Module 1 - Introduction to Surveying

Introduction to Surveying
Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of different objects on the surface and
below the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal and vertical distances between them
and by preparing a map to any suitable scale. Thus in discipline, the measurements are taken in
the horizontal plane alone.
Levelling is the art of determining the relative vertical distances of different points on the surface
of the earth. Therefore, in levelling, the measurements are taken only in the vertical plane.
Objective of surveying
The aim of surveying is to prepare a plan or map to show the relative positions of the objects on
the surface of the earth. The map is drawn to some suitable scale .It shows the natural features of
a country such as towns, villages, roads, railways, rivers, etc. Maps may also include details of
different engineering works, such as roads, railways, irrigation, canals, etc.

Uses of surveying
Surveying may be used for the following various applications.
To prepare a topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages, towns, forests ,etc.
of a country.
To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields, houses, and other properties.
To prepare an engineering map showing details of engineering works such as roads, railways,
reservoirs, irrigation canals, etc.
To prepare a military map showing the road and railway communications with different parts of
a country. Such a map also shows the different strategic points important for the defence of a
country.
To prepare a contour map to determine the capacity of reservoir and to find the best possible route
for roads, railways, etc.
To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground resources exist.
To prepare an archeological map including places where ancient relics exist.
GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF SURVEYING
The general principles of surveying are:
1. To work from the whole to the part, and
2. To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from fixed
reference points.

According to the first principle, the whole area is first enclosed by main stations (i.e. controlling
stations) and main survey lines (i.e. controlling lines). The area is then divided into a number of
parts by forming well conditioned triangles. A nearly equilateral triangle is considered to be the
best well-conditioned triangle. The main survey lines are measured very accurately with a
standard chain. Then the sides of the triangles are measured. The purpose of this process of
working is to prevent accumulation of error. During this procedure, if there is any error in the
measurement of any side of a triangle, then it will not affect the whole work. The error can always
be detected and eliminated.

• But, if the reverse process (i.e. from the part to the whole) is followed, then the minor errors in
measurement will be magnified in the process of expansion and stage will come when these errors
will become absolutely uncontrollable. According to the second principle, the new stations should
always be fixed by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from fixed reference points.
Linear measurements refer to horizontal distances measured by chain or tape. Angular
measurements refer to the magnetic bearing or horizontal angle taken by a prismatic compass or
theodolite.

• In chain surveying, the positions of main stations and directions of main survey lines and check
lines. CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
Generally, surveying is divided into two major categories: plane and geodetic surveying.
PLANE SURVEYING is a process of surveying in which the portion of the earth being surveyed
is considered a plane. The term is used to designate survey work in which the distances or areas
involved are small enough that the curvature of the earth can be disregarded without significant
error. In general, the term of limited extent. For small areas, precise results may be obtained with
plane surveying methods, but the accuracy and precision of such results will decrease as the area
surveyed increases in size. To make computations in plane surveying, you will use formulas of
plane trigonometry, algebra, and analytical geometry.
A great number of surveys are of the plane surveying type. Surveys for the location and
construction of highways and roads, canals, landing fields, and railroads are classified under
plane surveying. When it is realized that an arc of 10 mi is only 0.04 greater that its subtended
chord; that a plane surface tangent to the spherical arc has departed only about 8 in. at 1 mi from
the point of tangency; and that the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is only 1 sec greater
than the sum of the angles of a plane triangle for a triangle having an area of approximately 75 sq
mi on the earth’s surface, it is just reasonable that the errors caused by the earth’s curvature be
considered only in precise surveys of large areas.
In this training manual, we will discuss primarily the methods used in plane surveying rather than
those used in geodetic surveying.
GEODETIC SURVEYING is a process of surveying in which the shape and size of the earth are
considered. This type of survey is suited for large areas and long lines and is used to find the
precise location of basic points needed for establishing control for other surveys. In geodetic
surveys, the stations are normally long distances apart, and more precise instruments and
surveying methods are required for this type of surveying than for plane surveying. The shape of
the earth is thought of as a spheroid , although in a technical sense, it is not really a spheroid. In
1924, the convention of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union adopted 41,852,960 ft
as the diameter of the earth at the equator and 41,711,940 ft as the diameter at its polar axis. The
equatorial diameter was computed on the assumption that the flattening of the earth caused by
gravitational at traction is exactly 1/297. Therefore, distances measured on or near the surface of
the earth are not along straight lines or planes, but on a curved surface. Hence, in the computation
of distances in geodetic surveys, allowances are made for the earth’s minor and major diameters
from which a spheroid of reference is developed. The position of each geodetic station is related
to this spheroid. The positions are expressed as latitudes (angles north or south of the Equator)
and longitudes (angles east or west of a prime meridian) or as northings and castings on a
rectangular grid.
Classifications of Surveying
Based on the purpose (for which surveying is being conducted), Surveying has been classified into:
• Control surveying :

To establish horizontal and vertical positions of control points.

• Land surveying :

To determine the boundaries and areas of parcels of land, also known as property survey,
boundary survey or cadastral survey.
• Topographic survey :

To prepare a plan/ map of a region which includes natural as well as and man-made features
including elevation.
• Engineering survey :

To collect requisite data for planning, design and execution of engineering projects. Three broad
steps are
1) Reconnaissance survey :
To explore site conditions and availability of infrastructures.
2) Preliminary survey :
To collect adequate data to prepare plan/map of area to be used for planning and design.
3) Location survey :
To set out work on the ground for actual construction/execution of the project.
• Route survey :

To plan, design, and laying out of route such as highways, railways, canals,pipelines, and other
linear projects.
Construction surveys :
Surveys which are required for establishment of points, lines,grades, and for staking out
engineering works (after the plans have been prepared and the structural design has been done).
• Astronomic surveys :

To determine the latitude, longitude (of the observation station) and azimuth (of a line through
observation station) from astronomical observation.
• Mine surveys :
To carry out surveying specific for opencast and underground mining purposes
SPECIAL SURVEYS
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, SPECIAL SURVEYS are conducted for a specific purpose
and with a special type of surveying equipment and methods. A brief discussion of some of the
special surveys familiar to you follows.
LAND SURVEYS (sometimes called cadastral or property surveys) are conducted to
establish the exact location, boundaries, or subdivision of a tract of land in any specified area.
This type of survey requires professional registration in all states. Presently, land surveys
generally consist of the following chores:
1. Establishing markers or monuments to define and thereby preserve the boundaries of
land belonging to a private concern, a corporation, or the government.
2. Relocating markers or monuments legally established by original surveys. This
requires examining previous survey records and retracing what was done. When some
markers or monuments are missing, they are re-established following recognized
procedures, using whatever information is available.
3. Rerunning old land survey lines to determine their lengths and directions. As a result
of the high cost of land, old lines are re-measured to get more precise measurements.
4. Subdividing landed estates into parcels of predetermined sizes and shapes.
5. Calculating areas, distances, and directions and preparing the land map to portray the
survey data so that it can be used as a permanent record.
6. Writing a technical description for deeds.

CONTROL SURVEYS provide "basic control" or horizontal and vertical positions of points to
which supplementary surveys are adjusted. These types of surveys (sometimes termed and
traverse stations and the elevations of bench marks. These control points are further used as
References for hydrographic surveys of the coastal waters; for topographic control; and for the
control of many state, city, and private surveys.
MODULE 2 – MEASUREMENTS AND
ERRORS
The purpose of this module is to discuss the different types of surveying measurements, identify
error sources, and describe procedures to minimize errors. Using common sense and developing
sound surveying practices cannot be over-emphasized. In addition to specific surveying
procedures, the surveyor will often be required to use their judgment to make important decisions
affecting the survey.

Different types of surveying instruments used or the methods in which they are employed will
result in measurement differences. The defined error tolerances of the survey will usually dictate
the equipment or methodology required to achieve the best possible results. Often, surveys
involving critical elevations will require the use of a digital level or optical total station over GPS
equipment. The field conditions encountered will also influence the survey. For example,
excessive heat waves or strong winds may make it nearly impossible to accurately perform some
operations. Refer to Section VIII, Survey Standards, in this manual for specific error tolerances
for each feature code.

Surveying Measurements Measuring distances and angles from a known reference are
fundamental surveying operations. Through the use of trigonometric calculations, the distance
and angle measurements are used to establish three dimensional (3-D) coordinates for each
surveyed point. The coordinates are then plotted to create planimetric maps and digital terrain
models (DTM’s). The five common types of survey measurements are horizontal distances and
angles, vertical distances and angles, and slope distances.

Horizontal and Vertical Planes Angles and distances are measured relative to either a horizontal
or vertical plane. The horizontal plane is a level surface radiating outward from the point of
observation and is perpendicular to the vertical axis. The vertical axis (or plumb line) is always
parallel to the direction of gravity. The vertical plane runs in a direction parallel to the vertical
axis and perpendicular to the horizontal plane. A vertical plane is established whenever the
instrument rotates along the horizontal plane to face a new direction.

Horizontal Distances and Angles A linear measurement on the horizontal plane determines the
horizontal distance between two points. However, the true horizontal distance is actually curved
like the Earth’s surface. Due to this curvature, the direction of gravity is different at each point.
Subsequently, vertical axes are not parallel to each other. Figure III-2 shows a representation of
the curved surface and the parallel horizontal distance.
Horizontal angles are measured on the horizontal plane and establish the azimuth of each survey
measurement. An azimuth is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from a defined reference
(typically geodetic north). Horizontal distance and angle measurements are then used to calculate
the position of a point on the horizontal plane.

Vertical Distances and Angles Vertical distances are measured along the vertical axis to determine
the difference in height (or elevation) between points. Vertical angles are measured in the vertical
plane either above or below the horizontal plane of the instrument. Zenith angles, used as a
reference for measuring vertical angles, are defined as 0° directly overhead and 90° at the
horizontal plane.

Slope Distance The slope distance is the shortest distance from the instrument to the target. This
distance is the hypotenuse of the horizontal and vertical distances. The horizontal and vertical
distances can be calculated if the slope distance and vertical angle is known.

Accuracy and Precision Accuracy and precision are two different, yet equally important surveying
concepts. Accuracy is the degree of conformity of a given measurement with a standard value.
Precision is the extent to which a given set of measurements agree with their mean.

These concepts are illustrated in Figures III-3 through III-5 with a target shooting example. In
Figure III-3, all five shots are closely grouped indicating good precision due to the degree of
repeatability. However the accuracy is poor because the shots are far from the center of the target.
In Figure III-4, the five shots appear randomly scattered about the target indicating neither
accuracy nor precision. In Figure III-5, all five shots are closely spaced about the target’s center
indicating both precision and accuracy.

The goal of any survey should be to produce accurate and precise observations. Often
measurements with greater accuracy and precision requirements employ multiple observations
to minimize procedural errors. Refer to Chapter 6 in the Data Collection Manual for proper data
collection methods. Each measurement should be reviewed to ensure compliance with defined
survey standards before storing it. Refer to Section VIII, Survey Standards, in this manual for the
horizontal and vertical accuracy required for each measurement. Also located in Section VIII is a
discussion of the proper surveying instrumentation required to meet the standards.

Errors A discrepancy is defined as the difference between two or more measured values of the
same quantity. However, measurements are never exact and there will always be a degree of
variance regardless of the survey instrument or method used. These variances are known as errors
and will need to be reduced or eliminated to maintain specific survey standards.
Even when carefully following established surveying procedures, observations may still contain
errors. Errors, by definition, are the difference between a measured value and its true value. The
true value of a measurement is determined by taking the mean value of a series of repeated
measurements. Surveyors must possess skill in instrument operation and knowledge of surveying
methods to minimize the amount of error in each measurement.

Blunders A blunder (or gross error) is a significant, unpredictable mistake caused by human error
that often leads to large discrepancies. Blunders are typically the result of carelessness,
miscommunication, fatigue, or poor judgment. Examples of common blunders are:
Improperly leveling the surveying instrument.
Setting up the instrument or target over the wrong control point.
Incorrectly entering a control point number in the data collector.
Transposing numbers or misplacing the decimal point.
All blunders must be found and eliminated prior to submitting a survey for inclusion in the project
mapping. The surveyor must remain alert and constantly examine measurements to eliminate
these mistakes. Blunders can be detected and eliminated by reacting to “out-oftolerance”
messages by the data collector when they occur. They can also be detected by carefully examining
a plot of the collected survey points while in the office.

Types of Errors There are two types of errors, systematic and random. It is important for the
surveyor to understand the difference between the two errors in order to minimize them.
Systematic Errors Systematic errors are caused by the surveying equipment, observation
methods, and certain environmental factors. Under the same measurement conditions, these
errors will have the same magnitude and direction (positive or negative). Because systematic
errors are repetitive and tend to accumulate in a series of measurements, they are also referred to
as cumulative errors.

Although some systematic errors are difficult to detect, the surveyor must recognize the
conditions that cause such errors. The following list includes several examples of systematic
errors:

Using incorrect temperature and/or pressure observations.

Not applying curvature and refraction constants.
Using incorrect instrument heights and/or target heights.
Using an incorrect prism offset.
Using an imperfectly adjusted instrument.
The effect of these errors can be minimized by:

Properly leveling the survey instrument and targets.

Balancing foresight and backsight observations. Entering the appropriate environmental
correction factors in the data collector.
Entering the correct instrument heights, targets heights, and prism offset in the data collector.
Periodically calibrating the surveying equipment.
If appropriate corrections are not made, these errors can accumulate and cause significant
discrepancies between measured values. By keeping equipment in proper working order and
following established surveying procedures, many of the systematic errors can be eliminated.

Random Errors Random (or accidental) errors are not directly related to the conditions or
circumstances of the observation. For a single measurement or a series of measurements, it is the
error remaining after all possible systematic errors and blunders have been eliminated.

As the name implies, random errors are unpredictable and are often caused by factors beyond the
control of the surveyor. Their occurrence, magnitude, and direction (positive or negative) cannot
be predicted. Errors of this type are compensating and tend to at least partially cancel themselves
mathematically. Because the magnitude is also a matter of chance they will remain, to some
degree, in every measurement.

Misclosures (or residuals) are the difference in a measurement or a series of measurements from
an established value. Random errors account for the misclosure when systematic errors have
been corrected and blunders have been removed. Misclosures are computed when adjusting level
loops, traverses, and GPS networks.

Random errors conform to the laws of probability and are therefore equally distributed
throughout the survey. Because of their random nature, correction factors cannot be computed
and applied as they are with some systematic errors. However, they can be estimated using a
procedure based on the laws of probability known as the least-squares method of adjustment.
This method computes the most probable adjusted values and the precision of the survey. The
least-squares method may also reveal the presence of large blunders.

