Earth movements – folds and faults

The study of forces affecting the crust of the earth or of geological processes is of
paramount significance because these forces and resultant movements are involved in
the creation, destruction, recreation, and maintenance of geomaterials and numerous
types of relief features of varying magnitudes. These forces very often affect and
change the earth's surface.
The forces, which affect the crust of the earth, are divided into two broad categories on
the basis of their sources of origin:
ENDOGENETIC FORCES
The forces coming from within the earth are called endogenetic forces which cause two
types of movements in the earth viz. ( l ) horizontal movements and (ii) vertical
movements. These movements motored by the endogenetic forces introduce various
types of vertical irregularities which give birth to numerous varieties of relief features on
the earth's surface (e.g. mountains, plateaus, plains, lakes, faults, folds, etc.). Volcanic
eruptions and seismic events are also expressions of endogenetic forces.
Origin of Forces
We do not know precisely the mode of origin of the endogenetic forces and movement
because these are related to the interior of the earth about which our scientific
knowledge is still limited. On average, the origin of endogenetic forces is related to the
thermal conditions of the interior of the earth. Generally, the endogenetic forces and
related horizontal and vertical movements are caused due to contraction and expansion
of rocks because of varying thermal conditions and temperature changes inside the
earth. The displacement and readjustment of geomaterials sometimes take place so
rapidly that earth movements are caused below the crust.
Types of endogenetic forces
The endogenetic forces and movements are divided, on the basis of intensity, into two
major categories:
(1) SUDDEN FORCES AND MOVEMENTS
Sudden movements, caused by sudden endogenetic forces coming from deep within
the earth, cause such sudden and rapid events that these cause massive destructions at
and below the earth's surfaces. Such events, like volcanic eruptions and earthquakes,
are called ‘extreme events’ and become disastrous hazards when they occur in densely
populated localities. These forces work very quickly and their results are seen within
minutes. It is important to note that these forces are the result of long-period
preparation deep within the earth. Only their cumulative effects on the earth's surface
are quick and sudden. It causes volcanic eruptions and earthquakes(seismic waves).
(2) DIASTROPHIC FORCES AND MOVEMENTS
Diastrophic forces include both vertical and horizontal movements which are caused
due to forces deep within the earth. These diastrophic forces operate very slowly and
their effects become discernible(apparent) after thousands and millions of years. These
forces, also termed constructive forces, affect larger areas of the globe and produce
Meso-level reliefs (e.g.) mountains, plateaus, plains, lakes, big faults, etc.). These
diastrophic forces and movements are further subdivided into two groups viz. (i)
epeirogenetic movements and (ii) orogenetic movements.

(i) Epeirogenetic Movements—

Epeirogenetic word consists of two words viz. ‘epiros* (mean­ing thereby continent) and
‘genesis’ (meaning thereby origin). Epeirogenetic movement causes upliftment and
subsidence of continental masses through upward and downward movements
respectively. Both movements are, in fact, vertical movements. These forces and
resultant movements affect larger parts of the continents. These are further divided into
two types viz.
(i) upward movement causes the upliftment of continental masses in two ways e.g.
(a) the upliftment of the whole continent or part thereof and (b) the upliftment of
coastal land of the continents. Such type of upliftment is called emergence
(ii) downward movement causes subsidence of continental masses in two ways viz.
(i) subsidence of land area. Such type of downward movement is called
subsidence, (ii) Alternatively, the land area near the sea coast is moved downward
or is subsided below sea level and is thus submerged under seawater. Such a type
of downward movement is called submergence.
(ii) Orogenetic Movement-
The word orogenetic has been derived from two Greek words, ‘oros’ (meaning thereby
mountain) and ‘genesis’ (meaning thereby origin or formation). Orogenetic movement
is caused due to endogenetic forces working in a horizontal manner. Horizontal forces
and movements are also called ‘tangential forces .’ Orogenetic or horizontal forces
work in two ways viz. (i) in opposite directions and (iii) towards each other.
This is called ‘tensional force’ when it operates in opposite directions. Such types of
force and movement are also called as divergent forces and movements. Thus,
tensional forces create rupture, cracks, fractures, and faults in the crustal parts of the
earth.
The force, when operating face to face, is called compressional force or convergent
force. The compressional force causes crustal bending leading to the formation of folds
or crustal warping leading to the local rise or subsidence of crustal parts.
Crustal Bending—
When horizontal forces work face to face the crustal rocks are bent due to the resultant
compressional and tangential force. In other words, when crustal parts move towards
each other under the influence of horizontal or convergent forces and movements, the
crustal rocks undergo the process of ‘crustal bending’ in two ways e.g.
(i) wraping- The process of crustal warping affects larger areas of the crust wherein
the crustal parts are either warped (raised) upward or downward. The upward rise of the
crustal part due to compressive force resulting from convergent horizontal movement
is called upwraping while the bending of the crustal part downward in the form of a
basin or depression is called down wrapping.
(ii) Folding- When the compressive horizontal forces or convergent forces and
resultant movements cause buckling and squeezing of crustal rocks, the resultant
mechanism is called folding which causes several types of folds.

Folds
Wave-like bends are formed in the crustal rocks due to tangential compressive force
resulting from horizontal movement caused by the endogenetic force originating deep
within the earth. Such bends are called ‘folds’ wherein some parts are bent up and
some parts are bent down.
The up-folded rock strata in the arch-like form are called ‘anticlines ’
while the down-folded structure forming a trough-like feature is called a ‘syncline’.
In fact, folds are minor forms of broad warping. The two sides of a fold are called limbs
of the fold. The limb which is shared between an anticline and its companion syncline
is called the middle limb.
The plane which bisects the angle between the two limbs of the anticline or middle limb
of the syncline is called the axis of the fold.

