Sampling

What is sampling?
In survey research, sampling is the process of using a subset of a population to
represent the whole population.

Sample

• A sample is a subset of the population the researcher actually examines to gather the data.
• A sample is a subset of the population that represents the entire group.
• The collected data on the sample aims at gaining information on the entire population.
• The population is the entire group of subjects the researcher wants information on.

Example: Let’s say you wanted to do some research on everyone in North America. To
ask every person would be almost impossible. Even if everyone said “yes”, carrying out
a survey across different states, in different languages and tim ezones, and then
collecting and processing all the results, would take a long time and be very costly.

Sampling allows large-scale research to be carried out with a more realistic cost and
time-frame because it uses a smaller number of individuals in the population with
representative characteristics to stand in for the whole.

Sampling definitions
 Population: The total number of people or things you are interested in
 Sample: A smaller number within your population that will represent the whole
 Sampling: The process and method of selecting your sample from the
population. For this population is divided into a number of parts called Sampling
Units.

Advantages of Sampling {Importance Also}

• Sampling allows you to research larger target populations using the same resources
as you would smaller ones, it dramatically opens up the possibilities for research.
• Used when data is unlimited.
• Time, money and energy is saved.
• Large population can be conveniently covered.
• Collection of data, analysis and interpretation of data take less time than the population.
• Due to limited area of coverage, completeness and accuracy is possible.
 • Necessity: In many cases a complete coverage of the population is not possible.
• Effectiveness: Complete coverage may not offer substantial advantage over a sample survey.
Sampling provides better options in a short period of time as it produces comparable and
valid results.
• Economy of time: Studies based on samples produce quick results in less time.
• Economy of Labour: Sampling is less demanding in terms of labour requirements since it
covers only a small portion of the target population.
• Overall Economy: Sampling is thought to be more economical as it involves fewer people
and requires less printed material, fewer general costs in terms of travelling and
accommodation and of course fewer experts.
• More detailed information: Samples are thought to offer more detailed information and a
high degree of degree of accuracy because they deal with relatively small numbers of units.

It allows us to do things like carrying out exit polls during elections, map the spread and
effects rates of epidemics across geographical areas, and carry out nationwide census
research that provides a snapshot of society and culture.

Principles of Sampling

• Sample units must be chosen in a systematic and objective manner.

• Sample units must be easily identifiable and clearly defined.
• Sample units must be independent of each other, uniform and of same size and should
appear only once in the population.
• Sample units are not interchangeable, same units should be used throughout the study.
• Once selected, units cannot be discarded.
• The selection process should be based on sound criteria and should avoid errors, bias and
distortions.
• Researchers should adhere to the principles of research.

Disadvantages of Sampling

o Biasedness: The Chances of biased selection leading to an incorrect conclusion.

o Selection of a true representative sample: Sometimes it is difficult to select the
right representative sample.
o Need for specialized knowledge: The researcher needs knowledge, training
and experience in sampling technique, statistical analysis and calculation of
probable error.
o Impossibility of sampling: Sometimes population is too small or too
heterogeneous to select a representative sample.

Types of sampling
Sampling strategies in research vary widely across different disciplines and research
areas, and from study to study.

There are two major types of sampling methods: probability and non-probability
sampling.
 1. Probability sampling, also known as random sampling, is a kind of sample
selection where randomisation is used instead of deliberate choice. Each
member of the population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected.

 In simple words, a probability sample is one in which each member of the

population has an equal chance of being selected.
 In probability sampling, randomness is the element of control.

2. Non-probability sampling techniques are where the researcher deliberately

picks items or individuals for the sample based on non-random factors such as
convenience, geographic availability, or costs.
• In Non-Probability sampling, it relies on personal judgement.

 Probability sampling methods

1. Simple random sampling

• With simple random sampling, every element in the population has an equal
chance of being selected as part of the sample.
• It’s something like picking a name out of a hat.
• Simple random sampling can be done by anonymising the population – e.g. by
assigning each item or person in the population a number and then picking
numbers at random.

Pros: Simple random sampling is easy to do and cheap. Designed to ensure that every
member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, it reduces the risk of
bias compared to non-random sampling.

Cons: It offers no control for the researcher and may lead to unrepresentative groupings
being picked by chance.