Error Sources There are a variety of factors that can lead to measurement errors. Errors typically
arise from three sources; natural errors, instrument errors, and human errors.
Natural Errors Natural errors are caused by environmental conditions or significant changes in
environmental conditions. Wind speed, air temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, gravity,
earth curvature, and atmospheric refraction are examples of natural error sources. Many of these
environmental conditions can be compensated for by applying a correction factor to each
measurement. Commonly used correction factors are the parts per million (ppm) and curvature
and refraction constants.

The ppm correction factor is applied to slope distances to minimize the effects of atmospheric
changes. The correction is determined using observed temperature and pressure readings. With
each instrument setup, new temperature and pressure readings should be taken and the ppm
constant revised, if necessary. The curvature and refraction constant is applied to the vertical
distance measurement. The constant corrects for the Earth’s curvature and atmospheric
refraction and should be applied to the survey by the data collector.

There are other natural phenomena that can lead to measurement errors. Intense, direct sunlight
may cause differential expansion of the components of the instrument, resulting in minor errors.
This effect can be minimized by operating on cloudy days, times of low sun angles, or using a
parasol to shade the instrument. Heat waves can cause distortion in lines of sight near reflective
surfaces. The effects of heat waves can be minimized by surveying in cooler, cloudy periods, taking
shorter measurements, or avoiding measurements taken over asphalt or concrete in excessively
hot weather.

Instrument Errors Instrument errors are caused by imperfectly constructed, adjusted, or

calibrated surveying equipment. Most of these errors can be reduced by properly leveling the
instrument, balancing backsight/foresight shots, reducing measurement distances, and observing
direct and reverse positions (double centering).

Prolonged storage, exposure to rapid changes in temperature, and jarring during transportation
may lead to instrument maladjustments. Collimation and other sighting errors can be determined
and compensated for by specific instrument adjustments. Before making instrument adjustments
or beginning surveying operations, allow the instrument to adapt to the ambient temperature
before proceeding.

Instrument errors can be further minimized by periodically calibrating surveying instruments,

prisms, rods, and tribrachs. Yearly maintenance agreements are purchased to ensure that
WYDOT surveying instruments are regularly cleaned, calibrated, and adjusted by an authorized
technician. Occasionally during these services visits, the data collector’s operating system
(firmware) will be replaced with a more current version.
It is equally important that equipment suspected of being out of tolerance is sent to the
appropriate service center. The Photogrammetry & Surveys Section should be notified prior to
sending equipment for unscheduled adjustment, calibration and/or repairs.

Human Errors Human errors are caused by physical limitations and inconsistent setup and
observation habits of the surveyor. For example, minor errors result from misaligning the
telescope crosshairs on the target or not holding the target rod perfectly plumb. These errors will
always be present to some degree in every observation. However, by following established setup
and collection procedures, many potential errors can be minimized.
Because any survey is only as accurate as the instrument/target setup; a secure, level tripod is
paramount. A tripod should always be used to stabilize the backsight target when placing it over
a control point. When positioning the tripod, firmly press the tripod feet into the ground. Place
the tripod legs in a position that will reduce the amount of walking near the instrument.
Minimizing movement around the tripod will reduce the chances of bumping it. In windy
conditions, it may be necessary to place sandbags on the feet of the tripod to ensure stability.
When setting up on steep slopes, position two tripod legs on the downhill side. Periodically check
the optical plummet to verify that the instrument is still centered over the point. Periodically
check the level bubble to ensure that the instrument is still on a horizontal plane. The level bubble
should hold one position when the instrument is smoothly rotated through a complete revolution.

When taking an observation with an optical instrument, the center of the target should coincide
with the center of the reticle (or crosshair). To obtain accurate results, consistently sight the
telescope to the same part of the target. Turn the ocular (or eye piece) until the reticle is clearly
focused. Then adjust the focusing knob until the target is clearly defined within the field of view.

Errors in Taping

When using a measuring tape, several factors affect the accuracy of the measurement being taken.
Several factors include temperature, pull, sag, and environmental factors. Though it may be small,
it cannot be negligible for long distances since the error increases as the distance goes longer.
MODULE 3 – COMPASS TRAVERSING

INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE

In chain surveying, the area to be surveyed is divided into a number of triangles. This method is
suitable for fairly level ground covering small areas. But when the area is large, undulating and
crowded with many details, triangulation (which is the principle of chain survey) is not possible.
In such an area, the method of traversing is adopted.

In traversing, the framework consists of a number of connected lines. The lengths are measured
by chain or tape and the directions identified by angle measuring instruments. In one of the
methods, the angle measuring instrument used is the compass. Hence, the process is known as
compass traversing.

Note: Consideration of the traverse in an anticlockwise direction is always convenient in running

the survey lines.

DEFINITIONS

1.True meridian The line or plane passing through the geographical north pole, geographical
south pole and any point on the surface of the earth, is known as the ‘true meridian’ or
‘geographical merdian’. The true meridian at a station is constant. The true meridians passing
through different points on the earth’s surface are not parallel, but converge towards the poles.

But for surveys is small areas, the true meridians passing through different points are assumed
parallel.

The angle between the true meridian and a line is known as ‘true bearing’ of the line. It is also
known as the ‘azimuth’.

Magnetic meridian When a magnetic needle is suspended freely and balanced properly,
unaffected by magnetic substances, it indicates a direction. This direction is known as the
‘magnetic meridian’.
The angle between the magnetic meridian and a line is known as the ‘magnetic bearing’ or simply
the ‘bearing’ of the line
Arbitrary meridian Sometimes for the survey of small area, a convenient direction is assumed as
a meridian, known as the ‘arbitrary meridian’. Sometimes the starting line of a survey is taken as
the arbitrary meridian.
The angle between the arbitrary meridian and a line is known as the ‘arbitrary bearing’ of the line.

Grid meridian Sometimes, for preparing a map some state agencies assume several lines parallel
to the true meridian for a particular zone. These lines are termed as ‘grid lines’ and the central
line the ‘grid meridian’. The bearing of a line with respect to the grid meridian is known as the
‘grid bearing’ of the line.
Designation of magnetic bearing Magnetic bearings are designated by two systems :
(i) Whole circle bearing (WCB), and

(ii) Quadrantal bearing (QB).

(a) Whole Circle Bearing (WCB) The magnetic bearing of a line measured clockwise from the
north pole towards the line, is known as the ‘whole circle bearing’, of that line. Such a bearing may
have any value between 0° and 360°. The whole circle bearing of a line is obtained by prismatic
compass

For example,

WCB of AB = θ1

WCB of AC = θ2

WCB of AD = θ3

WCB of AE = θ4

(b) Quadrantal Bearing (QB)The magnetic bearing of a line measured clockwise or

counterclockwise from the North Pole or South Pole (whichever is nearer the line) towards the
East or West, is known as the ‘quadrantal bearing’ of the line. This system consists of four
quadrant)Quardrantal Bearing (QB s – NE, SE, SW and NW. The value of a quadrantal bearing
lies between 0° and 90°, but the quadrants should always be mentioned. Quadrantal bearings are
obtained by the surveyor’s compass

For example, QB of AB = N
Reduced bearing (RB) When the whole circle bearing of a line is converted to quadrantal bearing.
It is termed the ‘reduced bearing’. Thus, the reduced bearing is similar to the quadrantal bearing.
Its value lies between 0° and 90°, but the quadrants should be mentioned for proper designation.
Fore and back bearing The bearing of a line measured in the direction of the progress of survey is
called the ‘fore bearing’ (FB) of the line.
The bearing of a line measured in the direction opposite to the survey is called the ‘back bearing’
(BB) of the line

For example, FB of AB = θ

BB of AB = θ1

Remember the following:

(a) In the WCB system, the difference between the FB and BB should be exactly 180°, and the
negative sign when it is more than 180°. Remember the following relation:.

BB = FB ± 180°

Use the positive sign when FB is less than 180°, and the negative sign when it is more than 1800.

(b) In the quandrantal bearing (i.e. reduced bearing) system, the FB and B3 are numerically
equal but the quadrants are just opposite.

For example, if the FB of AB is N 30° E, then its BB is S 30° W.

Magnetic declination The horizontal angle between the magnetic meridian and true meridian is
known as ‘magnetic declination’.
When the north end of the magnetic needle is pointed towards the west side of the true meridian,
the position is termed ‘Declination West’ ().

When the north end of the magnetic needle is pointed towards the east side of the true meridian,
the position is termed ‘Declination East’
Isogonic and agonic lines Lines passing through points of equal declination are known as
‘isogonic’ lines.
The Survey of India Department has prepared a map of India in which the isogonic and agonic
lines are shown properly as a guideline to conduct the compass survey in different parts of the
country.

Variation of magnetic declination The magnetic declination at a place is not constant. It varies
due to the following reasons:
(a) Secular Variation The magnetic meridian behaves like a pendulum with respect to the true
meridian. After every 100 years or so, it swings from one direction to the opposite direction, and
hence the declination varies. This variation is known as ‘secular variation’.

(b) Annual Variation The magnetic declination varies due to the rotation of the earth, with its axis
inclined, in an elliptical path around the sun during a year. This variation is known as ‘annual
variation. The amount of variation is about 1 to 2 minutes.

(c) Diurnal Variation The magnetic declination varies due to the rotation of the earth on its own
axis in 24 hours. This variation is known as ‘dirunal variation’. The amount of variation is found
to be about 3 to 12 minutes.

(d) Irregular Variation The magnetic declination is found to vary suddenly due to some natural
causes, such as earthequakes, volcanic eruptions and so on. This variation is known as ‘irregular
variation’.

Dip of the magnetic needle If a needle is perfectly balanced before magnetisation, it does not
remain in the balanced position after it is magnetised. This is due to the magnetic influence of the
earth. The needle is found to be inclined towards the pole. This inclination of the needle with the
horizontal is known as the ‘dip of the magnetic needle’.
It is found that the north end of the needle is deflected downwards in the northern hemisphere
and that is south end is deflected downwards in the southern hemisphere. The needle is just
horizontal at the equator. To balance the dip of the needle, a rider (brass or silver coil) is provided
along with it. The rider is placed over the needle at a suitable position to make it horizontal.

Local attraction A magnetic needle indicates the north direction when freely suspended or
pivoted. But if the needle comes near some magnetic substances, such as iron ore, steel structures,
electric cables conveying current; etc. it is found to be deflected from its true direction, and does
not show the actual north. This disturbing influence of magnetic substances is known as ‘local
attraction’.
To detect the presence of local attraction, the fore and back bearings of a line should be taken. If
the difference of the fore and back bearings of the line is exactly 180°, then there is no local
attraction.
If the FB and BB of a line do not differ by 180°, then the needle is said to be affected by local
attraction, provided there is no instrumental error.

To compensate for the effect of local attraction, the amount of error is found out and is equally
distributed between the fore and back bearings of the line.

For example, consider the case when

Observed FB of AB = 60°30’

Observed BB of AB = 240°0’

Calculated BB of AB = 60°30' + 180°0’ = 240°30’

Corrected BB of AB = 1/2 (240°0’ + 240°30’) = 240°15’

Hence, Corrected FB of AB = 240°15’ – 180°0’ = 60°15’

Method of application of correction

(a) First Method The interior angles of a traverse are calculated from the observed bearings. Then
an angular check is applied. The sum of the interior angles should be equal to (2n – 4) x 90° (n
being the number of sides of the traverse). If it is not so, the total error is equally distributed
among all the angles of the traverse.

Then, starting from the unaffected line, the bearings of all the lines may be corrected by using the
corrected interior angles. This method is very laborious and is not generally employed.

(b) Second Method In this method, the interior angles are not calculated. From the given table,
the unaffected line is first detected. Then, commencing from the unaffected line, the bearings of
the other affected lines are corrected by finding the amount of correction at each station.

This is an easy method, and one which is generally employed.

Note: If all the lines of a traverse are found to be affected by local attraction, the line with
minimum error is identified. The FB and BB of this line are adjusted by distributing the error
equally. Then, starting from this adjusted line, the fore and back bearing of other lines are
corrected.

4.3. PRINCIPLE OF COMPASS SURVEYING

The principle of compass surveying is traversing, which involves a series of connected lines. The
magnetic bearings of the lines are measured by prismatic compass and the distances of the lines
are measured by chain. Such survey does not require the formation of a network of triangles.

Interior details are located by taking offsets from the main survey lines. Sometimes subsidiary
lines may be taken for locating these details.

Compass surveying is not recommended for areas where local attraction is suspected due to the
presence of magnetic substances like steel structures, iron ore deposits, electric cables conveying
current, and so on.

4.4 TRAVERSING

As already stated in the last section, surveying which involves a series of connected lines is known
as ‘traversing.’ The sides of the traverse are known as ‘traverse legs’.

In traversing, the lengths of the lines are measured by chain and the directions are fixed by
compass or theodolite or by forming angles with chain and tape.

A traverse may be of two types – closed and open.

Closed traverse When a series of A connected lines forms a closed circuit, i.e. when the finishing
point coincides with the starting point coincides with the starting point of a survey, it is called a
‘closed traverse’. Here ABCDEA represents a closed traverse. Closed traverse is suitable for the
survey of boundaries of ponds, forests estates, etc.
Open traverse When a sequence of connected lines extends along a general direction and does not
return to the starting point, it is known as ‘open traverse’ or ‘unclosed traverse’. Here ABCDE
represents an open traverse
Open traverse is suitable for the survey of roads, rivers, coast lines, etc.
4.5 METHODS OF TRAVERSING

Traverse survey may be conducted by the following methods :

Chain traversing (by chain angle)

Compass traversing (by free needle)
Theodolite traversing (by fast needle) and
Plane table traversing (by plane table)
1.Chain traversing Chain traversing is mainly conducted when it is not possible to adopt
triangulation. In this method, the angles between adjacent sides are fixed by chain angles. The
entire survey is conducted by chain and tape only and no angular measurements are taken. When
it is not possible to form triangles, as, for example, in a pond, chain traversing is conducted,

The formation of chain angles is

(a) First Method Suppose a chain angle is to be formed to fix the directions of sides AB and AD.
Tie stations T1 and T2 are fixed on lines AB and AD. The distances AT1, AT2 and T1T2 are
measured. Then the angle T1AT2 is said to be the chain angle. So, the chain angle is fixed by the
tie line T1T2.

(b) Second Method Sometimes the chain angle is fixed by chord. Suppose the angle between the
lines AB and AC is to be fixed. Taking A as the centre and a radius equal to one tape length (15 m),
an arc intersecting the lines AB and AC at points P and Q, respectively, is drawn. The chord PQ is
measured and bisected at R.

The angle θ can be calculated from the above equation, and the chain angle BAC can be
determined accordingly.

