STUDENT’s BOOK OF ELEMENTARY

ANATOMY
AS PER SYLLABUS OF FEDERAL BOARD OF
INTERMEDIATE AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

INFORMATICS COLLEGE
OF ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES
CHAPTER 2
CELL AND TISSUES
BASIC STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. It is the smallest independently functioning entity
that can perform the essential processes necessary for life. Cells can exist as single-celled organisms, such
as bacteria and protozoa, or they can be part of multicellular organisms, including plants, animals, and
humans. The study of cells is known as cell biology or cytology, and understanding the structure and
function of cells is crucial for understanding the complexities of life and the mechanisms underlying
biological processes.
All living organisms are made of cells and cell products. This simple statement, called the cell theory, was
first proposed more than 150 years ago. You may think of a theory as a guess or hypothesis, and sometimes
this is so. A scientific theory, however, is actually the best explanation of all available evidence. All of the
evidence science has gathered so far supports the validity of the cell theory. Cells are the smallest living
subunits of a multicellular organism such as a human being. A cell is a complex arrangement of the
chemicals discussed in the previous chapter, is living, and carries out specific activities. Microorganisms,
such as amoebas and bacteria, are single cells that function independently. Human cells, however, must
work together and function interdependently. Homeostasis depends upon the contributions of all of the
different kinds of cells. A primary responsibility of each cell is to contribute to homeostasis. Homeostasis
is a term used in biology that refers to a dynamic state of balance within parameters that are compatible
with life. For example, living cells require a water-based environment to survive in, and there are various
physical (anatomical) and physiological mechanisms that keep all of the trillions of living cells in the human
body moist. This is one aspect of homeostasis.
Cells perform a range of functions necessary for life, including metabolism, growth, reproduction, response
to stimuli, and maintenance of homeostasis. They can obtain and utilize nutrients, eliminate waste products,
and communicate with other cells through chemical signals. In multicellular organisms, cells also specialize
and differentiate to perform specific functions, forming tissues, organs, and organ systems.
When a particular parameter, such as blood pressure or blood oxygen content, moves far enough out of
homeostasis (generally becoming too high or too low), illness or disease and sometimes death inevitably
results. The concept of a cell started with microscopic observations of dead cork tissue by scientist Robert
Hooke in 1665. Without realizing their function or importance, Hook coined the term “cell” based on the
resemblance of the small subdivisions in the cork to the rooms that monks inhabited, called cells. About
ten years later, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek became the first person to observe living and moving cells under
a microscope. In the century that followed, the theory that cells represented the basic unit of life would
develop. These tiny fluid-filled sacs house components responsible for the thousands of biochemical
reactions necessary for an organism to grow and survive. In this chapter, you will learn about the major
components and functions of a prototypical, generalized cell and discover some of the different types of
cells in the human body.

2.2 COMPOSITION OF CELL

The molecular composition of a cell can vary depending on the specific cell type and its physiological state.
However, here is a rough estimate of the molecular composition of a typical mammalian cell based on
percentages: Water is the most abundant molecule in cells and typically makes up around 70-90% of the
total cell composition. Proteins are essential for various cellular processes and structures. They account for
approximately 10-20% of the cell's molecular composition. Lipids, including phospholipids, cholesterol,
and other lipid molecules, are vital components of cell membranes and play roles in energy storage and
signaling. They make up about 2-10% of the cell. Nucleic acids, namely DNA and RNA, carry genetic
information and participate in protein synthesis. They contribute to about 1-2% of the cell's composition.
Carbohydrates serve as a source of energy and also play roles in cell recognition and signaling. They
typically account for less than 1% of the cell. Inorganic ions, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and
chloride, are crucial for maintaining cellular homeostasis and participating in various cellular processes.
They make up a small percentage of the cell's composition, typically less than 1%.
The total weight of a mammalian cell includes both the weight of the cell's components and the water
content present in the cell. The dry weight of a mammalian cell, on the other hand, refers specifically to
the weight of the cell's components after all water and volatile substances have been removed.
The total weight of a mammalian cell can vary depending on the cell type, size, and physiological
conditions. It typically ranges from a few picograms (10-12 grams) to several nanograms (10-9 grams). The
water content in mammalian cells can vary from approximately 70-80% of the total cell weight. The dry
weight of a mammalian cell is generally lower than the total weight and represents the solid content or
biomass of the cell. It includes various cellular components such as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids,
carbohydrates, and inorganic ions. The dry weight percentage of a mammalian cell is typically around 20-
30% of the wet weight, meaning that the water content constitutes about 70-80% of the total cell weight.

2.3 COMPONENTS OF CELL

The composition of a cell refers to the various components and molecules that make up the structure
and functional units of a cell. Cells are complex entities with intricate organization and specialized
compartments. Here is a detailed description of the composition of a typical eukaryotic cell. (Fig 2.1).

Cytosol
1. Plasma Membrane:
2. Cytoplasm Cytoskeleton
3. Nucleus

Organelles

2.4 STRUCTURE OF HUMAN CELL

The structure of a cell refers to the organization and arrangement of its various components, including
the cell membrane, cytoplasm, organelles, and nucleus. Here is a detailed description of the structure
of a typical human cell:

The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane) envelops the cell and is a thin, pliable, elastic
structure only 7.5 to 10 nanometers thick. It is composed almost entirely of proteins and lipids. The
approximate composition is 55% proteins, 25% phospholipids, 13% cholesterol, 4% other lipids, and
3% carbohydrates. (Fig 2.2).

Figure 2.1. Generalized human cell: depicting the structural components.

