WHAT IS DISCRIMINATION?

According to its most simple definition, racial discrimination refers to unequal

treatment of persons or groups on the basis of their race or ethnicity. In defining
racial discrimination, many scholars and legal advocates distinguish between
differential treatment and disparate impact, creating a two-part definition:
Differential treatment occurs when individuals are treated unequally because of
their race. Disparate impact occurs when individuals are treated equally according
to a given set of rules and procedures but when the latter are constructed in ways
that favor members of one group over another The second component of this
definition broadens its scope to include decisions and processes that may not
themselves have any explicit racial content but that have the consequence of
producing or reinforcing racial disadvantage.

A key feature of any definition of discrimination is its focus on behavior.

Discrimination is distinct from racial prejudice (attitudes), racial stereotypes
(beliefs), and racism (ideologies) that may also be associated with racial
disadvantage . Discrimination may be motivated by prejudice, stereotypes, or
racism, but the definition of discrimination does not presume any unique
underlying cause.

While intentional discrimination occurs at the level of individuals, institutional

discrimination denotes explicit policies of social institutions that exclude, impede,
or otherwise harm certain groups. Well-known examples are laws restricting the
rights of racial or ethnic minorities or denying women the franchise By contrast,
structural discrimination characterizes policies that are neutral in intent and
implementation or class-neutral college ( admissions policies) but are nevertheless
potentially harmful to minorities. Opponents of structural discrimination hold that
states have an obligation to bring about equal life chances for all, a duty that entails
proactive compensation by some institutions for the unequal treatment that
minorities have experienced in the past or continue to experience in other social
systems.

Social-psychological explanations of discrimination based on social identity theory

presume that humans rely on the groups they belong to for a part of their identity.
Belonging to a group that is more prestigious and powerful than others boosts
one’s sense of self-esteem Discrimination that entails debasing and impairing out-
group members or denying them access to resources and wealth serves the purpose
of strengthening the relative position of one’s in-group and also indirectly boosts
individual self-esteem. Empirical studies confirm that persons with a low sense of
social recognition display more out-group devaluation and group-focused enmity
based on an ideology of human inequality. Negative attitudes toward different out-
groups (ethnic and religious minorities, women, and people who are disabled or
homeless) are strongly correlated with each other, indicating the unspecific nature
of discrimination.

Perceptions of Discrimination

Numerous surveys have asked African Americans and other racial minorities about
their experiences with discrimination in the workplace, in their search for housing,
and in other everyday social settings. One startling conclusion from this line of
research is the frequency with which discrimination is reported. A 2001 survey, for
example, found that more than one-third of blacks and nearly 20% of Hispanics
and Asians reported that they had personally been passed over for a job or
promotion because of their race or ethnicity. A 1997 Gallup poll found that nearly
half of all black respondents reported having experienced discrimination at least
once in one of five common situations in the past month.

Further, the frequency with which discrimination is reported does not decline
among those higher in the social hierarchy; in fact, middle-class blacks are as
likely to perceive discrimination as are working-class blacks, if not more. Patterns
of perceived discrimination are important findings in their own right, as research
shows that those who perceive high levels of discrimination are more likely to
experience depression, anxiety, and other negative health outcomes Furthermore,
perceived discrimination may lead to diminished effort or performance in
education or the labor market, which itself gives rise to negative outcomes. What
remains unclear from this line of research, however, is to what extent perceptions
of discrimination correspond to some reliable depiction of reality. Because events
may be misperceived or overlooked, perceptions of discrimination may over- or
underestimate the actual incidence of discrimination.

Discrimination is not the only cause of racial disparities in different countries.

Indeed, persistent inequality between racial and ethnic groups is the product of
complex and multifaceted influences. Nevertheless, the weight of existing evidence
suggests that discrimination does continue to affect the allocation of contemporary
opportunities; and, further, given the often covert, indirect, and cumulative nature
of these effects, our current estimates may in fact understate the degree to which
discrimination contributes to the poor social and economic outcomes of minority
groups. Although great progress has been made since the early 1960s, the problem
of racial discrimination remains an important factor in shaping contemporary
patterns of social and economic inequality.
3. Comprehension questions.