Compass traversing In this method, the fore and back bearings of the traverse legs are measured
by prismatic compass and the sides of the traverse by chain or tape. Then the observed bearings
are verified and necessary corrections for local attraction are applied. In this method, closing error
may occur when the traverse is plotted. This error is adjusted graphically by using ‘Bowditch’s
rule’ (which is described later on).
Theodolite traversing In such traversing, the horizontal angles between the traverse legs are
measured by theodolite. The lengths of the legs are measured by chain or by employing the stadia
method. The magnetic bearing of the starting leg is measured by theodolite. Then the magnetic
bearings of the other sides are calculated. The independent coordinates of all the traverse stations
are then found out. This method is very accurate.
Plane table traversing In this method, a plane table is set at every traverse station in the clockwise
or anticlockwise direction, and the circuit is finally closed. During traversing, the sides of the
traverse are plotted according to any suitable scale. At the end of the work, any closing error which
may occur is adjusted graphically.
4.6. CHECK ON CLOSED TRAVERSE

Check on angular measurements

(a) The sum of the measured interior angles should be equal to (2N – 4) x 900 where N is the
number of sides of the traverse.

(b) The sum of the measured exterior angles should be equal to (2N + 4) x 900.

(c) The algebraic sum of the deflection angles should be equal to 3600.

Right-hand deflection is considered positive and left-hand deflection negative.

Check on linear measurement

(a) The lines should be measurement once each on two different days (along opposite directions).
Both measurements should tally.

(b) Linear measurements should also be taken by the stadia method. The measurements by
chaining and by the stadia method should tally.

4.7 CHECK ON OPEN TRAVERSE

In open traverse, the measurements cannot be checked directly. But some field measurements
can be taken to check the accuracy of the work. The methods are discussed below.

Taking cut-off lines Cut-off lines are taken between some intermediate stations of the open
traverse. Suppose ABCDEF represents an open traverse. Let AD and DG be the cut-off lines. The
lengths and magnetic bearings of the cut-off lines are measured accurately. After plotting the
traverse, the distances and bearings are noted from the map. These distances and bearings should
tally with the actual records from the field
Taking an auxiliary point Suppose ABCDEF is an open traverse. A permanent point P is selected
on one side of it. The magnetic bearings of this point are taken from the traverse stations A,B,C,D,
etc. If the survey is carried out accurately and so is the plotting, all the measured bearings of P
when plotted should meet at the point P. The permanent point P is known as the ‘auxiliary point’
4.8 TYPES OF COMPASS

There are two types of compass:

The prismatic compass, and

The surveyor’s compass.
The prismatic compass In this compass, the readings are taken with the help of a prism. The
following are the essential parts of this compass:
(a) Compass Box The compass box is a circular metallic box (the metal should be nonmagnetic)
of diameter 8 to 10 cm. A pivot with a sharp point is provided at the centre of the box.

(b) Magnetic Needle and Graduated Ring The magnetic needle is made of a broad, magnetised
iron bar. The bar is pointed at both ends. The magnetic needle is attached to a graduated
aluminium ring.

The ring is graduated from 00 to 3600 clockwise, and the graduations begin from the south end
of the needle. Thus 00 is marked at the south, 900 at the west, 1800 at north and 2700 at the east.
The degrees are again subdivided into half-degrees. The figures are written upside down. The
arrangement of the needle and ring contains an agate cap pivoted on the central pivot point. A
rider of brass or silver coil is provided with the needle to counterbalance its dip.

(c) Sight Vane and Prism The sight vane and the reflecting prism are fixed diametrically opposite
to the box. The sight vane is hinged with the metal box and consists of a horsehair at the centre.
The prism consists of a sighting slit at the top and two small circular holes, one at bottom of the
prism and the other at the side of the observer’s eye.

(d) Dark Glasses Two dark glasses are provided with the prism. The red glass is meant for sighting
luminous objects at night and the blue glass for reducing the strain on the observer’s eye in bright
daylight.

(e) Adjustable Mirror A mirror is provided with the sight vane. The mirror can be lowered or
raised, and can also be inclined. If any object is too low or too high with respect to the line of sight,
the mirror can be adjusted to observe it through reflection.

(f) Brake Pin A brake pin is provided just at the base of the sight vane. If pressed gently, it stops
the oscillations of the ring.
(g) Lifting Pin A lifting pin is provided just below the sight vane. When the sight vane is folded, it
presses the lifting pin. The lifting pin then lifts the magnetic needle out of the pivot point to
prevent damage to the pivot head.

(h) Glass Cover A glass cover is provided on top of the box to protect the aluminium ring from
dust

The Surveyor’s compass The surveyor’s compass is similar to the prismatic compass except for
the following points.
(a) There is no prism on it. Readings are taken with naked eye.

(b) It consists of an eye-vane (in place of prism) with a fine sight slit.

(c) The graduated aluminium ring is attached to the circular box. It is not fixed to the magnetic
needle.

(d) The magnetic needle moves freely over the pivot. The needle shows the reading on the
graduated ring.

(e) The ring is graduated from 00 to 900 in four quadrants. 00 is marked at the north and south,
and 900 at the east and west. The letters E (east) and W (west) are interchanged from their true
positions. The figures are written the right way up.

(f) No mirror is attached to the object vane.

4.9 TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENT OF PRISMATIC COMPASS (FIELD PROCEDURE OF

OBSERVING BEARING)

The following procedure should be adopted while measuring the bearing by prismatic compass.

Fixing the compass with tripod stand The tripod stand is placed at the required station with its
legs well apart. Then the prismatic compass is held by the left hand and placed over the threaded
top of the stand. After this, the compass box is turned clockwise by the right hand. Thus the
threaded base of the compass box is fixed with the threaded top of the stand.
Centering Normally, the compass is centred by dropping a piece of stone from the bottom of the
compass box. Centring may also be done with the aid of a plumb bob held centrally below the
compass box.
Levelling: Levelling is done with the help of a ball-and-socket arrangement provided on top of the
tripod stand. This arrangement is loosened and the box is placed in such a way that the graduated
ring rotates freely without touching either the bottom of the box or the glass cover on top.
Adjustment of prism: the prism is moved up and down till the figures on the graduated ring are
seen sharp and clear.
Observation of bearing: After centering and leveling the compass box over the station, the ranging
rod at the required station is bisected perfectly by sighting through the slit of the prism and
horsehair at the sight vane.
At this time the graduated ring may rotate rapidly. The brake pin is pressed very gently to stop
this rotation. When the ring comes to rest, the box is struck very lightly to verify the horizontality
of the ring and the frictional effect on the pivot point. Then the reading is taken from the graduated
ring through the hole in the prism. This reading will be magnetic bearing of the line.
Measurement of Distances
by PACING

By: Engr. Luz Mirasol B. Domondon

Course Code: CE 010 Fundamentals of Surveying
 Sample Problems
1. A 50-m course on level ground was paced by a man to determine his pace factor. He
has taken 64.94, 68.49, 62.5, 69.44 paces in 4 trials. Determine the following:
a. The pace factor of the man?
b. How many probable strides did the man take given the above paces?
c. Given the pace factor, what is the length of the line YZ if the man has a pace of 105.

Solution:
50
a. PF (pace factor) = 64.94+68.49+62.5+69.44 = 0.75
4

b. Sum of paces = 64.94+68.49+62.5+69.44 = 265.37

265.37
No. of strides = = 132.685
2

c. YZ = PF x no. of paces = 0.75 x 105 = 78.75-m

 Measurement of Distance,
Errors in Distance
by TAPING

By: Engr. Luz Mirasol B. Domondon, CE

Course Code: CE 021 Fundamentals of Surveying
 Tape Corrections
Depending upon the accuracy required in taping, certain corrections
are made to the original measured distance. The major sources of error
in taping can be identified in terms of the following corrections:
• Correction for standard length
• Correction for slope
• Correction for tension
• Correction due to alignment
• Correction due to temperature
• Correction due to sag
• Correction due to wind
Corrections to Taping are applied by the use of the following rules:
1. When a line is measured with a tape that is “TOO LONG” ,
corrections are ADDED.
2. When laying out a length with a tape that is “TOO LONG” ,
corrections are SUBTRACTED.
3. When a line is measured or laid out with a tape that is “TOO SHORT”
, corrections are applied opposite of 1st and 2nd rules.

GENERAL STATEMENT
“When measuring with tape TOO LONG - ADD; TOO SHORT - SUBTRACT.
Do the reverse when laying out.”
Tape not of Standard Length
It is often due to imperfections upon manufacturing or due to constant use of tapes becoming
worn, kinked, and improperly repaired when breaks occurred. Corr = TL - NL
Where: Corr = Correction per tape length
TL = True or Actual length
NL = Nominal length of tape
Example:
1. The length of line AB measured with a 50-m tape is 364.195. The tape used is found out to be 0.015
m too long. Determine the correct length of AB.
364.195 corr.AB
Solution: corr = 50 + 0.015 ratio and proportion: = = 364.304 m
50 50.015
= 50.015 (measure: “too long” of 0.015; therefore, add)
2. A lot of rectangular in shape was measured using a 40 m steel tape which was found to be 0.02 m too
short. If the recorded length of the lot is 160.35 m and width of 117.80 m. Determine the actual
dimensions of the lot.
Solution: corr = 40 – 0.02 = 39.98 (measure: “too short” of 0.02; therefore, subtract)

by ratio and proportion:

117.80-m

160.35𝑚 corr.L 117.80 corr.W

= =
40 39.98 40 39.98
corr. L = 160.27-m corr. W = 117.74-m

160.35-m
3. The length of line AB was laid out with a 50-m tape is 364.195-m. The
tape used is found out to be 0.015 m too long. Determine the correct
length of AB.
Solution: corr = 50 - 0.015 = 49.985-m
(lay out: “too long” of 0.015; therefore, subtract)

364.195 corr.AB
ratio and proportion: = = 364.086 m
50 49.985
Correction Due to Slope
When distances are measured along slope, the equivalent horizontal distance may
correspondingly be determined by applying an approximate or exact slope correction.
Example:
The slope distance of line AB is 50.45 m. The difference in elevation is 25.33 m for points A and
B. Determine the slope correction for line AB assuming slopes are gentle, steep and very steep.

Solution:

25.33-m
For gentle slope (around 20%)
ℎ2 25.332
Ch = = = 6.36 m
2𝑠 2(50.45)
∅
a
For steep slope (20%-30%)
ℎ2 ℎ4 25.332 25.334
Ch = + =2(50.45)+8(50.453) = 6.76 m by Pythagorean theorem: a= 43.63-m
2𝑠 8𝑠 3
25.33
For very steep (greater than 30%) therefore, tan∅= 43.63 ∅= 30.14𝑜
Ch = s(1-cos ∅)= 50.45(1-cos 30.14𝑜 )

= 6.82 m
Correction due to Alignment
Linear error due to inaccuracy in alignment of a tape. Similar to
the effect of slope. Easier to control and smaller in magnitude.
Generally least important among different tape corrections.

Correction due to Temperature

Change in the length of the tape due to variations in temperature
occurs when measurements are taken at temperatures above or below
the standard temperature of the tape correction is usually small and
negligible proportional to the number of tape lengths.

Ct = αL(T-Ts) Where: Ct = Corr due to Temperature L = Length of the line

α/C = coefficient of thermal expansion T = Observed Temperature
T = Temperature at which the tape was
standardized
Example:
A steel tape is known to be 50 m long at 20 degree celsius. The tape
was used to measure a line 532.28 m long at 35 degree celsius.
Coeffecient of thermal expansion is C=0.0000116/1 deg Celsius.
a. Determine whether the tape is “too short” or “too long”
b. Corrected length of line.

Solution:
a. Ct = αL(T-Ts)
= 0.0000116/1 deg Celsius(532.28m)(35-20)
Ct = + 0.093m
b. Correct L = 532.28 + 0.093
= 532.373m
Correction due to Tension
Arises whenever the pull applied is different from the standard
tension used in calibration. A function of:
• Difference between applied and standard pulls
• Measured length
• Cross-sectional area of the tape
• Modulus of elasticity of the tape material
𝑃𝑚 −𝑃𝑠 𝐿
Cp =
𝐴𝐸
Where: Cp = correction due to tension, m
Pm = Pull during measurement, kg
Ps = Pull during standardization, kg
A = Cross-sectional area of the tape, sqcm.
E = Modulus of elasticity of the tape, kg/sqcm
Example:
A 30 m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard length under a pull of 5
kg, supported for full length. A line 938.55 m long was measured using the
tape with a steady pull of 10 kg. If E = 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2 and unit weight of
steel s 7.9 x 10-3 kg/cm3, determine:
a.) cross-sectional area of the tape.
b.) Cp (measure: “too long”; add)
c.) Correct length of line
Solution:
𝑊 1.45𝑘𝑔
a. A = = 3 𝑘𝑔
= 0.061 sqcm
𝐿(𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) 3000𝑐𝑚(7.9𝑥10 𝑐𝑚3))
10𝑘𝑔 −5𝑘𝑔 (30𝑚) 𝐶𝑝 0.00123
b. cp = 𝑘𝑔 = +0.00123m = ; Cp = 0.038
0.061𝑠𝑞𝑐𝑚(2.0𝑥106 ) 938.55𝑚 30𝑚
𝑐𝑚2 Since +, “too long”
c. Correct L = 938.55 + 0.038 = 938.588m
Correction due to Wind
Caused by wind blowing perpendicular to the direction of taping.
Wind moves the middle and unsupported portion of the tape to one
side of the line measured. Similar to the effect of sag but is usually
much less preferable not to undertake any taping work during windy
days.
 Errors in Measurement Sample Problems

Probable Error

1. In a series of tape measurements of a line, the following values were determined. 508.35,
508.70, 508.45, in meters. Find the following:
a. Probable Value (PV) of the line
n = 3 (number of determined measurements)
∑X = 508.35 + 508.70 + 508.45 = 1525.23m
MPV = 1525.23/3 = 508.50-m

b. Probable error of a single measurement (PEs)

V1 = X1 - 𝑋̅= 508.35 - 508.50 = -0.15
V2 = X2 - ̅𝑋= 508.70 – 508.50 = 0.20
V3 = X3 - ̅𝑋= 508.45 – 508.50 = -0.05
∑V = 0.00

V12 = (-0.15)2 = 0.0225

V22 = (0.20)2 = 0.0400
V32 = (0.05)2 = 0.0025

∑V2 = V12 + V22 + V32 = 0.0225 + 0.0400 + 0.0025 = 0.0650

∑𝑉2 0.0650
PEs = + 0.6745 √ = + 0.6745 √ = +0.1216-m
(𝑛−1) (3−1)

c. Probable Error of the mean (PEM)

∑𝑉2
PEM = + 0.6745 √ = + 0.0702-m
𝑛(𝑛−1)

d. Final Expression of the line

Therefore, 508.50-m +0.0702m

e. Relative Precision of the PEs and PEM

RP2 = 0.1216/508.50 = 0.00024-m =
0.24-mm

RPM = 0.0702/508.50 = 0.00014-m =

0.14-mm

Product of Error

1. A lot property of rectangular in shape has a linear measurement of L = 79.62m + 0.04m and W =
56.89m + 0.036m. Determine the area of the lot property and the probable error.
Area (A) = L x W = 79.62 x 56.89 = 4529.58sqm
PE = + √(𝐿𝑥𝑃𝐸𝑤)2 + (𝑊𝑥𝑃𝐸𝑙)2 = + √(79.62𝑥0.036)2 + (56.89𝑥0.04)2 = + 3.66m
Summation of Errors

1. A triangular lot is given by the following measurements and probable errors: a = 89.72m +
0.03m, b = 77.63m + 0.02m, c = 96.64m + 0.04m. Determine the PE of the sum and the most
probable value of the perimeter.

a
b

Perimeter = 89.72 + 77.63 + 96.64 = 263.99m

Pes = + √𝑃𝐸12 + 𝑃𝐸22 + 𝑃𝐸32 = + √0.032 + 0.022 + 0.042 = 0.054m

Thus, the final expression for the perimeter is 263.99m + 0.054m.