Figure 2.2. Plasma Membrane: The plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer. The polar heads of the phospholipids are at the
surfaces of the membrane; the nonpolar tails make up the interior of the membrane
The Cell Membrane Lipid Barrier Impedes Penetration by Water-Soluble Substances. Figure 2.2 shows the
structure of the cell membrane. Its basic structure is a lipid bilayer, which is a thin, double-layered film of
lipids each layer only one molecule thick that is continuous over the entire cell surface. Interspersed in this
lipid film are large globular proteins.
The basic lipid bilayer is composed of three main types of lipids phospholipids, sphingolipids, and
cholesterol. Phospholipids are the most abundant cell membrane lipids. One end of each phospholipid
molecule is hydrophilic and soluble in water. The other end is hydrophobic and soluble only in fats. The
phosphate end of the phospholipid is hydrophilic, and the fatty acid portion is hydrophobic. Because the
hydrophobic portions of the phospholipid molecules are repelled by water but are mutually attracted to one
another, they have a natural tendency to attach to one another in the middle of the membrane, as shown in
Figure 2.2. The hydrophilic phosphate portions then constitute the two surfaces of the complete cell
membrane, in contact with intracellular water on the inside of the membrane and extracellular water on the
outside surface. The lipid layer in the middle of the membrane is impermeable to the usual water-soluble
substances, such as ions, glucose, and urea. Conversely, fat-soluble substances, such as oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and alcohol, can penetrate this portion of the membrane with ease.
The cell membrane contains globular masses that float within its lipid bilayer. These membrane proteins,
known as glycoproteins, can be divided into two types: integral proteins and peripheral proteins.
Integral proteins extend all the way through the membrane, while peripheral proteins are attached to only
one surface and do not penetrate through it. Integral proteins play various roles in facilitating the movement
of water molecules, water-soluble substances, and ions between the inside and outside of the cell. They
form channels or pores that allow selective diffusion of certain substances. Some integral proteins act as
carrier proteins, transporting substances that cannot easily pass through the lipid bilayer.
Peripheral proteins are proteins that are usually connected to integral proteins. These peripheral proteins
primarily work as enzymes or regulators for transporting substances through the pores in the cell membrane.

Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance that fills the interior of the cell. It is a semi-fluid medium composed of
various components and organelles suspended within it. The cytoplasm is a vital part of the cell, playing a
crucial role in supporting cellular functions and maintaining the overall structure of the cell. One of the
major components of the cytoplasm is the cytosol, which is the liquid portion of the cytoplasm. The cytosol
contains water, ions, and various organic molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic
acids. These molecules are essential for metabolic reactions and cellular processes.
The cytoplasm of a cell can be further divided into two regions known as the endoplasm and the ectoplasm.
The endoplasm is the inner, more fluid-like region of the cytoplasm. It is located closer to the nucleus and
contains a higher concentration of organelles, such as the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi
apparatus. The endoplasm is involved in various metabolic activities, including protein synthesis, lipid
metabolism, and the processing of cellular materials. On the other hand, the ectoplasm is the outer, gel-like
region of the cytoplasm. It is located near the cell membrane and is less dense compared to the endoplasm.
The ectoplasm contains a network of protein filaments called the cytoskeleton, which provides structural
support and maintains the shape of the cell.
It also plays a role in cell movement and locomotion. Within the cytoplasm, there are numerous organelles
that perform specific functions. These include the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus,
mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and ribosomes. Apart from organelles, the cytoplasm also contains
a network of protein filaments called the cytoskeleton. The cytoplasm is also involved in numerous cellular
processes such as cell division, intracellular transport, and signaling. During cell division, the cytoplasm
participates in the formation of the mitotic spindle, which helps separate chromosomes. Intracellular
transport involves the movement of organelles, vesicles, and other substances within the cytoplasm.
Signaling pathways, which involve the transmission of signals within the cell, also rely on the cytoplasm
for their functioning. (Fig. 2.3).
Endoplasm

Ectoplasm

Figure 2.3. Cytoplasm: An Understanding of Cytoplasm with its parts ectoplasm and endoplasm.

The cytoskeleton is a complex network of protein filaments that provides structural support and plays a
crucial role in various cellular processes. It is found within the cytoplasm of cells and contributes to their
shape, organization, and movement.
There are three main types of filaments that make up the cytoskeleton: microfilaments, intermediate
filaments, and microtubules.

Microfilaments are the thinnest filaments and are composed of the protein actin. They are involved in cell
movement, cell division, and the maintenance of cell shape. Microfilaments can form contractile structures,
such as muscle fibers, and also provide mechanical support to the cell membrane.

Intermediate filaments are intermediate in size and are made up of various proteins, including keratin,
vimentin, and lamin. They provide mechanical strength to cells and help maintain their structural integrity.
Intermediate filaments are particularly important in tissues that experience mechanical stress, such as the
skin and muscles.

Microtubules are the largest filaments and are composed of the protein tubulin. They have a hollow tubular
structure and play a crucial role in cell division, cell movement, and the transport of materials within the
cell. Microtubules form the spindle fibers during cell division, aiding in the separation of chromosomes.
They also serve as tracks for the movement of organelles, vesicles, and other cellular components.

The cytoskeleton is involved in numerous cellular processes. It helps maintain the shape of cells and
provides mechanical support, allowing cells to resist external forces. It also enables cell movement through
processes like cell crawling and cell contraction. In addition, the cytoskeleton is involved in the intracellular
transport of materials. Motor proteins, such as kinesin and dynein, use the cytoskeleton as tracks to transport
vesicles and organelles to specific locations within the cell. Furthermore, the cytoskeleton is essential for
cell-cell interactions and signaling. It plays a role in anchoring membrane proteins, such as cell adhesion
molecules, which are important for cell-cell adhesion and communication. The cytoskeleton also
participates in signal transduction pathways by organizing and positioning signaling molecules within the
cell. (Fig. 2.4).

Figure 2.4. Cytoskeleton: An Understanding of Cytoskeleton.

Because of its large size, the nucleus is one of the most noticeable structures in the eukaryotic cell (Fig.
2.5). The nucleus contains chromatin within a semifluid nucleoplasm. Chromatin is a network of DNA
and protein. Just before the cell divides, the chromatin condenses and coils into rodlike structures called
chromosomes. All the cells of an organism contain the same number of chromosomes, except for the egg
and sperm, which usually have half this number.
Chromatin (and therefore chromosomes) is composed of DNA, protein, and some RNA. The DNA is
organized into genes, each of which has a specific sequence of nucleotides that codes for a polypeptide. It
 is just important to recognize that the information is transferred from the nucleus to the ribosome by an
RNA molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA). At the ribosome, the information in the RNA is translated
into a polypeptide chain. Because the proteins of a cell determine its structure and functions, the nucleus
may be thought of as the command center of the cell. Within the nucleus is a dark structure called a
nucleolus. In the nucleolus, a type of RNA, called ribosomal RNA (rRNA), is produced.