1. What is discrimination?

A key feature of any definition of discrimination is its focus on behavior. -

3. What are some forms of discrimination?

4. What is discrimination distinct from?

Discrimination is distinct from racial prejudice (attitudes), racial stereotypes

(beliefs), and racism (ideologies) that may also be associated with racial
disadvantage

5. Give examples of intentional, institutional and structural discrimination.

intentional discrimination occurs at the level of certain people

institutional discrimination denotes explicit policies of social institutions that

exclude, impede, or otherwise harm certain groups.

structural discrimination characterizes policies that are neutral in intent and

implementation but are nevertheless potentially harmful to minorities.

6. Who (which groups) experienced discrimination in different situations? Give

examples.

7. What did numerous survey show?

surveys have asked African Americans and other racial minorities about their
experiences with discrimination/ A 2001 survey, for example, found that more than
one-third of blacks and nearly 20% of Hispanics and Asians reported that they had
personally been passed over for a job or promotion because of their race or
ethnicity.

4. Match the words with their definitions:

1. disparity h) consisting of things or people that are very different and not
related to each other;

2. to entail e) to involve something as a necessary part or result;

3. to impede ) to make it difficult for someone or something to move forward or
make progress;

4. enmity b) a feeling of hatred towards someone;

5. franchise a) the legal right to vote in your counrtry’s elections;

6. anxiety i) the feeling of being very worried about something;

7. to presume f) to think that something is true, although you are not certain;

8. disparate d) a difference between two or more things, especially an unfair one;

9. to boost j) to increase or improve something and make it more successful.

10. covert c) secret or hidden;

5.

Ways of Racial Ethnic Women/ The Lower

discriminati minoritie groups Girls Disabled Social
ng s Classes

segregatio segregation segregation

n at at school at school
school
exploitatio
n at work
treating as
inferiors

avoiding
social
contact
denying denying denying
job job job
opportunit opportuniti opportuniti
ie es es

not paying
equal wages
telling jokes
at their
expense. all
 blaming blaming
for social for social
ills ills
subjecting
to violent
attacks
intolerance
of
customs/beli
efs
not
providing
facilities
for
access to
public
buldings/
transport

6. Fill in the gaps with the words given below.

1.It is reasonable to expect that men and women should be given equal
employment opportunities.

2. To qualify for state benefits disabled people must provide proof of their
disability, certified by a doctor.

3. People in wheelchairs need specially adapted public amenities, such as wider

lifts and public toilets, as well as ramps to facilitate crossing roads and gaining
access to public buildings.

4. Some say that there are innate difference between men and women and that it is
unreasonable of them to have equal expectations.

5. Large numbers of unemployed people took part in a demonstration Last week

where they wore T-shirts with slogans and carried banners denouncing the
government.

6. A huge concert was organized to raise awareness of the effects of racism.

7. By lobbying politicians, campaigners managed to bring about a change in
immigration law.

8. This film helps to draw attention to the sufferers of epilepsy and the stigma
which is still attached to them in many societies.

9. The charity benefitted enormously from the support lent by distinguished

members of the music profession.

10. This traditionally nomadic tribe has become an oppressed minority as a result
of property laws and urbanization.

7. GAP FILL

More than one in four British mothers who have returned to work
feel discriminated (1) gripe This is according to a survey
conducted by the legal (2) firm Slater and Gordon (S&G).
Researchers questioned 1,975 women about their experiences in against
the workplace before and after (3) giving birth. Most of the
women had never filed any kind of complaint as they suspected it
would be a waste of time and be even more (4) detrimental to
their career prospects. Grievances aired in the survey included
mothers being (5) worthy for promotion, and more junior
employees progressing faster up the career (6) ladder Another
common (7) ____________ was their points of view being
considered less (8) overlooked than those of colleagues without
children.

The findings (9) contrast with the opinions of managers and

employers. A director at Britain's Confederation of British
Industry (CBI) said: "We don't recognise the (10) picture painted
here. Our experience is that…businesses are better than ever at
managing maternity leave and (11) reintegrating mothers on their
return." The UK's employment minister Jo Swinson said: "The
government is (12) committed to making sure that more
businesses make the best use of women's talents (13) throughout
the organisation, from boardroom to the shop floor." S&G lawyer
Kiran Daurka said: "It is shocking that so (14) few women speak
out when they (15) suffer from discrimination." She accused
employers of avoiding the issues and of "burying their (16) heads
in the sand".