 Measurement of Distance
CORRECTION DUE TO SAG

1. A 25-m tape is supported at both ends and under a steady pull of 7

kg. Tape weighs 0.88 kg. Determine the sag correction and the true
distance between the ends of the steel tape.

l
P P

Support at both ends Support at both ends

L = 25 m (nominal length of tape)

P = 7 kg (pull applied on both ends of the tape)
W = 0.88 kg (Weight of tape)

Solution:

𝑊 2𝐿 0.882 (25)
Cs = = = 0.0165 m
24𝑃 2 24(7)2

Cs = 25 – 0.0165 = 24.9835 m

Note: The effect of sag always causes shortening of the tape.

2. A 40-m tape is used to measure a 1000-m distance. The tape

which was supported at its end points and at the 9-m and 22-m
marks has a weight of 3kg. If a pull of 4 kg is applied, determine
the following:
a) Correction due to sag between the 0-m and 9-m marks, the 9-
m and 28-m marks, and the 28-m and 40-m marks.
b) Correction due to sag for one tape length, and
c) Correct distance between the ends of the tape.
d) Total sag correction if the measured length is 1000-m.

P 0m 9m 22m 40m
P

L1=9m L2=13m L3 = 18
Solution:

a) Correction due to sag between the three marks

3𝑘𝑔 𝒌𝒈
w= = 0.075 𝒎
40𝑚

𝑤2 𝐿 0.0752 (9)
Cs1 = = = 0.00013 m
24𝑃2 24(4)2

𝑊2 𝐿 0.0752 (13)
Cs2 = = = 0.00019 m
24𝑃 2
24(4)2

𝑊2 𝐿 0.0752 (18)
Cs3 = = =0.00026 m
24𝑃 2
24(4)2

b) Sag correction for one tape length

Cs = Cs1 + Cs2 + Cs3 = 0.00013 + 0.00019 + 0.00026

Cs = 0.00058m

c) Correct distance between tape ends

l= L – Cs = 40 – 0.0389 = 39.99942 m

d. What is the total sag correction for 1000-m length

Cs = 0.00058m

By ratio and proportion

0.00058 𝐶𝑡
= = 0.0145 m
40 1000
Measurement of Directions
and Angles

By: Engr. Luz Mirasol B. Domondon

Course: Fundamentals of Surveying
Meridians
Meridian
Meridian is a reference direction with respect to which the direction of lines
are mentioned. The direction of a line usually defined by the horizontal angle
it makes with a fixed reference line or direction.

True Meridian
It is the reference direction of north pole of earth from a given station point.
It is also called astronomic or geographic meridian. This meridian is used for
marking the boundaries of land. It is invariable when used in survey and any
record of true directions remains permanent and unchanged regardless of
time.
Magnetic Meridian
Fixed line of reference which lies parallel with the magnetic lines of the force
of the earth. It is the direction of north pole indicated by freely suspended
magnetic needle of a compass held at the observer’s position. It used only
on rough surveys where magnetic compass is used.

Arbitrary Meridian
This is any assume direction to a well defined object. It may be useful for
small areas. e.g A mosque is taken as reference and location of road will be
mentioned with respect to this mosque. Direction of magnetic north with
respect to true north is called magnetic direction.

Grid Meridian
This is a fixed line of reference parallel to the central meridian of a system of
plane rectangular coordinates. Used only in plane surveying with limited
extent. All measurements are assumed projected to a horizontal plane and
that all meridians are parallel straight line.
Units of Angular Measurements
1. Degree – a sexagesimal system used in which circumference of a
circle is divided into 360 parts or degrees.
1deg = 60’ = 3600’’
1. Grad – a unit of measure in the centesimal system. The
circumference of a circle is divided into 400 parts.
1 g = 100 c = 10,000 cc (standard unit in Europe)
3. Mil = The circumference is divided into 6,400 parts. Used in military
operations.
4. Radians = used frequently for host of calculation.
1 rad = 180/pi 1 degree = pi/180
Conversion of Angular Measurements
1. 138𝑜 15′ 40′′ (convert to decimal degree)
15′ 40′′
Solution: 138𝑜 + + = 138𝑜 + 0.25𝑜 + 0.0111𝑜 = 𝟏𝟑𝟖. 𝟐𝟔𝟏𝟏𝒐
60′ 3600′
2. 365.132879 (convert to degree, minutes, seconds)
Solution: 365.132879 , get 365 since whole number as degrees
365.132879-365 = 0.132879;
60′
0.132879 x = 7.97274, get 7 since whole number as minutes
1𝑜
7.97274 – 7 = 0.97274;
60′′
0.97274 x = 58.3644, get 58 since whole number as seconds
1′
therefore, 𝟑𝟔𝟓𝒐 𝟕′ 𝟓𝟖′′
Conversion of Angular Measurements
3. 138𝑜 (convert to grad, mils, radians)
100 𝑔 0.5𝑝𝑖
Solution:138𝑜 x 𝑜 = 153.33 g 138𝑜 x = 2.409 rad
90 90𝑜
𝑜 1600𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠
138 x 𝑜 = 2,453.33mils
90
Bearings
Bearing is the angle which a certain line make with a meridian. Bearing
with respect to true meridian is called true bearings while magnetic
bearing is the angle which a line makes with respect to magnetic
meridian. There are two ways to represent the bearings,

• Whole circle bearing (W.C.B)

• Reduced Bearing (R.B)
Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B) Reduced Bearing

It can be taken 0° to 360°. Reduced bearing or Quadrantal

Quadrants are taken clock-wisely bearing is the angle which a line
and angles are also determined in makes from North or South Pole
clockwise direction. whichever may be near. It is value
is from 0° to 90°.
Using the above figures you can easily convert the Whole Circle Bearing
into Reduced Bearing. Some Examples are given are below.
Azimuth
The azimuth of a line on the ground is its horizontal angle measured
from the meridian to the line. Azimuth gives the direction of the line
with respect to the meridian. It is usually measured in a clockwise
direction with respect to either the north meridian or the south
meridian. In plane surveying, azimuths are generally measured from
the north. When using azimuths, one needs to designate whether the
azimuth is from the north or the south. Azimuths are called true
(astronomical) azimuths, magnetic azimuths, grid azimuths, or assumed
azimuths depending on the type of meridian referenced. Azimuths may
have values between 0 and 360 degrees.
Azimuth
The azimuth of a line is its directions as given by the angle between the
meridian and the line measured in a clockwise direction from either the
north or the south branch of the meridian. It is often preferred over
bearings by most surveyors because they are more convenient to work
with. Usually the quadrant directions are not required. It is always from
north or south.
Foreward and Back Azimuth

Any line established on the earth’s surface has two azimuths – a

forward azimuth and backward azimuth.

Rule 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater than 180 degrees,
subtract 180 degrees to obtain the back azimuth.
Rule 2: When the forward azimuth of the line is less than 180 degrees,
add 180 degrees to determine the back azimuth.
Determine the Forward and Backward Azimuth of the Traverse:
Convert the Azimuth to Bearing, SOUTH as the reference direction
Convert the Bearing to Azimuth, NORTH as the reference direction
Magnetic Declination

At most places on the Earth's surface, the compass doesn't point

exactly toward geographic north. The deviation of the compass
from true north is an angle called "declination" (or "magnetic
declination").
Magnetic Declination in a Line
1. Determine the Bearing and Azimuth of the line AB if the magnetic
declination is 2𝑜 15′ E.
 Angle to the Right Traverse,
Azimuth Traverse, and Latitude
and Departure

By: Engr. Luz Mirasol Domondon

Course: Fundamentals of Surveying
 Angle to the Right Traverse
Adjust the given traverse. Observed angles to the right are:
Adjustment:
Angle-RA = 236𝑜 40′ + 0𝑜 1′ = 236𝑜 41′
Angle-RB = 231𝑜 29′ + 0𝑜 1′ = 231𝑜 30′
Angle-RC = 292𝑜 25′ + 0𝑜 1′ = 292𝑜 26′
Angle-RD = 230𝑜 11′ + 0𝑜 1′ = 230𝑜 12′
Angle-RE = 269𝑜 10′ + 0𝑜 1′ = 269𝑜 11′

∑ angles to the right = 236𝑜 40′ + 231𝑜 29′ + 292𝑜 25′ + 230𝑜 11′ + 269𝑜 10′
0𝑜 5′
∑ angles to the right = 1259𝑜 55′ angle to be added to =
5 (𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠)
𝑜 ′
adjust each angles to the right = 0 1

Exact Sum of Angles = (n+2)(180𝑜 )

Exact Sum of Angles = (5+2)(180𝑜 ) = 1260𝑜

Error = Exact Sum of Angles - ∑ angles to the right

= 1260𝑜 - 1259𝑜 55′ = 0𝑜 5′ (since positive; add)
 Angle to the Right Traverse
Adjust the given traverse. Observed angles to the right are:
 Azimuth Traverse
Determine the Bearing and Azimuth from North of each station .
= 279𝑜 45′ F bAB = 180𝑜 − 175𝑜 15′ = 4𝑜 45′
= 60𝑜 10′ αN-AB = 360𝑜 − 4𝑜 45′ = 355𝑜 15′
= 350𝑜 1′
F bBC = 180𝑜 − 136𝑜 20′ = 43𝑜 40′
= 220𝑜 5′ αN-BC = 180𝑜 + 136𝑜 20′ = 316𝑜 20′
= 356𝑜 16′
= 136𝑜 20′ F bCD = 180𝑜 − 60𝑜 10′ = 119𝑜 50′
αN-CD = 180𝑜 + 60𝑜 10′ = 240𝑜 10′

F bDE = 360𝑜 − 350𝑜 1′ = 9𝑜 59′

αN-DE = 180𝑜 − 9𝑜 59′ = 170𝑜 1′

F bEA = 360𝑜 − 278𝑜 51′ = 81𝑜 9′

𝑜
= 170 19 ′ = 5𝑜 10′
αN-EA = 278𝑜 51′ − 180𝑜 = 98𝑜 51′
= 175𝑜 15′
= 278𝑜 51′
 Azimuth Traverse
Determine the Bearing and Azimuth from North of each station .
= 279𝑜 45′
= 60𝑜 10′
= 350𝑜 1′
= 220𝑜 5′
= 356𝑜 16′
= 136𝑜 20′

= 170𝑜 19′ = 98𝑜 51′

= 175𝑜 15′
= 278𝑜 51′
Adjust the given Open Traverse
Adjust the given Close Compass Traverse
 Latitude and Departure
αN-CD = 240𝑜 10′
LATITUDE, m DEPARTURE, m
LatAB = 210.10 cos 355𝑜 15′ = 209.38 DepAB = 210.10 sin 355𝑜 15′ = -17.40
αN-BC = 316𝑜 20′ LatBC = 155.34 cos 316𝑜 20′ = 112.37 DepBC = 155.34 sin 316𝑜 20′ = -107.26
LatCD = 206.84 cos 240𝑜 10′ = -102.90 DepCD = 206.84 sin 240𝑜 10′ = -179.43

αN-DE = 170𝑜 1′ LatDE = 174.50 cos 170𝑜 1′ = -171.86 DepDE = 174.50 sin 170𝑜 1′ = 30.25
LatEA = 330.0 cos 98𝑜 51′ = -50.77 DepEA = 330.0 sin 98𝑜 51′ = 326.07
∑ = -3.78-m ∑ = 52.23-m

αN-EA = 98𝑜 51′ LEC (Linear Error of Closure) = 𝐿𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝐷𝑒𝑝2

αN-AB = 355𝑜 15′ = (−3.78)2 +(52.23)2
330.0-m
= 52.37-m

∑Lat −∑−3.78−m
Tan ∅= −−∑Dep =
−∑52.23−m
= 𝑁 4.14𝑜 W (angle of bearing for
𝐿𝐸𝐶 52.37−𝑚
RP = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒,𝑑 = 210.1+155.34+206.84+174.50+330 the side of error)
= 0.049 ≈ 4.86 %
COURSE LENGTH, m ADJUSTED FORE BEARING LATITUDE, m DEPARTURE, m
AB
494.02 N 5o 20’40” E 491.87 46.01
BC
846.42 N 46o 3’30” E 587.35 609.46
CD
853.70 S 67o22’40” E -328.38 788.02
DE
1023.43 S 12o 9’50” E -1000.45 215.65
EF
1121.69 S 83o33’ W -126.01 -1114.59
FA
660.78 N 55o24’10” W 375.19 -543.93
-0.43 0.62

Therefore, the traverse is properly closed.