Figure 2.5. Structure of Nucleus: The nuclear envelope contains pores that allow substances to pass from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
 Proteins join with rRNA to form the subunits of ribosomes. The assembled ribosomal subunits are then sent
out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm, where they join and assume their role in protein synthesis. The nucleus
is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane of phospholipids known as the nuclear envelope.
Located throughout the nuclear envelope are nuclear pores that allow the nucleus to communicate with
activities in the cytoplasm. The nuclear pores are of sufficient size (100 nm) to permit the passage of
ribosomal subunits and RNA molecules out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm, as well as the passage of
proteins from the cytoplasm into the nucleus. (Fig.2.6).

Nucleus
DNA
Smaller Subunit
mRNA

Nuclear Pore
Larger Subunit

Ribosome
Polypeptide

Ribosomes
ER Membrane

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Figure 2.6. The Nucleus, Ribosome and Endoplasmic Reticulum: After mRNA leaves the nucleus, it attaches itself to a ribosome, and
polypeptide synthesis begins. When a ribosome combines with a receptor at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the polypeptide enters the lumen of the ER
through a channel in the receptor. Exterior to the ER, the ribosome splits, releasing the mRNA while a protein takes shape inside the ER lumen.
The endomembrane system consists of the nuclear envelope, the membranes of the endoplasmic
reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and numerous vesicles. This system helps compartmentalize the cell, so that
particular enzymatic reactions are restricted to specific regions. Transport vesicles carry molecules from
one part of the system to another. (Fig.2.1).
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a complex network of membrane-bound tubules and sacs that are
found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It plays a crucial role in the synthesis, folding, and transport of
proteins, as well as the synthesis of lipids. There are two main regions of the endoplasmic reticulum: the
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).

The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is a specialized region of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that is
characterized by the presence of ribosomes attached to its surface. It plays a crucial role in the synthesis,
processing, and transport of proteins within the cell. The ribosomes attached to the surface of the RER are
responsible for protein synthesis. As the ribosomes translate the genetic information from mRNA
molecules, newly synthesized polypeptide chains are released into the lumen of the RER. The presence of
ribosomes gives the RER a rough appearance under a microscope, hence its name. The RER is particularly
involved in the production of proteins that are destined for secretion or incorporation into the cell
membrane. These proteins, known as secretory or membrane proteins, undergo various modifications
and folding processes within the lumen of the RER to acquire their functional conformation. This includes
the addition of sugar molecules (glycosylation) to form glycoproteins.
As the proteins are synthesized and processed within the RER, they are packaged into transport vesicles
that bud off from the ER membrane. These vesicles transport the proteins to their target destinations, such
as the Golgi apparatus, where further processing and sorting occur. The RER acts as an intermediary station
in the secretory pathway, facilitating the movement of proteins from their site of synthesis to their final
locations within or outside the cell. In addition to protein synthesis and processing, the RER also plays a
role in quality control. It has a mechanism to monitor and ensure the correct folding of proteins. Misfolded
or improperly folded proteins are recognized and retained within the RER for further processing or
degradation. This quality control process helps to maintain the proper functioning of the cell and prevent
the accumulation of dysfunctional proteins.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum is found in abundance in cells that are actively involved in protein
synthesis and secretion, such as cells of the pancreas and the cells lining the secretory glands. These cells
require a robust RER to meet the demands of protein production and secretion. (Fig.2.7).

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is a distinct region of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that lacks
ribosomes on its surface. It plays a crucial role in a variety of cellular functions, including lipid synthesis,
metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of drugs and toxins, and the storage and release of calcium
ions.

Figure 2.7. The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Showing the attachment of Ribosome on the surface of Endoplasmic
Reticulum.
One of the primary functions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the synthesis of lipids. It is involved
in the production of phospholipids, which are essential components of cell membranes. The SER also
synthesizes other lipids, such as cholesterol and steroid hormones. These lipids are important for
maintaining the structural integrity of the cell membrane and are involved in various cellular processes.

In addition to lipid synthesis, the SER participates in the metabolism of carbohydrates. It helps regulate
blood sugar levels by storing glucose in the form of glycogen and releasing it when needed. The SER also
plays a role in the detoxification of drugs and toxins. It contains enzymes that metabolize and modify
foreign substances, making them more water-soluble and easier to excrete from the body.
Furthermore, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the storage and release of calcium ions. It
acts as a reservoir for calcium ions within the cell. When calcium signals are received, the SER releases
stored calcium ions into the cytoplasm, initiating various cellular processes such as muscle contraction,
secretion, and cell division. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is abundant in certain cell types that require
high levels of lipid synthesis and detoxification, such as liver cells and cells of the adrenal glands. Liver
cells, for example, contain extensive smooth ER due to their involvement in lipid metabolism and
detoxification processes. (Fig.2.7)

The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex or Golgi body, is an essential organelle found in
eukaryotic cells. It plays a critical role in processing, sorting, and packaging proteins and lipids for transport
to their designated locations within and outside the cell. The history of the Golgi apparatus dates back to
the late 19th century when it was first discovered by an Italian physician and scientist named Camillo
Golgi. Golgi used a staining technique to observe and describe a network of interconnected structures
within cells, which later came to be known as the Golgi apparatus.
The Golgi apparatus consists of a series of flattened, membrane-bound sacs called cisternae. These
cisternae are stacked parallel to each other, resembling a stack of pancakes when viewed under a
microscope. The Golgi apparatus is typically located near the nucleus and closely associated with the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER). One of the primary functions of the Golgi apparatus is to modify and sort
proteins. After proteins are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), they enter the Golgi apparatus
for further processing. Within the Golgi apparatus, these proteins undergo various modifications, such as
the addition of sugar molecules (glycosylation), which leads to the formation of glycoproteins. Other
modifications, such as phosphorylation and sulfation, may also occur. These modifications contribute to
the protein's structure, stability, and function.
The Golgi apparatus is also responsible for sorting proteins to their appropriate destinations. It acts as a
central distribution center, receiving proteins from the ER and directing them to different locations within
the cell. This sorting process involves packaging the proteins into transport vesicles, which bud off from
the Golgi apparatus and travel to specific cellular compartments. Some proteins are targeted for secretion
out of the cell, while others are directed to particular organelles, such as lysosomes or the cell membrane.
The Golgi apparatus is involved not only in protein processing and sorting but also in lipid metabolism
and modification. It participates in the synthesis of complex lipids, including sphingolipids and
phospholipids, which are crucial components of cell membranes. Golgi apparatus modifies lipids by adding
carbohydrate groups, leading to the formation of glycolipids.
Golgi apparatus plays a vital role in the formation of lysosomes, which are organelles responsible for
breaking down waste materials. Within the Golgi apparatus, enzymes and other necessary components for
lysosome formation are packaged into vesicles called lysosomes. These lysosomes then fuse with
endosomes or phagosomes to become fully functional lysosomes. The Golgi apparatus has distinct
structural and functional regions known as the cis face and trans face. The cis face is the receiving end of
the Golgi apparatus, where proteins and lipids enter from the endoplasmic reticulum. The trans face, on the
other hand, is the shipping end of the Golgi apparatus, where modified proteins and lipids exit in transport
vesicles to their designated destinations.
 Figure 2.8. The Golgi Complex: Showing the cis and trans face of Golgi Complex.