2. Systematic sampling

 With systematic sampling the random selection only applies to the first item
chosen. A rule then applies so that every nth item or person after that is picked.
 Here the entire population is arranged in an order, either in ascending, descending or
alphabetical order.
 Each member of the sample comes after an equal interval form its previous member.

For Example; For a sample of 50 students, the sampling fraction is 50/400= 1/8 means
select one student out of every eight students in the population. The starting point for the
selection is chosen at random.

Pros: Systematic sampling is efficient and straightforward, especially when dealing with
populations that have a clear order. It ensures a uniform selection across the population.

Cons: There’s a potential risk of introducing bias if there’s an unrecognized pattern in

the population that aligns with the sampling interval.
3. Stratified sampling

 Stratified sampling involves random selection within predefined groups.

 A stratum is a subset of the population that shares at least one common
characteristic. Examples of strata might be males and females, or managers and non-
managers
• Here the entire population is divided into strata (groups), which are mutually
exclusive and collectively exhaustive.
• Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into distinct subgroups
or strata based on specific characteristics, such as age, income, or land
use. Samples are then randomly selected from each stratum. This method
ensures representation from all subgroups.
• The elements are selected using simple random sampling independently from each
group.
• It is more efficient as compared to simple random sampling as dividing the
population into strata increases the representativeness of the sampling

Pros: Stratified sampling enhances the representation of all identified subgroups within
a population, leading to more accurate results in heterogeneous populations.

Cons: This method requires accurate knowledge about the population’s stratification,
and its design and execution can be more intricate than other methods.

4. Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling involves dividing the population into clusters, usually based on
geographic boundaries, and then randomly selecting entire clusters for study.
This method is efficient for large, dispersed populations.

Example: A researcher investigating agricultural practices might divide a region

into clusters based on villages and then randomly select a few villages for
detailed study.

 It is useful when the population is dispersed across a wide geographic region. This
method allows one to divide the population into clusters and then select the clusters
at random.
 In cluster sampling, the entire population is divided into various clusters in such a
way that the elements within the cluster are heterogeneous.
 However, there is homogeneity between the clusters.
 It is considered to be the opposite of stratified sampling design.
 Cluster sampling is useful when populations under a survey is widely dispersed and
drawing simple random sample may not be practical.
 Sometimes, the applicability of cluster sampling in the organizational context be
questioned.

Pros: Cluster sampling is economically beneficial and logistically easier when dealing
with vast and geographically dispersed populations.

Cons: Due to potential similarities within clusters, this method can introduce a greater
sampling error compared to other methods.
  Non-probability sampling methods
The non-probability sampling methodology doesn’t offer the same bias-removal benefits
as probability sampling, but there are times when these types of sampling are chosen for
expediency or simplicity.

1. Convenience sampling

• People or elements in a sample are selected on the basis of their accessibility

and availability.
• Convenience sampling involves selecting individuals who are
readily available and willing to participate. This method is quick
and easy but may introduce biases.
• It is used in exploratory research where the investigator is interested in getting an
inexpensive approximation of the fact. As the name implies, the sample is selected
because it is convenient. Also called haphazard or accidental sampling.
• It is used to obtain information quickly and inexpensively.
• It is used in the pre-test phase of a research such as pre-testing the questionnaire.
• Here sampling unit may either be self selected or selected because of ease of
availability.
• No effort is made to choose representative sample.
• It is not possible to make an estimate of sampling error in this case so not suitable for
descriptive and causal research.
• Generally used in exploratory research.

Pros: Convenience sampling is the most straightforward method, requiring minimal

planning, making it quick to implement.

Cons: Due to its non-random nature, the method is highly susceptible to biases, and the
results are often lacking in their application to the real world.

2. Quota sampling

• Quota Sampling comprises a minimum number of specified sub-group in the

population.
• The same is selected on the basis of certain demographic characteristics such as age,
gender, occupation, education.
• Here the investigators may choose from each category conveniently.
• Quota Sampling does not require a sampling frame.
• It may appear similar to stratified random sampling design but here it is selected at
random while Quota Sampling is chosen with convenience.
• The former can be generalized while the later cannot be.

Like the probability-based stratified sampling method, this approach aims to

achieve a spread across the target population by specifying who should be
recruited for a survey according to certain groups or criteria.
 For example, your quota might include a certain number of males and a certain
number of females. Alternatively, you might want your samples to be at a specific
income level or in certain age brackets or ethnic groups.