− σ 𝒍𝒂𝒕 − σ −𝟎.𝟒𝟑
Tan =− σ 𝒅𝒆𝒑
= = N 34o 44’24” W
− σ 𝟎.𝟔𝟐

𝑳𝑬𝑪 𝟎.𝟕𝟓
RP = 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟓,𝟎𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟒 = 0.015%

LEC = −𝟎. 𝟒𝟑 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐 𝟐 = 0.75-m

Perimeter = 5,000.04
 σ𝑳𝒂𝒕 σ𝑫𝒆𝒑
Compass Rule Adjustment (k = ; k= )
σ𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 σ𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
COURSE LINE, m BEARING -LATITUDE +LATITUDE -DEPARTURE +DEPARTURE ADJ. LEN ADJ BEARG
AB 495.85 N 5o 30’ E 493.57 47.53
BC 850.62 N 46o 02’ E 590.53 612.23
CD 855.45 S 67o 38’ E 325.53 791.09
DE 1020.87 S 12o 25’ E 996.99 219.51
EF 1117.26 S 83o 44’ W 121.96 1110.58
FA 660.08 N 55o 09’ W 377.19 541.70
SUM = 5000.13 ∑ = 1444.48 ∑ = 1461.29 ∑ = 1652.28 ∑ = 1670.36

σ𝑳𝒂𝒕 𝟏𝟒𝟔𝟏.𝟐𝟗−𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟒.𝟒𝟖
KL = = = 0.00336
σ𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟑
σ𝑳𝒂𝒕 𝟏𝟔𝟕𝟎.𝟑𝟔−𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟐.𝟐𝟖
KD = = = 0.00362
σ𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟑
 C-AB = (495.85 x 0.00336) = 1.67 corrL-AB = 493.57 - 1.67 = 491.90
C-BC = (850.62 x 0.00336) = 2.86 corrL-BC = 590.53 – 2.86 = 587.67
C-CD = (855.45 X 0.00336) = 2.87 corrL-CD = -325.53 + 2.87 = -322.66
C-DE = (1020.87 X 0.00336) = 3.43 corrL-DE = -996.99 + 3.43 = -993.56
C-EF = (1117.26 X 0.00336) = 3.75 corrL-EF = -121.96 + 3.75 = -118.21
C-FA = (660.08 X 0.00336) = 2.22 corrL-FA = 377.19 – 2.22 = 374.97
COURSE LINE, m BEARING -LATITUDE +LATITUDE -DEPARTURE +DEPARTURE ADJ. LEN,m ADJ BEARG
AB 495.85 N 5o 30’ E 493.57 47.53 494.02 N 5o 19’ E
BC 850.62 N 46o 02’ E 590.53 612.23 846.42 N 46o 2’ E
CD 855.45 S 67o 38’ E 325.53 791.09 851.49 S 67o 44’ E
DE 1020.87 S 12o 25’ E 996.99 219.51 1016.73 S 12o 15’ E
EF 1117.26 S 83o 44’ W 121.96 1110.58 1016.73 1112.84 S 83o 54’ W
FA 660.08 N 55o 09’ W 377.19 541.70 656.85 N 55o 11’ W
C-AB = 495.85 X 0.00362 = 1.79 corrD-AB = 47.53 – 1.79 = 45.74
C-BC = 850.62 X 0.00362 = 3.08 corrD-BC = 612.23 -3.08 = 609.15
C-CD = 855.45 X 0.00362 = 3.10 corrD-CD = 791.09 -3.10 = 787.99
C-DE = 1020.87 X 0.00362 = 3.70 corrD-DE = 219.51 – 3.70 = 215.81
C-EF = 1117.26 X 0.00362 = 4.04 corrD-EF = -1110.58 + 4.04 = -1106.54
C-FA = 660.08X 0.00362 = 2.39 corrD-FA = -541.70 + 2.39 = -539.31

(𝑎𝑑𝑗.𝑑𝑒𝑝) (45.74)
corrL-AB = (491.90)2 +(45.74)2 = 494.02 tanB-AB = = = N 5o 19’ E
(𝑎𝑑𝑗.𝑙𝑎𝑡) (491.90)
609.15
corrL-BC = (587.67)2 +(609.15)2 = 846.42 tanB-BC = = N 46o 2’ E
587.67
787.99
corrL-CD = (−322.66)2 + (787.99)2 = 851.49 tanB-CD = −322.66 = S 67o 44’ E
215.81
corrL-DE = (−993.56)2 + (215.81)2 = 1016.73 tanB-DE = −993.56 = S 12o 15’ E
−1106.54
corrL-EF = (−118.21)2 + (1106.54)2 = 1112.84 tanB-EF = −118.21
= S 83o 54’ W

−539.31
corrL-FA = (374.97)2 +(−539.31)2 = 656.85 tanB-FA = 374.97 = N 55o 11’ W
 σ𝑳𝒂𝒕 σ𝑫𝒆𝒑
Transit Rule (k = ;k= )
σ𝑵𝑳 − σ𝑺𝑳 σ𝑬𝑫 − σ𝑾𝑫
Adjustment of Traverse by
Compass Rule
and
Transit Rule
 ∑𝑳𝒂𝒕 ∑𝑫𝒆𝒑
Compass Rule (kL = ; kD = )
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
COURSE LINE, m BEARING LATITUDE DEPARTURE
AB 495.85 N 5o 30’ E 493.57 47.53
BC 850.62 N 46o 02’ E 590.53 612.23
CD 855.45 S 67o 38’ E -325.53 791.09 Note:
DE 1020.87 S 12o 25’ E -996.99 219.51 ADJUSTMENT OF
LATITUDE AND DEPARTURE:
EF 1117.26 S 83o 44’ W -121.96 -1110.58 Subtract the corr for
latitude/departure of a line
FA 660.08 N 55o 09’ W 377.19 -541.70
SUM = 5000.13 ∑ = 16.81 ∑ = 18.08

Corr for latitude-line = Length of line x KL

∑𝑳𝒂𝒕 𝟏𝟔.𝟖𝟏
KL = = = 0.003362 Corr for departure-line = Length of line x KD
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟑
∑𝑫𝒆𝒑 𝟏𝟔𝟕𝟎.𝟑𝟔−𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟐.𝟐𝟖
KD = = = 0.003616 Adjusted Latitude of a line = Latitude of a line - corr for latitude-line
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟑
Adjusted Departure of a line = Departure of a line - corr for departure-line
Correction for Latitude: Corrected Latitude:
C-AB = (495.85 x 0.003362) = 1.667 corrL-AB = 493.57 - 1.667 = 491.903
C-BC = (850.62 x 0.003362) = 2.860 corrL-BC = 590.53 – 2.860 = 587.670
C-CD = (855.45 X 0.003362) = 2.876 corrL-CD = -325.53 - 2.876 = -328.406
C-DE = (1020.87 X 0.003362) = 3.432 corrL-DE = -996.99 - 3.432 = -1000.422
C-EF = (1117.26 X 0.003362) = 3.756 corrL-EF = -121.96 - 3.756 = -125.716
C-FA = (660.08 X 0.003362) = 2.219 corrL-FA = 377.19 – 2.219 = 374.971
∑ = 16.81 ∑=0
Therefore, ∑lat = ∑C (check!)

Correction for Departure: Corrected Departure:

C-AB = 495.85 X 0.003616 = 1.793 corrD-AB = 47.53 – 1.793 = 45.737
C-BC = 850.62 X 0.003616 = 3.076 corrD-BC = 612.23 -3.076 = 609.154
C-CD = 855.45 X 0.003616 = 3.093 corrD-CD = 791.09 -3.093= 787.997
C-DE = 1020.87 X 0.003616 = 3.691 corrD-DE = 219.51 – 3.691 = 215.819
C-EF = 1117.26 X 0.003616 = 4.040 corrD-EF = -1110.58 - 4.040 = -1114.620
C-FA = 660.08X 0.003616 = 2.387 corrD-FA = -541.70 - 2.387 = -544.087
∑ = 18.08 ∑=0
Therefore, ∑dep = ∑C (check!)
Adjusted Length Adjusted Bearing
(𝑎𝑑𝑗.𝑑𝑒𝑝) (45.737)
corrL-AB = (491.903)2 +(45.737)2 = 494.025-m tanB-AB = = = N 5o 19’ E
(𝑎𝑑𝑗.𝑙𝑎𝑡) (491.903)
609.154
corrL-BC = (587.670)2 +(609.154)2 = 846.419-m tanB-BC = = N 46o 2’ E
587.670
787.997
corrL-CD = (−328.406)2 + (787.997)2 = 853.692-m tanB-CD = = S 67o 22’ E
−328.406
215.819
corrL-DE = (−1000.422)2 + (215.819)2 = 1023.436-m tanB-DE = = S 12o 10’ E
−1000.422
−1121.687
corrL-EF = (−125.716)2 + (−1114.620)2 = 1121.687-m tanB-EF = = S 83o 36’ W
−125.716
−544.087
corrL-FA = (374.971)2 +(−544.087)2 = 660.723-m tanB-FA = = N 55o 26’ W
374.971
 ∑𝑳𝒂𝒕 ∑𝑫𝒆𝒑
Transit Rule (kL = ; kD = )
∑𝑵𝑳 − ∑𝑺𝑳 ∑𝑬𝑫 − ∑𝑾𝑫
COURSE LINE, m BEARING -LAT/SL +LAT/NL -DEP/WD +DEP/ED
AB 495.85 N 5o 30’ E 493.57 47.53
BC 850.62 N 46o 02’ E 590.53 612.23
Note:
CD 855.45 S 67o 38’ E 325.53 791.09 ADJUSTMENT OF
DE 1020.87 S 12o 25’ E 996.99 219.51 LATITUDE AND DEPARTURE:
Subtract the corr for
EF 1117.26 S 83o 44’ W 121.96 1110.58 latitude/departure of a line
FA 660.08 N 55o 09’ W 377.19 541.70
SUM = 5000.13 ∑ = -1444.48 ∑ = 1461.29 ∑ = -1652.28 ∑ = 1670.36

Corr for latitude-line = Length of line x KL

∑𝑳𝒂𝒕 𝟏𝟔.𝟖𝟏
KL = = = 0.005785 Corr for departure-line = Length of line x KD
∑𝑵𝑳−∑𝑺𝑳 𝟏𝟒𝟔𝟏.𝟐𝟗−(−𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟒.𝟒𝟖)
∑𝑫𝒆𝒑 𝟏𝟖.𝟎𝟖
KD = = = 0.005441 Adjusted Latitude of a line = Latitude of a line - corr for latitude-line
∑𝑬𝑫 −∑𝑾𝑫 𝟏𝟔𝟕𝟎.𝟑𝟔−(−𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟐.𝟐𝟖)
Adjusted Departure of a line = Departure of a line - corr for departure-line
Correction for Latitude: Corrected Latitude:
C-AB = (493.57 x 0.005785) = 2.855 corrL-AB = 493.57 – 2.855 = 490.715
C-BC = (590.53 x 0.005785) = 3.416 corrL-BC = 590.53 – 3.416 = 587.114
C-CD = (325.53 X 0.005785) = 1.883 corrL-CD = -325.53 + (-1.883) = -327.413
C-DE = (996.99 X 0.005785) = 5.768 corrL-DE = -996.99 + (-5.768) = -1002.758
C-EF = (121.96 X 0.005785) = 0.706 corrL-EF = -121.96 + (- 0.706) = -122.666
C-FA = (377.19 X 0.005785) = 2.182 corrL-FA = 377.19 – 2.182 = 375.008
∑ = 16.81 ∑=0
Therefore, ∑lat = ∑C (check!)

Correction for Departure: Corrected Departure:

C-AB = 47.53 X 0.005441 = 0.259 corrD-AB = 47.53 – 0.259 = 47.271
C-BC = 612.23 X 0.005441 = 3.331 corrD-BC = 612.23 - 3.331 = 608.899
C-CD = 791.09 X 0.005441 = 4.304 corrD-CD = 791.09 – 4.304= 786.786
C-DE = 219.51 X 0.005441 = 1.194 corrD-DE = 219.51 – 1.194 = 218.316
C-EF = 1110.58 X 0.005441 = 6.043 corrD-EF = -1110.58 - 6.043 = -1116.623
C-FA = 541.70 X 0.005441 = 2.947 corrD-FA = -541.70 - 2.947 = -544.647
∑ = 18.08 ∑=0
Therefore, ∑dep = ∑C (check!)
Adjusted Length Adjusted Bearing
(𝑎𝑑𝑗.𝑑𝑒𝑝) (47.271)
corrL-AB = (490.715)2 +(47.271)2 = 492.987-m tanB-AB = = =N 5o 30’ E
(𝑎𝑑𝑗.𝑙𝑎𝑡) (490.715)
608.899
corrL-BC = (587.114)2 +(608.899)2 = 845.849-m tanB-BC = = N 46o 3’ E
587.114
786.786
corrL-CD = (−327.413)2 + (786.786)2 = 852.192-m tanB-CD = = S 67o 24’ E
−327.413
218.316
corrL-DE = (−1002.758)2 + (218.316)2 = 1026.248-m tanB-DE = = S 1o 15’ E
−1002.758
−1116.623
corrL-EF = (−122.666)2 + (−1116.623)2 = 1123.340-m tanB-EF = = S 83o 44’ W
−122.666
−544.647
corrL-FA = (375.008)2 +(−544.647)2 = 656.419-m tanB-FA = = N 55o 27’ W
375.008
 Leveling
By: Engr. Luz Mirasol B. Domondon
October 19, 2021
Double Rod Leveling
A method of determining differences in elevation between points by
employing two level routes simultaneously.
Advantage: provide a continuous check on the process of
determining ground elevations while the work is in progress
Useful when there is an urgent need to undertake differential
leveling in a short period of time where no established
benchmarks are available for checking results.
Sample Problem
Complete the following differential level notes for a double-
rodded line from BM to BM . Show the customary arithmetic
1 2

check.
CHECKING:
= 207.46 ∑BS − ∑FS 12.62− 18.4
205.60+1.86 DE1 = =
2 2
205.60+1.86 = 207.46
= 2.89-m
206.36+2.15 = 208.51 207.46 – 1.10 = 206.36
205.88+2.52 = 208.40 207.46 – 1.58 = 205.88 DE2 = Elev.BM1 – Elev.BM2
206.72+1.40 = 208.12 208.51 – 1.79 = 206.72 = 205.60 − 202.71
206.13+1.76 = 207.89 208.40 – 2.27 = 206.13 = 2.89-m
205.13+0.33 = 205.46 208.12 – 2.99 = 205.13
204.48+0.74 = 205.22 207.89 – 3.41 = 204.48 DE1 = DE2 (check!)
∑BS = 12.62 205.46 – 2.63 = 202.83
205.22 – 2.63 = 202.59
∑FS = 18.40 202.83+202.59
HI Elev = BM1 Elev + BS Mean Elev. = 2
TP Elev = HI Elev - FS of BM2 = 202.71
Three-Wire Leveling
More precise method of differential leveling wherein three
horizontal hairs (or threads) are read and recorded rather than a
single horizontal hair
 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑑𝑔+𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑑𝑔+𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑑𝑔

Sample Problem HI Elev = BM1 Elev + BSm

TP Elev = HI Elev – FSm
Mean Rdg =
S = upper rdg – lower rdg
3
Profile Leveling
 The process of determining differences in elevation along a fixed line at designated short measured intervals
Design and construction of roads, railroads, canals, culverts, bridges, sewer lines (horizontal structures)
Usually taken along the centerline with the level set up a convenient distance away from it so that sights of more
uniform lengths can be obtained
Sample Problem
A schematic arrangement of a profile level route from BM3 to BM4 are shown below. The values indicated represent
backsight, foresight, and intermediate foresight readings taken on stations along the route. Prepare and complete profile
level notes for the portrayed information. Show the customary arithmetic check and plot the profile.
HI1 Elev = 300.50 + 2.40 = 302.90-m
TP1 Elev = 302.90 – 3.20 = 299.45-m
HI2 Elev = 299.45 + 2.55 = 302.25-m
BM4 Elev = 302.25 – 3.30 = 298.95-m