Ribosomes are essential cellular structures involved in protein synthesis. Their main function is to translate
genetic information from messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins.
The structure of ribosomes is composed of two subunits, the large subunit and the small subunit, each
made up of proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). In eukaryotic cells, ribosomes exist in two locations: free
in the cytoplasm and attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or the outer membrane of the nucleus.
These two forms of ribosomes differ slightly in their protein composition. The small subunit is responsible
for binding to the mRNA molecule during translation. It contains a binding site for transfer RNA (tRNA),
which carries amino acids to be added to the growing protein chain. The large subunit, on the other hand,
catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids, leading to protein synthesis.
The ribosome's overall structure can be described as a complex of proteins and rRNA arranged in a three-
dimensional shape. It has a groove where the mRNA molecule binds, and various binding sites for tRNA
to bring amino acids to the growing protein chain. These binding sites are called the A site (aminoacyl site),
the P site (peptidyl site), and the E site (exit site). During translation, the ribosome moves along the mRNA
molecule, reading the genetic code and linking amino acids together in the correct order according to the
codons on the mRNA. This process involves the recognition of start and stop codons, as well as the
interaction between the ribosome and various protein factors.
Ribosomes can exist as single units or cluster together to form polyribosomes, also known as polysomes.
Polyribosomes are commonly found in the cytoplasm and allow multiple ribosomes to simultaneously
translate a single mRNA molecule. This increases the efficiency of protein synthesis, enabling the cell to
produce large amounts of proteins quickly. (Fig 2.6).

Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles found in eukaryotic cells. They are involved in intracellular
digestion, waste removal, and recycling of cellular components. Lysosomes contain a variety of enzymes
that can break down various biomolecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.

The structure of lysosomes is characterized by their spherical shape and a single surrounding membrane.
This membrane serves as a barrier, preventing the digestive enzymes inside the lysosome from coming into
direct contact with the rest of the cell. The lysosomal membrane also contains transport proteins that
facilitate the movement of molecules in and out of the lysosome.

Figure 2.9. Lysosomes: Showing the process of recycling.

 Lysosomes have a critical role in intracellular digestion. They fuse with endocytic vesicles, which are
formed during the process of endocytosis. Endocytosis involves the uptake of external materials into the
cell by invagination of the cell membrane to form vesicles. These vesicles then fuse with lysosomes,
allowing the enzymes to break down the ingested materials into smaller components that can be used by
the cell. Another important function of lysosomes is the degradation and recycling of cellular components.
This process is known as autophagy. During autophagy, damaged or non-functional organelles, proteins,
and other cellular components are enclosed in double-membrane vesicles called autophagosomes. The
autophagosomes then fuse with lysosomes, allowing the enzymes to break down the enclosed components.
The breakdown products are subsequently released into the cytoplasm and can be used to generate energy
or build new cellular structures. (Fig. 2.9).

Mitochondria are organelles found in eukaryotic cells that are often referred to as the "powerhouses" of
the cell. They play a critical role in generating energy for cellular processes through a process called cellular
respiration. The structure of mitochondria consists of an outer membrane, an inner membrane, an
intermembrane space, and a matrix. The outer membrane is porous and allows the passage of small
molecules. The inner membrane is highly folded into structures called cristae, which increase its surface
area and provide a space for many enzymes involved in energy production. (Fig.2.10.)
.

Figure 2.10. Mitochondria: Generalized drawing that reveals the internal structure of a mitochondrion, the organelle that is involved in cellular
respiration.
The intermembrane space is the space between the outer and inner membranes, while the matrix is the
innermost compartment enclosed by the inner membrane. Within the mitochondria, there are several
important structures, one of which is the F1 particle. This complex plays a key role in the production of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the molecule that cells use as their primary energy source. The F1 particle
is located on the inner membrane and is composed of several subunits, each with a specific function
During cellular respiration, molecules derived from food, such as glucose, are broken down in a series of
biochemical reactions. This process occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria. As the molecules are broken
down, electrons are released and transferred through a series of protein complexes embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane, known as the electron transport chain. This transfer of electrons generates energy
in the form of a proton gradient across the inner membrane.

2.5 CELL GROWTH

Cell growth refers to the process by which cells increase in size or number within an organism or tissue
over a period of time. It is an essential aspect of development, tissue repair, and maintenance in living
organisms.

When cells grow in size, they accumulate more cytoplasm and cellular components, allowing them to carry
out their functions more effectively. This increase in size occurs through the synthesis of new proteins,
lipids, and other molecules needed for cellular structure and function. Cell growth is crucial for the
development of organisms from a single fertilized egg to a complex multicellular organism with
differentiated tissues and organs.