Pros: Quota sampling ensures certain subgroups are adequately represented, making it
great for when random sampling isn’t feasible but representation is necessary.

Cons: The selection within each quota is non-random and researchers’ discretion can
influence the representation, which both strongly increase the risk of bias.

3. Purposive sampling

• Participants for the sample are chosen consciously by researchers based on their
knowledge and understanding of the research question at hand or their goals.
• Also known as judgment sampling, this technique is unlikely to result in
a representative sample, but it is a quick and fairly easy way to get a range of
results or responses.
• Example: A researcher studying the impact of tourism on a coastal area
might select local business owners and environmental activists for
interviews.

Pros: Purposive sampling targets specific criteria or characteristics, making it ideal for
studies that require specialised participants or specific conditions.

Cons: It’s highly subjective and based on researchers’ judgment, which can introduce
biases and limit the study’s real-world application.

4. Snowball or referral sampling

With this approach, people recruited to be part of a sample are asked to invite those they
know to take part, who are then asked to invite their friends and family and so on. The
participation radiates through a community of connected individuals like a snowball
rolling downhill.

• This method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare.

• Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional
subjects.
• Snowball sampling is generally used when it is difficult to identify the members of
the desired population.
• Under this design each respondent after being interviewed is asked to identify one or
more in the field.
• Snowball sampling is used when the population is hard to
reach or identify. It involves initial participants referring
other potential participants, creating a “snowball” effect.
• Example: A researcher studying migrant workers might start
with a few known workers and ask them to refer others in
their community.
Pros: Especially useful for hard-to-reach or secretive populations, snowball sampling is
effective for certain niche studies.

Cons: The method can introduce bias due to the reliance on participant referrals, and
the choice of initial seeds can significantly influence the final sample.

Challenges in Geographical Sampling

While sampling offers numerous benefits, it also presents several
challenges that researchers must address to ensure the validity and
reliability of their findings.

Sampling Bias

Sampling bias occurs when the sample is not representative of the

population. This can result from non-random selection, incomplete
sampling frames, or non-response from selected individuals. Researchers
must carefully design their sampling methods to minimize biases.

Non-response

Non-response occurs when selected individuals do not participate in the

study. This can lead to biased results if the non-respondents differ
significantly from respondents. Researchers can address non-response by
following up with non-respondents or using statistical techniques to adjust
for missing data.

Sampling Error

Sampling error is the difference between the sample estimate and the
true population parameter. It is an inherent part of sampling but can be
minimized by increasing the sample size and using appropriate sampling
techniques.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations are crucial in sampling, particularly when dealing

with human subjects. Researchers must ensure informed consent,
confidentiality, and respect for participants’ rights. Ethical review boards
often oversee research involving human subjects to ensure compliance
with ethical standards.

Applications of Sampling in Geographical Research

Sampling techniques are widely used in various fields of geographical
research, each with its unique requirements and challenges.

Environmental Studies
In environmental studies, sampling is essential for assessing the quality of
air, water, soil, and biodiversity. Researchers often use stratified sampling
to ensure that different environmental zones are adequately represented.

Urban Planning

Urban planners use sampling to study population demographics, land use

patterns, and infrastructure needs. Cluster sampling is often used to
divide a city into neighborhoods or districts for detailed analysis.

Agricultural Research

In agricultural research, sampling helps study crop yields, soil properties,

and pest infestations. Researchers often use stratified sampling to
account for different crop types or soil conditions.

Health Geography

Health geographers use sampling to study disease distribution, health

service accessibility, and environmental health risks. Stratified and cluster
sampling methods are commonly employed to ensure comprehensive
coverage.

Climate and Meteorological Research

Due to uneven distribution of weather stations, sampling is used to:

 Estimate regional climate patterns

 Model temperature, precipitation, and wind trends
 Analyze microclimates in specific areas

Sampling helps in creating models for weather forecasting and climate change projections.

Land Use and Land Cover Analysis

In remote sensing and GIS, sampling helps:

 Classify land types (e.g., forest, agriculture, urban)

 Estimate land cover change over time
 Validate satellite data through ground truthing

Sampling reduces data processing time while maintaining reliable results.