First Instrument Setup:

0+00 Elev = 302.90 – 1.5 = 301.40-m
1+00 Elev = 302.90 – 2.0 = 300.90-m
2+00 Elev = 302.90 – 1.3 = 301.60-m
3+00 Elev = 302.90 – 0.7 = 302.20-m

Second Instrument Setup:

4+50 Elev = 302.25 – 2.80 = 299.45-m
5+50 Elev = 302.25 – 3.50 = 298.75-m
6+00 Elev = 302.25 – 4.50 = 297.75-m
6+70 Elev = 302.25 – 3.95 = 298.30-m

HI Elev = BM1 Elev + BS

TP Elev = HI Elev - FS
Reciprocal Leveling
Employed to determine the difference in elevation between two points when it is difficult or impossible to keep
backsights and foresights short and equal
Such conditions are running a line of levels across wide rivers, lakes, and rugged terrain (deep canyons)
Two sets of rod readings are observed (Method of Reversion)
• One set taken with the instrument set up close to one point and another instrument on the other
Errors due to refraction by the atmosphere, curvature of the earth and faulty adjustment of the instrument are
significantly reduced if not eliminated
 Leveling
By: Engr. Luz Mirasol B. Domondon
October 19, 2021
Double Rod Leveling
A method of determining differences in elevation between points by
employing two level routes simultaneously.
Advantage: provide a continuous check on the process of
determining ground elevations while the work is in progress
Useful when there is an urgent need to undertake differential
leveling in a short period of time where no established
benchmarks are available for checking results.
Sample Problem
Complete the following differential level notes for a double-
rodded line from BM to BM . Show the customary arithmetic
1 2

check.
CHECKING:
= 207.46 ∑BS − ∑FS 12.62− 18.4
205.60+1.86 DE1 = =
2 2
205.60+1.86 = 207.46
= 2.89-m
206.36+2.15 = 208.51 207.46 – 1.10 = 206.36
205.88+2.52 = 208.40 207.46 – 1.58 = 205.88 DE2 = Elev.BM1 – Elev.BM2
206.72+1.40 = 208.12 208.51 – 1.79 = 206.72 = 205.60 − 202.71
206.13+1.76 = 207.89 208.40 – 2.27 = 206.13 = 2.89-m
205.13+0.33 = 205.46 208.12 – 2.99 = 205.13
204.48+0.74 = 205.22 207.89 – 3.41 = 204.48 DE1 = DE2 (check!)
∑BS = 12.62 205.46 – 2.63 = 202.83
205.22 – 2.63 = 202.59
∑FS = 18.40 202.83+202.59
HI Elev = BM1 Elev + BS Mean Elev. = 2
TP Elev = HI Elev - FS of BM2 = 202.71
Three-Wire Leveling
More precise method of differential leveling wherein three
horizontal hairs (or threads) are read and recorded rather than a
single horizontal hair
 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑑𝑔+𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑑𝑔+𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑑𝑔

Sample Problem HI Elev = BM1 Elev + BSm

TP Elev = HI Elev – FSm
Mean Rdg =
S = upper rdg – lower rdg
3
Profile Leveling
 The process of determining differences in elevation along a fixed line at designated short measured intervals
Design and construction of roads, railroads, canals, culverts, bridges, sewer lines (horizontal structures)
Usually taken along the centerline with the level set up a convenient distance away from it so that sights of more
uniform lengths can be obtained
Sample Problem
A schematic arrangement of a profile level route from BM3 to BM4 are shown below. The values indicated represent
backsight, foresight, and intermediate foresight readings taken on stations along the route. Prepare and complete profile
level notes for the portrayed information. Show the customary arithmetic check and plot the profile.
HI1 Elev = 300.50 + 2.40 = 302.90-m
TP1 Elev = 302.90 – 3.20 = 299.45-m
HI2 Elev = 299.45 + 2.55 = 302.25-m
BM4 Elev = 302.25 – 3.30 = 298.95-m

First Instrument Setup:

0+00 Elev = 302.90 – 1.5 = 301.40-m
1+00 Elev = 302.90 – 2.0 = 300.90-m
2+00 Elev = 302.90 – 1.3 = 301.60-m
3+00 Elev = 302.90 – 0.7 = 302.20-m

Second Instrument Setup:

4+50 Elev = 302.25 – 2.80 = 299.45-m
5+50 Elev = 302.25 – 3.50 = 298.75-m
6+00 Elev = 302.25 – 4.50 = 297.75-m
6+70 Elev = 302.25 – 3.95 = 298.30-m

HI Elev = BM1 Elev + BS

TP Elev = HI Elev - FS
Reciprocal Leveling
Employed to determine the difference in elevation between two points when it is difficult or impossible to keep
backsights and foresights short and equal
Such conditions are running a line of levels across wide rivers, lakes, and rugged terrain (deep canyons)
Two sets of rod readings are observed (Method of Reversion)
• One set taken with the instrument set up close to one point and another instrument on the other
Errors due to refraction by the atmosphere, curvature of the earth and faulty adjustment of the instrument are
significantly reduced if not eliminated
 Simple Curve

Engr. Luz Mirasol B. Domondon, CE

Simple Curve The formulas we are about to present need not be memorized. All we need is geometry plus names of all elements in simple curve. Note that we are only dealing with
circular arc, it is in our great advantage if we deal it at geometry level rather than memorize these formulas.

Terminologies in Simple Curve

PC = Point of curvature. It is the beginning of curve.
PT = Point of tangency. It is the end of curve.
PI = Point of intersection of the tangents. Also called vertex
T = Length of tangent from PC to PI and from PI to PT. It is known as subtangent.
R = Radius of simple curve, or simply radius.
L = Length of chord from PC to PT. Point Q as shown below is the midpoint of L.
Lc = Length of curve from PC to PT. Point M in the the figure is the midpoint of Lc.
E = External distance, the nearest distance from PI to the curve.
m = Middle ordinate, the distance from midpoint of curve to midpoint
of chord.
I = Deflection angle
(also called angle of intersection and central angle).
It is the angle of intersection of the tangents. The angle subtended by
PC and PT at O is also equal to I, where O is the center of the circular curve from the above figure.
x = offset distance from tangent to the curve. Note: x is perpendicular to T.
θ = offset angle subtended at PC between PI and any point in the curve
D = Degree of curve. It is the central angle subtended by a length of curve equal to one station. In English system, one station is equal to 100
ft and in SI, one station is equal to 20 m.
Sub chord = chord distance between two adjacent full stations.
Simple Curve
Simple Curve
Simple Curve
Simple Curve
Simple Curve
Simple Curve
Simple Curve
Sample Problem: Simple Curve
The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 45° 30' and its radius is 198.17 m. PC is at
Sta. 0 + 700. Compute the right angle offset from Sta. 0 + 736.58 on the curve to tangent
through PC.
A. 2.98 m
B. 3.37 m
C. 3.09 m
D. 3.87 m
Contour Maps
By: Engr. Luz Mirasol B. Domondon
• The art of determining relative altitudes of points on the surface of the earth is called LEVELING.
• A contour is defined as an imaginary line of constant elevation on the ground surface. It can also be
defined as the line of intersection of a level surface with the ground surface. For example, the line of
intersection of the water surface of a still lake or pond with the surrounding ground represents a
contour line.
• Definition:
• A line joining points of equal elevations is called a contour line. It facilitates depiction of the relief of
terrain in a two dimensional plan or map.
• Characteristics of contour:
• The principal characteristics of contour lines which help in plotting or reading a contour map are as
follows:
1. The variation of vertical distance between any two contour lines is assumed to be uniform.
2. The horizontal distance between any two contour lines indicates the amount of slope and varies
inversely on the amount of slope. Thus, contours are spaced equally for uniform slope
3. The steepest slope of terrain at any point on a contour is represented along the normal of the
contour at that point. They are perpendicular to ridge and valley lines where they cross such lines.
4. Contours do not pass through permanent structures such as buildings.
Contour Line Characteristics

1. Contours of different elevations cannot cross each other (caves and overhanging cliffs are the
exceptions).
2. Contours of different elevations cannot unite to form one contour (vertical cliff is an exception).
3. Contour lines cannot begin or end on the plan.
4. A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits of the map.
5. A closed contour line on a map represents either depression or hill . A set of ring contours with
higher values inside, depicts a hill whereas the lower value inside, depicts a depression (without an
outlet).
6. Contours deflect uphill at valley lines and downhill at ridge lines. Contour lines in Ushape cross a
ridge and in V-shape cross a valley at right angles. The concavity in contour lines is towards higher
ground in the case of ridge and towards lower ground in the case of valley .
7. Contours do not have sharp turnings.
Contour Mapping By Interpolation:
1. Investigate the Grid Map first if there is a contour line passing
within each Grid Line.
2. Label each Grid Line if there is an identified Contour Line to pass
the Grid.
3. Analyze only the labeled Grid Line by interpolation.
4. Plot the point where the Contour should pass within the Grid Line
under consideration.
5. Once all the points are plotted, connect all the points with the same
Contour elevation showing a continuous line to a Contour Map.
Analyze the image shown below to draw Contour Lines at
EVERY 1-M DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION by Interpolation:
1. Investigate the Grid Map first if there is a contour line passing within each Grid Line.
*Base from the image, the elevations are 102, 101, 100, 99,
and 98, in meters. And have a 1-m difference in elevation

For Grid 6A-5A:

102.8 and 102.3 is greater than 102, so there is no 102-m
elevation passing within this grid line, label as red grid line.

For Grid 5A-4A:

102-m is within the range of 102.3 and 101.6, so there is
102-m point within this grid line. And since 101.6 is greater
than 101-m, there is no 101-m point within this grid line.
Therefore, plot the 102-m point and label as blue grid line.
Elevdesired − Elevlow Elevdesired −Elev𝑋
By interpolation, Elev =
high −Elevlow Elevhigh −Elev𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
 Analyze the image shown below to draw Contour
Lines by Interpolation:
1. Investigate the Grid Map first if there is a contour line passing within each Grid Line.
GRID 5A-4A: Plot 102-m point
Elevdesired − Elevlow Elevdesired −Elev𝑋
=
Elevhigh −Elevlow Elevhigh −Elev𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑

102−101.6 102−X5A−4A
=
102.3−101.6 102.3−102
X5A-4A = 101.9

Plotting 101.9-m point:

102.3-101.6 = 0.7

0.7 x 10 = 7 parts (number parts the 102.3&101.6

is distant from each other)
102.3-101.9 = 0.4 (x 10 = 4; 102-m is 4 parts away from 102.3)
101.9-101.6 = 0.3 (x 10 = 3; 102-m is 3 parts away from 101.6)
 Analyze the image shown below to draw Contour
Lines by Interpolation:
1. Investigate the Grid Map first if there is a contour line passing within each Grid Line.
For Grid 4A-3A:
101.6 and 101.5 is greater than 101, so there is no 101-m
elevation passing within this grid line, and no 102-m value
within this grid line. Label as red grid line.

For Grid 3A-2A:

101.5 and 101.1 is greater than 101, so there is no 101-m
elevation passing within this grid line. Label as red grid line.

For Grid 2A-1A:

101-m is within the range of 101.1 and 100.8, so there is 101-m
point within this grid line. And since 100.8 is greater than 100-m,
there is no 100-m point within this grid line. Therefore, plot the
101-m point and label as blue grid line.

101−100.8 101−X2A−1A
=
101.1−100.8 101.1−101
X2A-1A = 100.93
 Analyze the image shown below to draw Contour
Lines by Interpolation:
1. Investigate the Grid Map first if there is a contour line passing within each Grid Line.
Plotting 100.93-m point:
101.1-100.8 = 0.3 (x 10 = 3; number of parts the 101.1 and
100.8 is distant from each other)

101.1-100.9 = 0.2 (x 10 = 2; 101-m is 2 parts away from 101.1)

100.9-100.8 = 0.1 (x 10 = 1; 101-m is 1 part away from 100.8)
 Analyze the image shown below to draw Contour
Lines by Interpolation:
1. Investigate the Grid Map first if there is a contour line passing within each Grid Line.
For Grid 6B-5B:
102.6 and 102.1 is greater than 102, so there is no 102-m
elevation passing within this grid line. Label as red grid line.

For Grid 5B-4B:

102-m is within the range of 102.1 and 101.3, so there is 102-m
point within this grid line. And no 101-m point within this grid
line. Thus, plot the 102-m point and label as blue grid line.

102−101.3 102−X5B−4B
=
102.1−101.3 102.1−102
X5B-4B = 101.91

Plotting 101.91-m point:

102.1-101.3 = 0.8 (x 10 = 8; number of parts the 102.1 and
101.3 is distant from each other)

102.1-101.9 = 0.2 (x 10 = 2; 102-m is 2 parts away from 102.1)

101.9-101.3 = 0.6 (x 10 = 6; 102-m is 6 parts away from 101.3)
 Analyze the image shown below to draw Contour
Lines by Interpolation:
1. Investigate the Grid Map first if there is a contour line passing within each Grid Line.
For Grid 4B-3B:
Since there is no 102-m passing but the 101-m is located
exactly in the Grid point 3B, label as blue grid line.
*no need to interpolate, the 101-m point is already obvious.

For Grid 3B-2B:

Since there is the 101-m is located exactly in the Grid point 3B,
label as blue grid line.

For Grid 2B-1B:

There is no 102-m nor 101-m point passing in this grid line.
Label as red grid line.

*REPEAT THE INTERPOLATION PROCEDURE FOR THE

REMAINING VERTICAL GRID LINES.

(The remaining vertical grid lines were already labeled red

and blue for you to practice the interpolation)
 Analyze the image shown below to draw Contour
Lines by Interpolation:
1. Investigate the Grid Map first if there is a contour line passing within each Grid Line.
For Grid 6A-6B:
102.8 and 102.6 is greater than 102, so there is no 102-m
elevation passing within this grid line. Label as red grid line.

For Grid 5A-5B:

102.3 and 102.1 is greater than 102, so there is no 102-m
elevation passing within this grid line. Label as red grid line.

For Grid 4A-4B:

101.6 and 101.3 is greater than 101, so there is no 101-m
elevation passing within this grid line nor the 102-m point.
Label as red grid line.