Figure 2.11. CELL GROWTH: Generalized drawing that reveals the Cell Growth and Cell Division.
Cell growth can also involve an increase in cell number through cell division. During cell division, a
single parent cell divides to produce two or more daughter cells. This process is critical for tissue repair
and the replacement of old or damaged cells. Cell division can occur through mitosis, where two identical
daughter cells are produced, or meiosis, which leads to the formation of gametes (sperm and eggs) with
half the number of chromosomes.
The regulation of cell growth is tightly controlled by various mechanisms to ensure proper development
and maintain tissue homeostasis. These mechanisms include cell cycle checkpoints, which monitor the
integrity and accuracy of cell division, as well as the presence of growth factors and signaling pathways
that stimulate or inhibit cell growth. Cell growth is also influenced by external factors such as nutrient
availability, oxygen levels, and physical cues from the surrounding environment.
Abnormalities in cell growth can lead to various disorders and diseases. For example, uncontrolled cell
growth and division can result in the formation of tumors and cancer. On the other hand, insufficient cell
growth may lead to developmental abnormalities or tissue degeneration. (Fig.2.12.)

Figure 2.12. ABNORMALITIES IN CELL GROWTH: Generalized drawing that reveals the Uncontrolled Cell Division.

2.6 MPORTANCE OF CELL GROWTH

Cell growth plays a vital role in the development, tissue repair, and maintenance of overall organismal
health.

Cell growth is fundamental during the process of development in organisms. Starting from a single fertilized
egg, cells undergo division and growth to form a complex multicellular organism. The initial stages of
development involve rapid cell division, allowing the organism to grow in size. As development progresses,
cell growth becomes more regulated and specific, leading to the differentiation of cells into specialized
types. This differentiation involves changes in cell structure, gene expression, and function. Proper cell
growth ensures the formation of tissues, organs, and body structures necessary for the organism's growth
and survival.

Cell growth is essential for the repair and regeneration of damaged tissues. When tissues are injured due to
trauma, infection, or disease, cell growth is activated to restore the tissue's structure and function. The
process of tissue repair involves several steps. Initially, inflammatory cells migrate to the damaged site and
release signaling molecules that trigger the activation of cell growth. Subsequently, nearby cells undergo
division to replace the damaged or dead cells. This cell growth replenishes the tissue and promotes healing.
The newly generated cells differentiate and restore the tissue's normal structure and function.

Cell growth plays a crucial role in maintaining the overall health of an organism. Throughout an organism's
life, cells continuously grow and replace old or damaged cells. This turnover of cells ensures the proper
functioning of tissues and organs. For example, the lining of the digestive tract undergoes constant cell
growth and replacement to maintain its integrity, absorb nutrients efficiently, and provide a barrier against
pathogens.

Cell growth is responsible for the growth and development of organs. As an organism grows, specific
organs need to increase in size and complexity to meet the demands of the organism's physiological
processes. For example, during childhood and adolescence, the long bones in the body undergo cell growth
at the growth plates, leading to an increase in bone length.

Cell growth enables organisms to adapt and respond to changes in their environment. For instance, in
response to physical exercise or strength training, skeletal muscle cells undergo growth and division,
leading to an increase in muscle mass and strength.

Cell growth is tightly regulated to ensure proper development, tissue repair, and maintenance of organismal
health. Various mechanisms control cell growth, including cell cycle checkpoints, growth factors, and
signaling pathways. Cell cycle checkpoints monitor the integrity and accuracy of cell division, ensuring
that cells only progress through the cell cycle when conditions are suitable.

2.7 CELL DIVISION

Cell division is the process by which a single parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. It is a
fundamental process in living organisms that plays a crucial role in growth, development, tissue repair, and
reproduction. Cell division is tightly regulated to ensure proper cell growth, development, and the
maintenance of genetic stability. It is controlled by various cellular processes, including the duplication of
DNA, the segregation of chromosomes, and the precise coordination of cell cycle checkpoints. These
mechanisms help prevent errors and ensure the faithful transmission of genetic information to the daughter
cells.

Mitosis is a fundamental process of cell division that ensures the distribution of genetic material from a
parent cell to two identical daughter cells. It is crucial for growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction
in organisms. The process of mitosis consists of several distinct phases, each with its own characteristics
and events:

Interphase is a crucial stage of the cell cycle that occurs before and after mitosis. It is a period of intense
cellular activity and preparation for cell division. While not directly part of mitosis itself, interphase is
essential for ensuring the proper progression of the cell cycle and the successful division of cells.
Interphase can be further divided into three distinct phases:
G1 Phase (Gap 1): During the G1 phase, the cell undergoes significant growth and carries out its normal
cellular functions. This phase is marked by an increase in cell size, protein synthesis, and the duplication
of organelles. The cell also prepares itself for DNA replication, known as the S phase, by synthesizing the
necessary enzymes and proteins.
S Phase (Synthesis): In the S phase, DNA replication occurs. The cell's genetic material is duplicated to
ensure that each daughter cell receives a complete set of chromosomes. The DNA replication process
involves unwinding the DNA double helix, synthesizing new complementary strands, and forming two
identical copies of each chromosome, known as sister chromatids.
G2 Phase (Gap 2): Following DNA replication, the cell enters the G2 phase. During this phase, the cell
continues to grow, synthesizes additional proteins, and prepares for cell division. It checks for any errors
or damage in the replicated DNA and initiates repair mechanisms if necessary. The cell also synthesizes
the proteins needed for the upcoming mitotic division.
During interphase, the nucleus is well-defined, and the nuclear envelope is intact. Chromosomes exist in a
loosely condensed form called chromatin, making them readily accessible for DNA replication and gene
expression. The cell carries out its normal metabolic activities, such as energy production, protein synthesis,
and cellular maintenance.

During prophase, chromatin (uncondensed DNA) condenses into visible chromosomes. The nuclear
membrane starts to disintegrate, and the nucleolus disappears. Spindle fibers, composed of microtubules,
begin to form from structures called centrosomes, which migrate to opposite poles of the cell. The
chromosomes become more compact, and each chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids
held together at a region called the centromere.

In metaphase, the condensed chromosomes align along the equator of the cell, forming a structure called
the metaphase plate. The spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of each chromosome, creating tension.
This alignment ensures equal distribution of genetic material to the daughter cells. (Fig.2.13.)

During anaphase, the sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards opposite poles of the cell by the
shortening of the spindle fibers. This separation ensures that each daughter cell receives an identical set of
chromosomes. The cell elongates as the poles move apart. (Fig.2.13.)

In telophase, the separated chromosomes reach the opposite poles of the cell. The spindle fibers
disassemble, and new nuclear membranes start forming around each set of chromosomes, establishing two
distinct nuclei. The chromosomes begin to decondense back into chromatin. The nucleolus reappears, and
the cell prepares for cytokinesis, the final stage of cell division. (Fig.2.13.)