Types of Folds-
The nature of folds depends on several factors e.g. the nature of rocks, the nature
and intensity of compressive forces, the duration of the operation of compressive
forces, etc. The elasticity of rocks largely affects the nature and the magnitude of the
folding process. The softer and more elastic rocks are subjected to intense folding while
rigid and less elastic rocks are only moderately folded. The difference in the intensity
and magnitude of compressive forces also causes variations in the characteristics of
folds. Normally, both the limbs of a simple fold are more or less of equal inclination but
in most cases of different folds, the inclinations of both limbs are different. Thus, based
on the inclination of the limbs, folds are divided into 5 types:
(1) Symmetrical folds are simple folds, the limbs (both) of which incline
uniformly. These folds are an example of open folds. Symmetrical folds are formed
when compressive forces work regularly but with moderate intensity. In fact,
symmetrical folds are very rarely found in the field.
(2) Asymmetrical folds are characterized by unequal and irregular limbs. Both
limbs incline at different angles. One limb is relatively larger and the inclination is
moderate and regular while the other limb is relatively shorter with, a steep inclination.
Thus, both limbs are asymmetrical in terms of inclination and length.
(3) Monoclinal folds are those in which one limb inclines moderately with a
regular slope while the other limb inclines steeply at a right angle and the slope is
almost vertical. It may be pointed out that vertical force and movement are held
responsible for the formation of monoclinal folds. There is every possibility for the
splitting of the limbs of such folds because of intense folding. The splitting of limbs
gives birth to the formation of faults. It is also opined that monoclinal folds are also
formed due to unequal horizontal compressive forces coming from both sides.
(4) Isoclinal folds are formed when the compressive forces are so strong that both
the limbs of the fold become parallel but not horizontal.
(5) Recumbent folds are formed when the compressive forces are so strong that
both the limbs of the fold become parallel as well as horizontal.
(6) Overturned folds are those folds in which one limb of the fold is thrust upon
another fold due to intense compressive forces. Limbs are seldom horizontal.
(7) Plunge folds are formed when the axis of the fold instead of being parallel to
the horizontal plane becomes tilted and forms a plunge angle which is the angle
between the axis and the horizontal plane.
(8) Fan folds represent an extensive and broad fold consisting of several minor
anticlines and synclines. Such a fold resembles a fan. Such a feature is also called
anticlinorium or synclinorium.
(9) Open folds are those in which the angle between the two limbs of the fold is
more than 90^ ' but less than 180° (i.e. obtuse angle between the limbs of a fold). Such
open folds are formed due to wave-like folding because of the moderate nature of
compressive force
(10) Closed folds are those folds in which the angle between the two limbs of a
fold is acute angle Such folds are formed because of intense compressive force.
Nappes are the result of complex folding mechanisms caused by intense horizontal
movement and resultant compressive force. Both the limbs of a recumbent fold are
parallel and horizontal. Due to a further increase in the continued compressive force,
one limb of the recumbent folds slides forward and overrides the other fold.

Faults
A fault is a fracture in the crustal rocks wherein the rocks are displaced along a plane
called a fault plane. In other words, when the crustal rocks are displaced, due to
tensional movement caused by the endogenetic forces, along a plane, the resultant
structure is called a fault. The plane along which the rock blocks are displaced is called
the fault plane. In fact, there is real movement along the fault plane due to which a fault
is formed. A fault plane may be vertical, inclined, horizontal, curved, or of any type and
form. The movement is responsible for the formation of a fault that may operate
vertically or horizontally or in any direction.
(i) Normal faults are formed due to the displacement of both the rock blocks in
opposite directions due to fracture consequent upon greatest stress. The fault plane is
usually between 45° and the vertical.
(ii) Reverse faults are formed due to the movement of both the fractured rock
blocks towards each other. The fault plane, in a reverse fault, is usually inclined at an
angle between 40 degrees and the horizontal (0 degrees). It is apparent that reverse
faulting results in the shortening of the faulted area while normal faults cause the
extension of the faulted area. The reverse fault is formed due to compressive force
resulting from horizontal movement and hence this is also called a compressional fault.
(iii) Lateral or strike-slip faults are formed when the rock blocks are displaced
horizontally along the fault plane due to horizontal movement. These are called left-
lateral or sinistral faults when the displacement of the rock blocks occurs to the left on
the far side of the fault and right-lateral or dextral faults when the displacement of rock
blocks takes place to the right on the far side of the fault.
(iv) Step faults- When a series of faults occur in any area in such a way that the
slopes of all the fault planes of all the faults arc in the same direction the resultant
faults are called step faults. It is a prerequisite condition for the formation of step faults
that the downward displacement of all the downthrown blocks must occur in the same
direction.
Rift valley and Graben
The rift valley is a major relief feature resulting from faulting activities. A rift valley
represents a trough, depression, or basin between two crustal parts. In fact, rift valleys
are long and narrow troughs bounded by one or more parallel normal faults caused by
horizontal and vertical movements motored by endogenetic forces. Rift valleys are
actually formed due to the displacement of crustal parts and subsidence of the middle
portion between two normal faults. Rift valleys are generally also called ‘graben ’ which
is a German word that means a trough-like depression.
A rift valley may be formed in two ways viz.
(i) when the middle portion of the crust between two normal faults is dropped
downward while the two blocks on either side of the down-dropped block remain
stable or
(ii) when the middle portion between two normal faults remains stable and the two side
blocks on either side of the middle portion are raised upward.