For Grid 3A-3B:

Since there is no 102-m passing but the 101-m is located
exactly in the Grid point 3B, label as blue grid line.
*no need to interpolate, the 101-m point is already obvious.
 Analyze the image shown below to draw Contour
Lines by Interpolation:
1. Investigate the Grid Map first if there is a contour line passing within each Grid Line.
For Grid 2A-2B:
101-m is within the range of 101.1 and 100.9, so there is 101-m
point within this grid line. Label as blue grid line.

101−100.9 101−X2A−2B
=
101.1−100.9 101.1−101
X2A-2B = 100.95

Plotting 100.95-m point:

101.1-100.9 = 0.2 (x 10 = 2; number of parts the 101.1 and
100.9 is distant from each other)

101.1-100.95 = 0.15 (x 10 = 1.5; 101-m is 1.5 parts away from

101.1)
101.95-100.9 = 0.05 (x 10 = 0.5; 101-m is 0.5 parts away from
100.9)
For Grid 1A-1B:
There is no 102-m nor 101-m point passing in this grid line.
Label as red grid line.
 Analyze the image shown below to draw Contour
Lines by Interpolation:
1. Investigate the Grid Map first if there is a contour line passing within each Grid Line.
For Grid 6B-6C:
102-m is within the range of 102.6 and 101.8, so there is 102-m
point within this grid line. Label as blue grid line.

102−101.8 102−X6B−6C
=
102.6−101.8 102.6−102
X6B-6C = 101.85

Plotting 101.85-m point:

102.6-101.8 = 0.8 (x 10 = 8; number of parts in between the
102.6 and 101.8)

102.6-101.85 = 0.75 (x 10 = 7.5; 102-m is 7.5 parts away from

102.6)
101.85-101.8 = 0.05 (x 10 = 0.5; 102-m is 0.5 parts away from
101.8)
 Analyze the image shown below to draw Contour
Lines by Interpolation:
1. Investigate the Grid Map first if there is a contour line passing within each Grid Line.
For Grid 5B-5C:
102-m is within the range of 102.1 and 101.3, so there is 102-m
point within this grid line. Label as blue grid line.

102−101.3 102−X5B−5C
=
102.1−101.3 102.1−102
X6B-6C = 101.91 ≈ 101.90

Plotting 101.90-m point:

102.1-101.3 = 0.8 (x 10 = 8; number of parts in between the
102.1 and 101.3)

102.1-101.90 = 0.2 (x 10 = 2; 102-m is 2 parts away from

102.1)
101.90-101.3 = 0.6 (x 10 = 6; 102-m is 6 parts away from
101.3)
 Analyze the image shown below to draw Contour
Lines by Interpolation:
1. Investigate the Grid Map first if there is a contour line passing within each Grid Line.
For Grid 4B-4C:
Since there is no 102-m passing but the 101-m is located
exactly in the Grid point 4C, label as blue grid line.
*no need to interpolate, the 101-m point is already obvious

For Grid 3B-3C:

Since there is no 102-m nor 100-m passing this grid line but the
101-m is located exactly in the Grid point 3B, label as blue
grid line.
*no need to interpolate, the 101-m point is already obvious.

For Grid 2B-2C and Grid 1B-1C:

There is no 101-m nor 100-m point passing in this grid line.
Label as red grid line.
*REPEAT THE INTERPOLATION PROCEDURE FOR THE
REMAINING HORIZONTAL GRID LINES.
(The remaining horizontal grid lines were already labeled red
and blue for you to practice the interpolation)
 Analyze the image shown below to draw Contour
Lines by Interpolation:
1. Investigate the Grid Map first if there is a contour line passing within each Grid Line.
Once done with the interpolation for all the grid lines,
connect all the points with the same elevation.
- 102-m elevation
- 101-m elevation
- 100-m elevation
- 99-m elevation
Final Contour Lines
THANK YOU!
 AREA COMPUTATIONS
By: Engr. Luz Mirasol B. Domondon
Course Subject: CE 010 Fundamentals of Surveying
Area COMPUTATIONS
- Plane Surveying
- Geodetic Surveying

Here are the five important rules (Methods) used for the
calculation of areas in Surveying:
1. Coordinate method
2. Simpson’s 1/3 rule
3. Trapezoidal rule
4. DMD or DMD
5. Triangulation
6. Planimeter
Area by Triangle
1. Known base and altitude
A = 0.5bh

2. Two sides and included angle measured

A = 0.5absin

3. Three sides measured

A = 𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)
LINE BEARING DISTANCE = 0.5 410.52 532.18 sin79𝑜 40′ = 107,463.56 sqm
PA N 41𝑜 30′ 𝑊 410.52-m = 0.5 450.75 532.18 sin71𝑜 30′ = 113,742.00 sqm
PB N 38𝑜 10′ 𝐸 532.18-m = 0.5 450.75 590.08 sin130𝑜 35′ = 101,000.12 sqm
PC S 70𝑜 20′ 𝐸 450.75-m = 0.5 590.08 410.52 sin78𝑜 15′ = 118,581.81 sqm
PD S 60𝑜 15′ 𝑊 590.08-m

= 41𝑜 30′ + 38𝑜 10′ = 79𝑜 40′

= (90𝑜 − 41𝑜 30′ ) + (90𝑜 − 60𝑜 15′ ) = 78𝑜 15′
= (90𝑜 − 38𝑜 10′ ) + (90𝑜 − 70𝑜 20′ ) = 71𝑜 30′

= 60𝑜 15′ + 70𝑜 20′ = 130𝑜 35′

LINE BEARING DISTANCE
PA N 41𝑜 30′ 𝑊 410.52-m
PB N 38𝑜 10′ 𝐸 532.18-m
PC S 70𝑜 20′ 𝐸 450.75-m
PD S 60𝑜 15′ 𝑊 590.08-m
Area by DMD and DMD Rule
DMD Rule, m: DMD-1 = Dep-1
DMD-2 = DMD-1 + Dep-1 + Dep-2……..

DMD-AB = 47.27
DMD-BC = 47.27 + 47.27 + 608.89 = 703.43
DMD-CD = 703.43 + 608.89 + 786.78 = 2,099.10
DMD-DE = 2,099.10 + 786.78 + 218.32 = 3,104.20
DMD-EF = 3,104.20 + 218.32 + (-1116.62) = 2,205.90
DMD-FA = 2,205.90 + (1116.62) + (-544.64) = 544.64

Double Areas, sqm: DA = DMD-LINE + Adj. Lat-line

DA-AB = 47.27 (490.71) = 23,195.66
DA-BC = 703.43 (587.12) = 412,997.82
DA-CD = 2,099.10 (-327.41) = -687,266.33
DA-DE = 3,104.20 (-1,002.76) = -3,112,767.59
DA-EF = 2,205.90 (-122.67) = -270,597.75
DA=FA = 544.64 (375.01) = 204,245.45

-3,430,192.54 sqm
Area-ABCDEF = 0.5(-3,430,192.54 sq,)
= -1,715,096.27 sqm (sign is disregarded)
 LENGTH, BEARING LATITUDE, DEPARTURE, DMD, m DA, m
COURSE
m m m
AB 494.02 N 5o 20’40” E 491.87 46.01 46.01 22630.94
BC 846.42 N 46o 3’30” E 587.35 609.46 701.48 412014.28
CD 853.70 S 67o22’40” E -328.38 788.02 2098.96 -689256.48
DE 1023.43 S 12o 9’50” E -1000.45 215.65 3102.63 -3,104,026.18
EF 1121.69 S 83o33’ W -126.01 -1114.59 2203.69 -277,686.98
FA 660.78 N 55o24’10” W 375.19 -543.93 545.17 204,542.33
∑ = -0.43 ∑ = 0.62 = -3,431,782.09

DMD-1 = dep line 1 DA-1 = DMD1 X LAT 1

DMD-2 = DMD-1 + dep line 1 + dep line 2 DA-2 = DMD2 X LAT 2
DMD-3 = DMD-2 + dep line2 + dep line 3 DA 3 = DMD3 X LAT 3 A = 0.5DA = 0.5(3,431,782.09)
DMD-n = DMD previous + line previous + line n… A = 1,715,891.05 sqm.

DMD-AB = 46.01 DA-AB = 46.01 X 491.87 = 22630.94

DMD-BC = 46.01 + 46.01 + 609.46 = 701.48 DA-BC = 701.48 X 587.35 = 412014.28
DMD-CD = 701.48 + 609.460 + 788.02 = 2098.96 DA-CD = 2098.96 X -328.38 = -689256.48
DMD-DE = 2098.96 + 788.02 + 215.65 = 3102.63 DA-DE = 3102.63 X -1000.45 = -3104026.18
DMD-EF = 3102.63 + 215.65 -1114.59 = 2203.69 DA-EF = 2203.69 X -126.01 = -277686.98
DMD-FA = 2203.69 – 1114.59 – 543.93 = 545.17 DA-FA = 545.17 X 375.19 = 204542.33
∑ = -3,431,782.09
 LENGTH, BEARING LATITUDE, DEPARTURE, DMD, m DA, m
COURSE
m m m
AB 494.02 N 5o 20’40” E 491.87 46.01 46.01 22630.94
BC 846.42 N 46o 3’30” E 587.35 609.46 701.48 412014.28
CD 853.70 S 67o22’40” E -328.38 788.02 2098.96 -689256.48
DE 1023.43 S 12o 9’50” E -1000.45 215.65 3102.63 -3,104,026.18
EF 1121.69 S 83o33’ W -126.01 -1114.59 2203.69 -277,686.98
FA 660.78 N 55o24’10” W 375.19 -543.93 545.17 204,542.33
∑ = -0.43 ∑ = 0.62 = -3,431,782.09

DPD-1 = lat line 1 DA-1 = DPD1 X dep 1

DPD-2 = DPD-1 + lat line 1 + lat line 2 DA-2 = DPD2 X dep 2
DPD-3 = DPD-2 + lat line2 + lat line 3 DA 3 = DPD3 X dep 3 A = 0.5DA = 0.5(3,431,781.57)
DPD-n = DPD previous + line previous + line n… A = 1,715,890.79 sqm.

DPD-AB = 491.87 DA-AB = 491.87 X 46.01 = 22630.94

DPD-BC = 491.87 + 491.87 + 587.35 = 1,571.09 DA-BC = 1571.09 X 609.46 = 957516.51
DPD-CD = 1571.09 + 587.35 -328.38 = 1830.06 DA-CD = 1830.06 X 788.02 = 1,442,123.88
DPD-DE = 1830.06 – 328.38 – 1000.45 = 501.23 DA-DE = 501.23 X 215.65 = 108,090.25
DPD-EF = 501.23 – 1000.45 – 126.01 = -625.23 DA-EF = -625.23 X -1114.59 = 696,875.11
DPD-FA = -625.23 – 126.01 +375.19 = -376.05 DA-FA = -376.05 X -543.93 = 204,544.88
∑ = 3,431,781.57
DMD Rule, m: DMD-1 = Lat-1
DMD-2 = DMD-1 + Lat-1 + Lat-2……..

DMD-AB = 490.71
DMD-BC = 490.71 + 490.71 + 587.12 = 1,568.54
DMD-CD = 1,568.54 + 587.12 + (-327.41) = 1,828.25
DMD-DE = 1,828.25 + (-327.41) + (-1,002.76) = 498.08
DMD-EF = 498.08 + (-1,002.76) + (-122.67) = -627.35
DMD-FA = 627.35 + (-122.67) + 375.01 = -375.01

Double Areas, sqm: DA = DMD-LINE + Adj. Lat-line

DA-AB = 490.71 (47.27) = 23,195.86
DA-BC = 1,568.54 (608.89) = 955,068.32
DA-CD = 1,828.25 (786.78) = -1,438,430.54
DA-DE = 498.08 (218.32) = 108,740.83
DA-EF = -627.35 (-1116.62) = -700,511.56
DA=FA = -375.01 (-544.64) = 204,245.45

-3,430,192.56 sqm
Area-ABCDEF = 0.5(-3,430,192.56 sq,)
= -1,715,096.28 sqm
Trapezoidal and Simpson
Omitted Measurements:
Missing Data

September 28, 2021

Omitted measurements in surveying:
Type, Cases, Calculations and Law

Sometimes it becomes very difficult to measure all bearing and

measurements due to field condition like a river or some other
obstacles and for this some reading may be omitted.

Since there is calculation become hard, it is very important to

know the theory of omitted measurements in the surveying.
Law of closed traverse for finding
unknown measurement
In the closed Traverse, there is latitude and departure of each
part. This is very important in surveying and traversing. From the
rule of closed traverse we can easily find omitted measurements

The one basic law of surveying state that

Algebraic sum of the all latitude is always zero. And Algebraic

sum of all departure is zero.
If the length of traverse line is L and angle is Θ then we can find
latitude as follow
Latitude L= L cos Θ

And the departure of line is

Departure D = L sin Θ

And for finding length from latitude and departure is

l = √(L²+D²)

Angle of the line or bearing is calculated by

Θ = arctan(-D÷-L)
Also some measurement which is omitted, they are also parts of
closed traverse. Therefore we can apply this calculation for this.

For the latitude,

ΣL= 0
And for departure,
ΣD= 0
From this equations we know two unknown.
Cases for Omitted Measurement
There is some common types of omitted measurement in closed traverse that is as
follow.
1. Length of one line is omitted.
- Length and Bearing of One Side Unknown
2.Length of two adjoining lines are not measured.
- Length of one line and bearing of other line are not measured.
- Length of Two Sides Unknown
- Bearing of Two Sides Unknown
3. Length of two non adjoining lines are not measured.
- Length of one line and bearing of other line are not measured.
- Lengths of two sides Unknown
- Bearings of Two Sides Unknown
Length of two adjoining lines are not measured.
- Length of one line and bearing of other line are not
measured.
- Length of Two Sides Unknown
- Bearing of Two Sides Unknown
Length of two non adjoining lines are not measured.
- Length of one line and bearing of other line are not
measured.
- Lengths of two sides Unknown
- Bearings of Two Sides Unknown
Length of one line is omitted/ Bearing
of one line or both is missing.
When we calculated traverse and there is bearing or length of one line
is missing then it is known by using the method that is as follows:

• First a traverse is ABCDEF that is closed traverse.

• There is length of the line FA is missing or bearing of line FA is
missing or both bearing and length is not measured.
• We can calculate the ΣLat and ΣDep for the five sides that we know.
• Therefore we can calculate ΣLat and ΣDep for AB, BC, CD, DE and
EF.
Length of two lines are omitted.
• This become difficult because we cannot directly use latitude or departure to
calculate. There is different method that give us a way to know in this condition.

First consider the traverse ABCDEF.

