FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

ASSIGNMENT 1

NAME: JANELA MARIE R. CASIM COURSE/SECTION: BSCESEP-1A

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

A. Definition of Surveying
- Surveying is the technique of determining the relative position of different features on,
above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements and
finally representing them on a sheet of paper known as plan or map.

B. General Classifications of Surveying

- Surveying is primarily classified as under Plane surveying and Geodetic Surveying
a. Plane Surveying is that type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is
considered as a plane and the spheroidal shape is neglected. All triangles formed by survey
lines are considered plane triangles. The level line is considered straight and all plumb lines
are considered parallel. In everyday life were are concerned with small portion of earth’s
surface and the above assumptions seems to be reasonable in light of the fact that the
length of an arc 12 kilometers long lying in the earth’s surface is only 1cm greater than the
subtended chord and further that the difference between the sum of the angles in a plane
triangle and the sum of those in a spherical triangle is only one second for a triangle at the
earth’s surface having an area of 195 sq. km.
b. Geodetic Surveying is that type of surveying in which the shape of the earth is taken into
account. All lines lying in the surface are curved lines and the triangles are spherical
triangles. It therefore, involves spherical trigonometry. All Geodetic surveys include work of
larger magnitude and high degree of precision. The object of geodetic survey is to determine
the precise position on the surface of the earth, of a system of widely distant points which
form control stations to which surveys of less precision may be referred.
C. Types of Surveys
- Surveying can mainly be classified into Plane Surveying and Geodetic or Trigonometrical
Surveying
Plane surveying deals with small areas on the surface of the earth assuming the surface of
the land to be plane. So curvature of the earth is neglected. Plane surveying can further be
subdivided in the following ways:
a. Chain Surveying - Area to be surveyed is divided into a number of triangles The length of
the sides are measured and the interior details recorded Whole are then plotted on a
drawing sheet to a suitable scale to produce the map
b. Traverse Surveying - The plot of the plan is enclosed by a series of straight lines making
angles with each other. The length of the lines and angles are measured and plotted with
details on a drawing paper to a suitable scale to produce the map
c. Plane Table Surveying - The observations and plotting are done simultaneously. An art
paper or sheet is fixed on a calibrated plane table The field observations are taken and
recorded side by side on the paper and eventually the map is prepared.
d. Ordinary Leveling - The elevations of different points on the earth surface are
determined. Provides all the elevation data needed for construction activities
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- Geodetic surveying deals with vast areas, so curvature has to be considered. Geodetic
surveying can be subdivided in the following ways:
a. Triangulation - A network of well-defined triangles is formed on the plot of land to be
surveyed. One of the lines is considered as the baseline, all other lines and angles are
then measured accordingly.
b. Reciprocal Leveling - Used in leveling across streams, gullies, and other obstructions to
eliminate instrumental errors Level. readings are taken from two setups at two different
points. The difference in levels between two sites with obstructions is determined
through this survey
c. Tacheometry or Stadia Surveying - A telescopic sight instrument is used to measure
distances. It incorporates a theodolite controlled by an operator and a level staff held by
another surveyor at a distance. Both vertical and horizontal distances are computed
through stadia (the two horizontal markings on a theodolite) readings.
d. Astronomical Surveying - The meridian, azimuth, latitude, longitude, etc. of the plot to
be surveyed is determined with the help of celestial bodies.
e. Photographic surveying - Maps are prepared from photographs taken from suitable
camera stations; the stations can be even airplanes. The output is a map, a drawing or a
3D model of some real-world scene or object.

D. Development of Surveying Instruments

- Egyptians used geometry to reestablish farm boundaries after dramatic flooding along the
Nile River, and they used surveying techniques to design and construct the massive,
geometrically precise pyramids at Giza, one of the wonders of the ancient world.
During Roman times, the role of civil surveying took on a prominent place in society,
becoming an established profession. Land surveyors created the measurement systems they
needed to evaluate and create a tax record of the lands they had conquered.
In the eighteenth century, European surveyors developed the technique of triangulation
when they realized they could use different angle measurements taken from different places
to pinpoint a precise location. And as the British colonized Australia and New Zealand, they
used new tools such as measuring wheels, Gunter’s chains, Kater’s compasses and
circumferentors, though they also resorted to measuring out paces by foot when necessary.
Gradually, tools like Gunter’s chain — which measures a precise 66 feet, or 1/80th of a mile
— gave way to steel bands and invar tapes, and later to electromagnetic distance
measurement (EMD) and global positioning satellite (GPS) equipment. Likewise, compasses
gave way to theodolites — instruments that measured horizontal and vertical angles with a
rotating telescope – which in turn made way for total stations that took measurements of
angles and distance with a solo instrument.