Following mitosis, cytokinesis occurs, which involves the physical division of the cell into two daughter
cells. Cytokinesis differs between animal and plant cells: A cleavage furrow forms, pinching the cell in the
middle, and eventually separates the cytoplasm into two daughter cells.
The result of mitosis and cytokinesis is the formation of two genetically identical daughter cells, each with
the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. These cells can then undergo further growth,
differentiation, or perform specialized functions as part of a tissue or organism. Mitosis is a tightly regulated
process, involving various checkpoints and molecular controls to ensure the accuracy of chromosome
segregation and proper cell division. Any errors or disruptions in mitosis can lead to genetic abnormalities,
cell death, or contribute to the development of diseases such as cancer.

Meiosis is the process of cell division that occurs in the cells of reproductive organs (testes and ovaries) in
sexually reproducing organisms. Unlike mitosis, which produces identical daughter cells, meiosis leads to
the formation of daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This reduction in
chromosome number is crucial for sexual reproduction because it ensures that when gametes (sperm and
eggs) fuse during fertilization, the resulting offspring will have the correct number of chromosomes.
Meiosis consists of two successive divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II, which together result in the
formation of four haploid daughter cells. Here is a brief outline of the phases involved in meiosis:
 Figure 2.13. MITOSIS: The result of mitosis and cytokinesis is the formation of two genetically identical daughter cells.

Meiosis does not have an interphase like mitosis. Instead, it has a unique preparatory phase called
interkinesis, which occurs between meiosis I and meiosis II. Interkinesis is a relatively short period of rest
between the two divisions of meiosis. It shares some similarities with interphase in mitosis, but there are
notable differences. During interkinesis the chromosomes remain in a partially condensed state after the
completion of meiosis I. They do not fully decondense as they would in interphase of mitosis. DNA
replication: There is no DNA replication during interkinesis. Unlike in interphase, where DNA replication
occurs to ensure each daughter cell has a complete set of chromosomes, interkinesis skips this step because
the DNA has already been duplicated during the preceding interphase before meiosis I. The nuclear
envelope may or may not reform during interkinesis, depending on the organism. In some species, the
nuclear envelope persists, while in others, it temporarily disassembles. The centrosomes, which play a role
in spindle formation, typically remain intact during interkinesis. Interkinesis serves as a brief resting phase
between the two meiotic divisions, allowing the cells to prepare for meiosis II. It provides an opportunity
for the chromosomes to partially decondense and regain their ability to condense again in preparation for
meiosis II.

Prophase I: Chromosomes condense, and homologous chromosomes pair up to form tetrads. Crossing
over, a process where genetic material is exchanged between homologous chromosomes, occurs.
Metaphase I: Tetrads align at the center of the cell along the metaphase plate.
Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes separate and move toward opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase I: Chromosomes reach the poles, and the nuclear envelope reforms. The cell then undergoes
cytokinesis, dividing into two daughter cells.

Prophase II: Chromosomes recondense, and the nuclear envelope disintegrates.

Metaphase II: Chromosomes align along the metaphase plate in each daughter cell.
Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
Telophase II: Chromosomes reach the poles, and a new nuclear envelope forms around them. Cytokinesis
occurs, resulting in the formation of four daughter cells.

INTERPHASE PROPHASE-I METAPHASE-I ANAPHASE-I

PROPHASE-II METAPHASE-II ANAPHASE-II TELOPHASE-II

TELOPHASE-I

Figure 2.14. MEIOSIS: The result of Meiosis and cytokinesis is the formation of four haploid daughter cells.

The four daughter cells produced at the end of meiosis are genetically unique due to the exchange of genetic
material during crossing over in prophase I and the random assortment of chromosomes in metaphase I.
These daughter cells are haploid, meaning they have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction as it introduces genetic variation and ensures the correct number
of chromosomes in offspring. It allows for the combination of genetic material from two parent organisms,
contributing to the diversity and adaptation of populations over generations. (Fig.2.14.)
2.8 CELL METABOLISM
Cell metabolism refers to the collective chemical reactions and processes that occur within a cell to sustain
life. It involves the conversion of nutrients and energy sources into molecules that are essential for the cell's
growth, maintenance, and reproduction. Cell metabolism includes various interconnected pathways, such
as energy production, biosynthesis of molecules, and elimination of waste products.

Energy Production: Cell metabolism is crucial for generating energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). Through processes like glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation, cells extract
energy from nutrients, primarily glucose, and convert it into ATP. This energy is essential for performing
cellular activities, such as active transport, muscle contraction, DNA replication, and protein synthesis.
Biosynthesis: Metabolism enables the synthesis of complex molecules required for cell growth and
maintenance. It provides the building blocks and energy needed for the production of proteins, nucleic
acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. These molecules are vital for cellular structures, enzyme functions, cell
signaling, and the regulation of gene expression.
Waste Elimination: Metabolism helps remove waste products and toxins from cells. During metabolic
processes, waste products like carbon dioxide, urea, and metabolic byproducts accumulate. Proper
metabolism ensures their efficient elimination, preventing their buildup, which can be toxic to cells.
Cell Signaling and Communication: Metabolites serve as signaling molecules that regulate cellular
processes and communication between cells. Metabolism influences the production of signaling molecules,
such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and secondary messengers, which control various physiological
functions and coordinate responses to environmental stimuli.
Maintaining Cellular Homeostasis: Cell metabolism plays a crucial role in maintaining internal
equilibrium or homeostasis. It ensures a balance between energy production and consumption, nutrient
availability, and the regulation of key metabolites. Proper metabolic functioning helps cells adapt to
changing conditions, respond to stress, and maintain optimal physiological conditions.
Overall Organismal Health: The proper functioning of cell metabolism is vital for the overall health of
an organism. Dysregulated metabolism is associated with numerous diseases, including metabolic
disorders, diabetes, cancer, and neurodegenerative conditions. Understanding and manipulating cell
metabolism can provide insights into disease mechanisms and potential therapeutic interventions.