• This traverse is closed traverse, for this there is two sides are unknown that is EF and
FA.
• Other sides of length is measured that is AB, BC, CD, DE.
• For this we can assume that ABCDE is closed traverse with the all information is
known.
• For that traverse, length of EA is calculated by method of case of when one length
omitted.
• Now we can assume the triangle for which is easy to calculate the length of sides.
• Therefore, consider triangle AEF.
• In this triangle, one length is known and the all angles of triangle can be calculated.
Length of one line is omitted.
- Length and Bearing of One Side Unknown
 LINE LENGTH,m BEARING LATITUDE,m DEPARTURE,m
CD 583.22 S 50o15’E -372.93 448.40
DG -435.17 -256.70
GH 606.43 S 83o50’W -65.14 -602.92
HC 965.22 N 25o13’E 873.24 411.22
∑ = 435.17 ∑ = 256.70

DG = 435.172 + 256.702 = 505.24 − 𝑀

− ∑𝑑𝑒𝑝 − ∑256.70
Tan b= − ∑𝑙𝑎𝑡 = − ∑435.17 = S 30o32’ W

LINE LENGTH,m BEARING LATITUDE,m DEPARTURE,m

AB 395.50 N 38o45’E 308.44 247.55
BC 518.62 N 70o35’E 172.41 489.12
CH 965.22 S 25o13’ W -873.19 -411.33 CH = 873.192 + 411.332 = 965.22 − 𝑀
− ∑𝑑𝑒𝑝 − ∑411.33
HA 509.68 N 39o40’W 392.34 -325.34 Tan b= − ∑𝑙𝑎𝑡 = − ∑873.19 = S 25o13’ W
∑ = 873.19 ∑ = 411.33
Measurements Involving Adjoining Sides
2. Length of two adjoining lines are not measured.
- Length of one line and bearing of other line are not measured.
- Length of Two Sides Unknown
- Bearing of Two Sides Unknown
LINE LENGTH,m BEARING LATITUDE,m DEPARTURE,m
AB 1084.32 S 75o48’E -265.99 1051.19
BC 1590.51 S 15o18’W -1534.14 -419.69 DA = 2283.052 + 569.812 = 2353.08 − 𝑀
CD 1294.74 S 68o6’W -482.920 -1201.31 − ∑𝑑𝑒𝑝 − (−569.81)
Tan b= − ∑𝑙𝑎𝑡 = − (−2283.05) = N 14o01’ E
DA 2353.08 N 14o01’E 2283.05 569.81
∑ = -2283.05 ∑ = -569.81
LINE LENGTH,m BEARING LATITUDE,m DEPARTURE,m
AB 1084.32 S 75o48’E -265.99 1051.19
BC 1590.51 S 15o18’W -1534.14 -419.69
CD 1294.74 S 68o6’W -482.920 -1201.31
DE 2423.62 N 28o39’W 2126.88 1162.02

EA 1738.96 N 84o51’E 156.10 1731.94

Measurements Involving Non Adjoining Sides
Length of two adjoining lines are not measured.
- Length of one line and bearing of other line are not measured.
- Lengths of two sides Unknown
- Bearings of Two Sides Unknown
PRINCIPLE:
1: A line may be moved from one location to a second location parallel
with the 1st, and its latitude and departure will remain unchanged.
2: The algebraic sum of the latitudes and departure of any system of
lines forming a closed figure must be zero, regardless of the order in
which the lines are placed.
LINE Length, m Bearing Latitude, m Departure, m
EF 758.40 S 66o00’W -308.47 -692.83
FA 500.25 S 22o45’E -461.33 193.45
BC 779.50 S 78o47’E -151.63 764.61
EC 842.81 N 43o7’E
CB 895.26 N 70o00’W 306.20 -841.27
AB 412.35 N 74o30’E 110.20 397.35
CD 535.70 N 19o29’E 505.03 178.67
 EC = (−615.23)2 +(−576.04)2 = 842.81 − 𝑀
− ∑𝑑𝑒𝑝 − (−576.04)
Tan b= = − (−615.23) = N 43o07’ E
− ∑𝑙𝑎𝑡

LINE Length, m Bearing Latitude, m Departure, m

BA 758.40 S 66o00’W -308.47 -692.83
AF 500.25 S 22o45’E -461.33 193.45
FE 779.50 S 78o47’E -151.63 764.61
EC 842.81 N 43o7’E 615.23 576.04
CB 895.26 N 70o00’W 306.20 -841.27
∑=-615.23 ∑=-576.04
 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 − 𝑐 2
cos Θ =
2𝑎𝑏
𝐸𝐶 2 +𝐸𝐷2 −𝐶𝐷2 842.812 +412.352 −535.702
cos 𝐸 = =
2(𝐸𝐶)(𝐸𝐷) 2(842.81)(412.35)

𝐸𝐶 2 +𝐶𝐷2 −𝐸𝐷2 842.812 +535.702 −412.352

cos 𝐶 = =
2(𝐸𝐶)(𝐶𝐷) 2(842.81)(535.70)
 CHAPTER 5
Trilateration and Triangulation
 Trilateration
• A surveying method in which the lengths of all sides of a
chain of triangles, polygons, or quadrilaterals (or any combina
tion of them) are measured with an electronic instrument or
others; the angles then may be computed from these field m
easurements.
• Uses in the construction of a chain or network of interconnec
ted triangles in a given area and the measurement of
all three sides of each triangle.
• Angles of the triangles and the coordinates of their vertices a
re determined by trigonometric computations.
• In contrast to triangulation, it does not involve the
measurement of angles.
• Trilateration has the same purpose as triangulation.
Trilateration Network
Sine Rule & cosine rule (for both methods)
Trilateration and its Principles
• Trilateration is a highly accurate and precise method of establishing and
expanding horizontal control.
• Method of control survey in which a network of triangles is used as in
triangulation system.
• All the three sides of each triangle are measured in the field with the
distance measuring instruments(EDMs, tapes, other apparatus).
• Horizontal angles are not measured in the field.
• Angles in a trilateration system are computed indirectly from the lengths of
the sides of triangle by cosine formula.
• Few horizontal angles are also sometimes measured to provide a check on
computed angles.
• Trilateration is adjusted after the computation of the angles and then
coordinates of the stations are determined.
• Astronomical observations for azimuth are also made at selected stations.
• Vertical angles are also measured where elevations have not been
established.
 Triangulation and its Principles
• It is the process of measuring the angles of a chain
or network of triangles formed by stations marked
on the surface of the earth.
• The system consists of a number of interconnected
triangles in which the length of only one base line
and the angles of the triangles are measured very
precisely which are used to calculate the coordinate
of vertices.
Note : Red – base line
Principle of triangulation
• If all the three angles and the length of one side of a triangle
are known, then by trigonometry the lengths of the
remaining sides of the triangle can be calculated.
• Again, if the coordinates of any vertex of the triangle and
azimuth of any side are also known, then coordinates of the
remaining vertices may be computed.
 Triangulation
Background
• In survey after the establishment of monuments it is
necessary to determine the ground position i.e.
coordinates of those monument station which prevent
the accumulation of errors and will form a frame work
on which entire survey is to be based. This is called
control point establishment.
• Such provision of control point can be made either one
or combination of both the following methods
1. Traverse
2. Triangulation
Triangulation is considered to be more accurate than
traversing as there is less accumulation of errors than
that in traverse.
•Triangulation using AB as a base line.
•Distance AB is measured precisely.

•Then C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J and K can be fixed by angular measurement only .

Triangulation and its Principles
• In triangulation all the three angles of each triangle are measured
in the field along with one baseline.
• The side of the first triangle whose length is predetermined is called
the base line and vertices of the individual triangles are known as
triangulation stations and the whole figure is called the
triangulation system or triangulation figure.
• The length and azimuth of each line is based on the length and
azimuth of preceding line.
• To minimize accumulation of errors in lengths, subsidiary bases at
suitable intervals are provided
• To control errors in azimuth of stations, astronomical observations
are made at intermediate stations.
• The triangulation stations at which astronomical observations for
azimuth are made are called Laplace station.
Formula to compute co-ordinate of vetices
Purpose of TriangulationSurveys
• Triangulation surveys are carried out for:
1. Establishment of accurate control points for plane and
geodetic surveys of large areas, by ground methods.
2. Establishment of accurate control points for
photogrammetric surveys of large areas.
3. Accurate location of engineering works i.e.
a. Fixing the centre line, terminal points and shafts for long
tunnels,
b. Fixing centre line and abutments of long bridges over large
rivers
c. Transferring the control points across wide sea channels,
large water bodies etc.
d. Finding the direction of the movements of cloud.
 Classification of Triangulations
• The basis of the classification of triangulation figures is the accuracy
with which the length and azimuth of a line of the triangulation are
determined.
• On the basis of quality , accuracy & purpose, triangulations are
classified as:
1. Primary or First order Triangulation
2. Secondary or Second order Triangulation
3.Tertiary or Third orderTriangulation
Primary or First order Triangulation:
• Is the highest grade of triangulation system.
• To determine the shape & size of earth surface or to provide precise
planimetric control points to which subsidiary triangulations may be
connected.
• Stations of first order triangulation are generally selected 16 to 150
Km apart.
• Every possible precaution is taken in making linear, angular and
astronomical observations, and also in their computation.
2. Secondary or Second order Triangulation:
• The secondary triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within
the framework of primary triangulation.
• To provide control points closer together than those of primary.
• Secondary is classified, If primary doesnot attain standard of accuracy.
• The stations are fixed at close intervals so that the sizes of the triangles
formed are smaller than the primary triangulation.

3. Tertiary or Third orderTriangulation:

• Employed to provide control points between stations of primary &
second order series.
• The third order triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within
the framework of secondary triangulation, and forms the immediate
control for detailed engineering and other surveys.
• The sizes of the triangles are small and instrument with moderate
precision may be used.
• For topogaphical details, tertiary triangulations forms immediate
control points.
 Layout of Triangulation

• The arrangement of the triangles of a series is known as the layout of

triangulation.
A series of triangulation may consists of:
1. Simple triangles in chain
• This layout of triangulation is generally used when control points are
provided in narrow strip of terrain such as valley between ridges.
• Rapid and economical due to less number of stations to be sighted
Do not provide independent check
• Check base lines and astronomical observations for a azimuth at frequent
intervals
2. Braced quadrilaterals
• It consists of figures containing four corner stations and observed
diagonals
• Best arrangement of triangles as it provides a means of computing the
lengths of sides using different combination of sides and angles
 ..
3. Centered triangles and polygons
• It consists of figures containing centered polygons and centered triangles
• Used when vast area in all dimensions is required to be covered.
• Figures are quadrilaterals, pentagons or hexagons with central stations.
 Satellite Stations
• To secure well-conditioned triangles or to have good visibility,
objects such as chimneys, flat poles, towers, lighthouse, etc. are
selected as triangulation stations.
• Such stations can be sighted from other stations but it is not
possible to occupy the station directly below such excellent
targets for making the observations by setting up the instrument
over the station point.
• Also, signals are frequently blown out of position, and angles read
on them have to be corrected to the true position of the
triangulation station. Thus, there are two types of problems:
1. When the instrument is not set up over the true station
2. When the target is out of position.
• In Fig. 1.39, A, B, and C are the three triangulation
stations.
• It is not possible to place instrument at C.
• To solve this problem another station S, in the vicinity
of C, is selected where the instrument can be set up,
and from where all the three stations are visible for
making the angle observations.
• Such station is known as satellite station.
• As the observations from C are not possible, the
observations form S are made on A, B, and, C from A
and B on C.
• From the observations made, the required angle ACB is
calculated. This is known as reduction to centre.
 Criteria for selection of triangulation stations
• Triangulation stations should be intervisible. For this purpose the station
points should be on the highest ground such as hill tops, house tops, etc.
• Stations should be easily accessible with instruments.
• Station should form well-conditioned triangles.
• Stations should be so located that the lengths of sights are neither too
small nor too long. Small sights cause errors of bisection and centering.
Long sights too cause direction error as the signals become too indistinct
for accurate bisection.
• Stations should be at commanding positions so as to serve as control for
subsidiary triangulation, and for possible extension of the main
triangulation scheme.
• Stations should be useful for providing intersected points and also for
detail survey.
• Stations should be selected such that the cost of clearing and cutting,
and building towers, is minimum.
• Grazing line of sights should be avoided, and no line of sight should pass
over the industrial areas to avoid irregular atmospheric refraction.
•
Intervisibility of TraingulationStations
•To execute reconnaissance for triangulation, either of the
following general methods or a combination are used .
•In the first method, which can be used in hilly or
mountainous country, test the intervisibility of the stations
by visiting each one.
•If the stations are notintervisible from the ground, clear obstructions on the
line (such as trees) or adjust the tower heights to
allow intervisibility from either or both ends of the line. Find the elevations o
f intervening high pointsby lowering a weighted tape from a helicopter or
by using barometric or trigonometric leveling.
•In thesecond method, obtain the elevations of the stations and the interven
ing country from maps or othersources, and determine the intervisibility of p
oints and the required heights of towers from the data.
•Inactual practice, a combination of the two methodsis generally used.
•The reconnaissance party should
keep a total tower height for any one line to
a minimum. Determining the instrument and signal heights is a matter of
good judgment, trial computations, and experience
 Field work of Triangulation Survey
• Field work of triangulation involves the following
steps:
1. Reconnaissance
2. Erection of signals
3. Measurement of the base lines
4. Measurement of horizontal angles
5. Astronomical observations at Laplace stations
6. Computations
 ….
1. Reconnaissance
• Preliminary field inspection of the entire area to be covered
• Available topographical map study
• Proper examination of the terrain
• Selection of suitable positions for base lines
• Selection of suitable positions of triangulation stations
• Determination of intervisibility of triangulation stations
• Requires great experience, judgment and skill
 ..
2. Erection of signals
• To define exact position of triangulation station during
observation from other stations signals are used.
• Various types of signals are centered vertically over
the station marks and observations are made to these
signals
• Accuracy of triangulation is entirely dependent on the
degree of accuracy of centering the signals
• Different signals may be used
a) Luminous signals(sun signals and night signals):
Heliotropes
b) Opaque signals: pole signals, traget signals, Pole and
brush signals, beacons
 ..
3. Measurement of the base lines
• Accuracy of any order of triangulation is dependent upon the
measurement of base lines.
• Length depends on order of triangulation
• The ground should be fairly level or uniformly sloping or
gently undulating, free from obstruction throughout for
baseline,
• Extremities of the base line should be intervisible at ground
level,
• Slope correction is applied in case of slope distances in
undulating ground, other tension, temperature, sag,
correction
• Standard tapes, tacheometers, EDMs(tellurometer,
geodimeters)
 4. Measurement of horizontalangles

• Instrument for triangulation surveys require great

degree of refinement
• Horizontal angles can be observed by the following
methods:
a) The repetition method( for small angles: process is
repeated for every angle reading )
b) The reiteration method or direct method( angles in
all direction is measured from face left again in
opposite direction all angles are measured from face
right)