E. Types of Surveying Measurements

- The five common types of survey measurements are horizontal distances and angles,
vertical distances and angles, and slope distances.
Horizontal and Vertical Planes
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Angles and distances are measured relative to either a horizontal or vertical plane. The
horizontal plane is a level surface radiating outward from the point of observation and is
perpendicular to the vertical axis. The vertical axis (or plumb line) is always parallel to the
direction of gravity. The vertical plane runs in a direction parallel to the vertical axis and
perpendicular to the horizontal plane. A vertical plane is established whenever the
instrument rotates along the horizontal plane to face a new direction.
A. Horizontal Distances and Angles
A linear measurement on the horizontal plane determines the horizontal distance between two
points. However, the true horizontal distance is actually curved like the Earth’s surface. Due to
this curvature, the direction of gravity is different at each point. Subsequently, vertical axes are
not parallel to each other.
B. Vertical Distances and Angles
Vertical distances are measured along the vertical axis to determine the difference in height (or
elevation) between points. Vertical angles are measured in the vertical plane either above or
below the horizontal plane of the instrument. Zenith angles, used as a reference for measuring
vertical angles, are defined as 0° directly overhead and 90° at the horizontal plane.
C. Slope Distance
The slope distance is the shortest distance from the instrument to the target. This distance is
the hypotenuse of the horizontal and vertical distances. The horizontal and vertical distances
can be calculated if the slope distance and vertical angle is known.

F. Principles of Engineering Surveying

- The fundamental principles upon which the various methods of plane surveying are based
are of very simple nature and can be stated under the following two aspects:
1. Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference
The relative positions of the points to be surveyed should be located by measurement
from at least two points of reference, the positions of which have already been fixed. Let
P and Q be the reference points on the ground. The distance PQ can be measured
accurately and the relative positions of P and Q can be plotted on the sheet to some
scale. The points P and Q will thus serve as reference points for fixing the relative
positions of other points. Any other point, such as R, can be located by any of the
following direct methods
2. Working from whole to part
The second ruling principle of surveying, whether plane or geodetic, is to work from
whole to part. It is very essential to establish first a system of control points and to fix
them with higher precision. Minor control points can then be established by less precise
methods and the details can then be located using these minor control points by running
minor traverses etc. The idea of working in this way is to prevent the accumulation of
errors and to control and localize minor errors which, otherwise, would expand to
greater magnitudes if the reverse process is followed, thus making the work
uncontrollable at the end.
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G. Basic Measurements in Surveying

- Two types of measurements in surveying. They are as Linear measurement and Angular
measurements
Now we will go on with the discussion of each of these types of measurements along with
their subtypes.
1. Linear measurements are further classified as follows:
a. Horizontal Distance - A horizontal distance is measured in horizontal plane if a
distance is measured along a slope, it is reduced to its horizontal equivalent.
b. Vertical Distance - A vertical distance is measured along the direction of gravity at
that point. The vertical distance are measured to determine difference in elevations
in various points.
2. Angular Measurements - As the name itself suggests, the two sides meeting at an angle
are measured. The angle between them is measured and represented in degrees or
radians.
H. Theories of Errors and Probabilities in Surveving
A. Blunders - A blunder (or gross error) is a significant, unpredictable mistake caused by
human error that often leads to large discrepancies. Blunders are typically the result of
carelessness, miscommunication, fatigue, or poor judgment. Examples of common
blunders are:
• Improperly leveling the surveying instrument.
• Setting up the instrument or target over the wrong control point
B. Systematic Errors Systematic errors - caused by the surveying equipment, observation
methods, and certain environmental factors. Under the same measurement conditions,
these errors will have the same magnitude and direction (positive or negative). Because
systematic errors are repetitive and tend to accumulate in a series of measurements,
they are also referred to as cumulative errors.
C. Random (or accidental) errors - not directly related to the conditions or circumstances
of the observation. For a single measurement or a series of measurements, it is the error
remaining after all possible systematic errors and blunders have been eliminated.
D. Error Sources - There are a variety of factors that can lead to measurement errors. Errors
typically arise from three sources; natural errors, instrument errors, and human errors.
a. Natural Errors - caused by environmental conditions or significant changes in
environmental conditions. Wind speed, air temperature, atmospheric pressure,
humidity, gravity, earth curvature, and atmospheric refraction are examples of natural
error sources.
b. Instrument errors - caused by imperfectly constructed, adjusted, or calibrated surveying
equipment. Most of these errors can be reduced by properly leveling the instrument,
balancing backsight/foresight shots, reducing measurement distances, and observing
direct and reverse positions (double centering).
c. Human errors - caused by physical limitations and inconsistent setup and observation
habits of the surveyor. For example, minor errors result from misaligning the telescope
crosshairs on the target or not holding the target rod perfectly plumb.
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REFERENCES :

https://civiltoday.com/surveying/13-definition-and-importance-of-
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https://www.civilprojectsonline.com/surveying-and-levelling/types-of-measurements-in-surveying-
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https://www.simplifiedcivil.com/2021/09/principles-of-surveying-pdf-download.html

https://www.dot.state.wy.us/files/live/sites/wydot/files/shared/Highway_Development/Surveys/Sur
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https://civiltoday.com/surveying/321-types-of-surveying

https://www.takeoffpros.com/2020/02/21/types-of-civil-
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etween%20different%20locations.

file:///C:/Users/janela/Downloads/administrator,+1032248ar.pdf