2.9 ANABOLISM AND CATABOLISM

Anabolism and catabolism are two fundamental processes in cell metabolism that involve the synthesis and
breakdown of molecules, respectively. They play critical roles in building complex molecules and providing
energy for cellular activities.
Anabolism refers to the set of metabolic pathways that build complex molecules from simpler ones. It
involves the synthesis of molecules like proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides from smaller building
blocks such as amino acids, nucleotides, and simple sugars. During anabolism, energy is required to drive
the formation of chemical bonds and assemble these building blocks into larger, more complex structures.
This energy is typically obtained from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy currency of cells.
Anabolic reactions are often biosynthetic, meaning they create new molecules that are needed for growth,
repair, and maintenance of cells and tissues.

Catabolism, on the other hand, refers to the metabolic pathways that break down complex molecules into
simpler ones. It involves the degradation of molecules like proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides into
their constituent parts, such as amino acids, nucleotides, and glucose. The purpose of catabolism is twofold:
to release energy and to obtain building blocks for anabolic reactions. Catabolic processes involve the
breakdown of chemical bonds, which results in the release of energy that is captured in the form of ATP.
This energy can be utilized by the cell to perform various functions.
Additionally, the breakdown products generated during catabolism serve as the raw materials or precursors
for anabolic reactions. For example, amino acids produced from protein degradation can be used for protein
synthesis, and glucose obtained from carbohydrate breakdown can be utilized for the synthesis of other
molecules.

2.10 KEY METABOLIC PATHWAYS

Metabolic pathways are series of chemical reactions that occur within cells to convert molecules into
different forms, produce energy, and synthesize essential molecules. Here, we will discuss some important
metabolic pathways:

Cellular respiration is a series of metabolic pathways that occur in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells
except glycolysis that takes place in cytoplasm. It involves the complete oxidation of glucose to produce
ATP, the primary energy currency of cells. Cellular respiration consists of three main stages: glycolysis,
the Krebs cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation. It produces a large
amount of ATP through the transfer of electrons in the electron transport chain.

Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate in the cytoplasm of cells. It is
an anaerobic process and occurs in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Glycolysis involves a series of
reactions and generates a small amount of ATP and NADH. The pyruvate produced can be further
metabolized in aerobic conditions through cellular respiration. (Fig.2.15.)
Figure 2.15. GLYCOLYSIS: Steps of Glycolysis involving breakdown of single 6-carbon glucose into two 3-carbon pyruvates.

The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle, is a metabolic pathway that
occurs in the mitochondria of cells. It plays a key role in the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
to produce energy in the form of ATP. The cycle consists of a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions that
release carbon dioxide, ATP, and electron carriers.
In the Krebs cycle, acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate. The citrate molecule
undergoes isomerization to become isocitrate. Isocitrate is then oxidized and decarboxylated to produce
alpha-ketoglutarate, generating NADH and carbon dioxide. Alpha-ketoglutarate is converted into
succinyl-CoA, generating another molecule of NADH and releasing carbon dioxide. Succinyl-CoA is
further converted to succinate, producing ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation. Succinate is
oxidized to fumarate, generating FADH2. Fumarate is hydrated to produce malate, which is then converted
back to oxaloacetate, completing the cycle.
The Krebs cycle serves multiple purposes in cellular metabolism. It directly generates ATP and high-energy
electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) that participate in oxidative phosphorylation. It also provides
precursor molecules for the synthesis of amino acids and lipids. (Fig.2.16.)

Figure 2.16. Krebs CYCLE: Cycle shows different phases of Krebs Cycle.
Oxidative phosphorylation is a crucial process that occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. It is the
final step of cellular respiration and involves the synthesis of ATP using the energy derived from the transfer
of electrons in the electron transport chain (ETC).
Here's a brief explanation of oxidative phosphorylation:
Electron Transport Chain (ETC): The ETC is a series of protein complexes located in the inner
mitochondrial membrane. These complexes, including NADH dehydrogenase, cytochrome b-c1 complex,
cytochrome c, and ATP synthase, work together to transfer electrons from electron donors, such as NADH
and FADH2, to electron acceptors, such as molecular oxygen (O2). As electrons move through the ETC,
they release energy at each complex. This energy is used to pump protons (H+) from the mitochondrial
matrix to the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical gradient. (Fig.2.17.)

Figure 2.17. OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION: Showing synthesis of ATP through Chemiosmosis.

2.11 TISSUES
The body contains at least 200 distinct cell types. These cells contain essentially the same internal
structures yet they vary enormously in shape and function. The different types of cells are not randomly
distributed throughout the body rather they occur in organized layers, a level of organization referred to as
tissue. The variety in shape reflects the many different roles that cells fulfill in your body. The human body
starts as a single cell at fertilization. As this fertilized egg divides, it gives rise to trillions of cells, each built
from the same blueprint, but organizing into tissues and becoming irreversibly committed to a
developmental pathway.
The term tissue is used to describe a group of cells found together in the body. The cells within a tissue
share a common embryonic origin. Although there are many types of cells in the human body, they are
organized into four broad categories of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. Each of these
categories is characterized by specific functions that contribute to the overall health and maintenance of the
body. A disruption of the structure is a sign of injury or disease. Such changes can be detected through
histology, the microscopic study of tissue appearance, organization, and function.

2.12. TYPES OF TISSUES

Epithelial tissue, also referred to as epithelium, refers to the sheets of cells that cover outer surfaces of the
body, lines internal cavities and passageways, and forms certain glands. Connective tissue, as its name
implies, binds the cells and organs of the body together and functions in the protection, support, and
integration of all parts of the body. Muscle tissue is excitable, responding to stimulation and contracting to
provide movement, and occurs as three major types: skeletal (voluntary) muscle, smooth muscle, and
cardiac muscle in the heart. Nervous tissue is also excitable, allowing the propagation of electrochemical
signals in the form of nerve impulses that communicate between different regions of the body. (Fig. 2.18.)

Epithelial tissues are one of the four main types of tissues found in animals. They are composed of closely
packed cells that form continuous sheets or layers, covering the body surfaces, lining the body cavities, and
forming various glands. Epithelial tissues serve crucial functions in protection, absorption, secretion, and
sensation.

Epithelial tissues are characterized by tightly packed cells that form continuous sheets or layers. The cells
are closely joined together through specialized cell junctions, which provide structural integrity to the
tissue. The cells are closely arranged, with little extracellular matrix between them. The basal surface of
epithelial tissues is attached to a basement membrane, which provides support and helps in anchoring the
tissue to underlying structures.

