclei decay they give out ionising radiation
- ionising radiation causes atoms to gain or lose electric charge- forming ions
The unstable nuclei decays at random
This causes the atomic number to change
Alpha radiation
They are fast moving particles
Alpha radiation are helium nuclei
- made up of 2 nucleons
- A mass of 4
- Relative charge is +2
Alpha particles have short range as it has low penetrating radiation
- it gets stopped through through paper
Alpha particles have high ionising radiation

General formula:

Beta radiation
Involves a neutron in the nucleus splitting into a proton and an electron
- the proton remains in the nucleus
- The electron is removed
Beta particles are light
Relative charge is -1
Mid penetration and ionising radiations

General formula:

Gamma rays
EM waves
No mass and charge
Weakly ionising
High penetration power
- many CM of lead is needed to stop the radiation

Neutron radiation

Practical: investigate the penetrating powers of different kinds of radiation:

Detecting ionising radiation

Unit of radioactive> becquerel (Bq)
- a measure of how many unstable nuclei are breaking up per second
Geiger-Muller tube
- a glass tube it’s an electrically conducting surface
- When ionising radiation enters the tube, it causes low pressure gas inside to form ions

Background radiation
Background radiation-> low-level ionising radiation that is produced all the time

Natural background radiation from the earth:

- radioactive rocks
- Earths crust
- Dense gases that are built up in basements of buildings
Artificial radiation:
- generating electricity in nuclear power stations
- Nuclear weapons
- Radioactive tracers
 - Used in industry and medicine

Radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is a random and unpredictable process
Half-life:
Half-life of a radioactive sample is the average time taken for half the original mass of the
sample to decay

Use of radioactivity in medicine

Tracers:
- used to identify diseased organs
- A radioactive tracer is a chemical that emits gamma radiation
- It is either swallowed or injected
- The tracer should have a short half-life
Treatment:
- low doses of radiation have no lasting effect
- High doses of radiation causes the cells to stop working and damages the DNA in the cells
- Leads to abnormal growth and cancer
- Very high doses kill living particles
Cancer can be treated using radiation
- alpha or beta radiation as they have short range in the body and only affect a small volume of
tissue
Sterilisation:
Gamma radiation can kill bacteria and viruses
- it is used to kill these microorganisms on medical equipment
- Known as irradiation
- The gamma radiation passes through the packaging and destroy the bacteria without damaging
them

The use of radioactivity in industry

Gamma radiography
Gauging

Dangers of ionising radiation

- damage cells of living tissue
- Cell mutation
- Cancer can be developed
- Gamma and beta particles can provide huge health risk
How to handle radioactive materials safely:
- put in lead lined box
- Use tongs and kept far away from the body

Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission-> heavy atoms splitting into lighter atoms
- a slow-moving neutron is absorbed by a nucleus of uranium-235
- The nucleus become unstable and splits apart
- And two daughter nuclei, gamma rays and neutrons are produced
- Fission produces huge amounts energy as the loss mass is converted to energy
- The three other neutrons may bump into other uranium-235 atoms
- Known as a chain reaction as each fission reaction results in more nuclei splitting apart
nuclear reactor:
If the chain reaction takes place in a nuclear reactor, the core overheats
- so therefore the process is controlled so that the heat energy is released over a longer period
of time
 - The heat energy is used to heat water and the steam will turn the turbines to turn generators

- the reactor core is made of uranium

- The moderators is graphite
- The moderator absorbs the kinetic energy of the neutrons to slow them down
- Controls rods are made of boron
- The control rods absorb the neutrons and take them out of the fission reaction
- The chain reaction is stopped and the production of heat is low

Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion-> lighter atoms being forced to join together to make heavier atoms
- high speed, temperature and pressure is needed

Physics unit 8- P1 only

Motion in the universe

Planets and comets travel around the sun

moons and satellites travel around the planets
The force between the objects is caused by the gravitational force
- depends on the mass of the two objects
- Distance between the masses

Satellites and moons

A satellite is an object that orbits a planet
There are two types of satellites:
- natural
- Artificial
Natural satellites are called moons
- all moons have circular orbits due to the gravitational forces between the moons and their
planet
Artificial satellites are extremely useful as they help us to communicate over large distances and
used to monitor the earth’s surface in detail

Comets
Comets-> large rock-like pieces of ice that orbit the sun
They have an elongated orbits which sometimes take them very close to the sun or very far
away

Gravitational field strength

The larger the mass of a planet the greater the force
The larger the radius of a planet the smaller the gravitational field strength at its surface
Orbital speeds of planets and satellites
Distance moved= 2 x pi x orbital radius

The Milky Way

Galaxies are made of starts being attracted to each other due to gravitational forces which cause
them to group up

Classifying stars
If a star is blue it is very hot
If a star is red it is cooler
Hottest
- blue
- White
- Yellow
- Orange
- Red
Coolest
Brightness of a star(P2)
The brightness of a star depends on:
- the distance the star is from earth
- What the star is made of
- The kinds of nuclear reactions that take place in the star
Different ways to describe the brightness:
- the apparent brightness or magnitude of a star
- A measure of how bright a star is as seen from the earth
- The absolute brightness or magnitude
- A measure of how bright a star is if all the stars where placed at the same distance from
earth
- Easier to make comparisons between stars
- The luminosity of a star
- How much light energy is emitted form the stars surface

Birth of a star
Dust and gas particles are called nebulas
- these are drawn together over a long period of time by gravitational forces
- The particles are pulled together that there is an increase in temperature and pressure
- As a result nuclear fusion begins

The hertz spring Russell diagram (HR diagram) (P2)

Cosmology(P2)