Epithelial tissues are classified into different types based on their shape and arrangement of cells:
Simple Epithelium: This type consists of a single layer of cells. It can be further classified into simple
squamous, simple cuboidal, and simple columnar epithelium, based on the shape of cells. (Fig.2.19.)
Stratified Epithelium: Stratified epithelium is composed of multiple layers of cells. It provides protection
and is found in areas subjected to mechanical stress. Examples include stratified squamous, stratified
cuboidal, and stratified columnar epithelium. (Fig.2.19.)
Pseudostratified Epithelium: Pseudostratified epithelium appears stratified but consists of a single layer
of cells. The nuclei of cells are at different levels, giving the false impression of multiple layers. It is
commonly found in the respiratory tract. (Fig.2.19.)

Figure 2.18. TYPES OF TISSUES: The four types of tissues are exemplified in nervous tissue, stratified squamous epithelial
tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, and connective tissue in small intestine.
Epithelial tissues perform various functions:
Protection: Epithelial tissues act as a protective barrier, preventing the entry of harmful microorganisms,
chemicals, and physical damage to underlying tissues. For example, the skin is composed of stratified
squamous epithelium, which protects the body from external threats.
Absorption and Secretion: Certain epithelial tissues are involved in absorption and secretion processes.
For instance, the epithelial lining of the small intestine is specialized for absorbing nutrients from digested
food, while glandular epithelium in glands secretes substances such as hormones, enzymes, and mucus.
Sensation: Epithelial tissues contain specialized cells, such as sensory receptors, which allow the detection
of stimuli like touch, pressure, temperature, and taste. Examples include the epithelium of the skin and taste
buds on the tongue.
Transportation: Epithelial tissues form specialized structures like cilia and microvilli, which aid in the
movement of substances across their surfaces. Ciliated epithelium in the respiratory tract helps in moving
mucus and trapped particles out of the lungs.
Glandular Functions: Certain epithelial tissues are specialized to form glands, which secrete substances
for various purposes. Glands can be classified as exocrine glands (e.g., sweat glands, salivary glands) that
secrete their products into ducts, or endocrine glands (e.g., adrenal glands, thyroid gland) that release
hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Figure 2.19. TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES: Different Types of Epithelial Tissues

Connective tissues serve to support, connect, and protect various structures of the body. Connective tissues
are characterized by an abundant extracellular matrix composed of fibers and ground substance, which
surround and support a variety of cells.

Connective tissues are composed of cells, extracellular fibers, and ground substance. The cells within
connective tissues include fibroblasts, macrophages, adipocytes, mast cells, and various immune cells. The
extracellular matrix consists of fibers, including collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers, and a ground
substance that fills the space between the fibers. The fibers and ground substance provide strength,
flexibility, and support to the tissue. (Fig.2.20)

Connective tissues are classified into several types based on their composition and function:
Loose Connective Tissue: Loose connective tissue is the most common type and consists of loosely
arranged fibers and cells within a gel-like ground substance. It provides support and flexibility and is found
in areas such as beneath the skin, around blood vessels, and between organs. (Fig.2.20)
Dense Connective Tissue: Dense connective tissue is composed of densely packed collagen fibers,
providing strength and resistance to stretching. It can be further classified into regular and irregular types.
Regular dense connective tissue, found in tendons and ligaments, has parallel collagen fibers that provide
strength in one direction. Irregular dense connective tissue, found in the dermis of the skin, has randomly
arranged collagen fibers that provide strength in multiple directions.
Adipose Tissue: Adipose tissue, or fat tissue, is composed of adipocytes (fat cells) that store energy in the
form of triglycerides. It acts as a thermal insulator, cushioning material, and energy reservoir in the body.
Cartilage: Cartilage is a firm and flexible connective tissue that provides support and shock absorption. It
contains chondrocytes within an extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic fibers. Examples of
cartilage include hyaline cartilage (found in the nose and trachea), elastic cartilage (found in the ear), and
fibrocartilage (found in intervertebral discs). (Fig.2.20)
Bone: Bone is a rigid connective tissue that forms the skeletal system of the body. It consists of osteocytes
within a mineralized extracellular matrix composed of collagen fibers and calcium phosphate crystals. Bone
provides support, protection, and mineral storage. (Fig.2.20)
Blood: Blood is a fluid connective tissue that circulates throughout the body, transporting oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, and immune cells. It consists of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets suspended in a
liquid matrix called plasma. (Fig.2.20)
Connective tissues perform various functions:
Support and Structural Integrity: Connective tissues provide structural support and maintain the shape
and integrity of organs and tissues. They provide a framework for other cells and tissues to attach to and
support the body's overall structure.
Protection: Connective tissues, such as bone and cartilage, provide protection to delicate organs and
tissues. They act as a barrier and absorb mechanical forces, reducing the risk of injury.
Transportation: Blood, a type of connective tissue, transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste
products throughout the body.
Storage: Adipose tissue serves as an energy reservoir, storing excess energy in the form of triglycerides. It
also acts as insulation and cushioning for organs.
Immune Response: Connective tissues contain immune cells that participate in the body's defense
mechanisms against pathogens and foreign substances.

Figure 2.20. TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES: Different Types of Connective Tissues.

Muscle tissues are specialized tissues responsible for the contraction and movement of the body. They
are composed of elongated cells called muscle fibers that have the unique ability to generate force and exert
mechanical work. Muscle tissues can be classified into three types: skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and
cardiac muscle.

Skeletal Muscle: Skeletal muscle is the most abundant type of muscle tissue in the body. It is attached to
bones and allows voluntary movement, such as walking and lifting weights. Skeletal muscle fibers are long
and cylindrical in shape, containing multiple nuclei located at the periphery of the cell. They have a striated
appearance due to the arrangement of protein filaments within the fibers. Skeletal muscle is under conscious
control and contracts rapidly but fatigues relatively quickly. (Fig.2.21)
Smooth Muscle: Smooth muscle is found in the walls of internal organs, blood vessels, and the respiratory
tract. It is responsible for involuntary movements, such as the contraction of the digestive tract and
dilation/constriction of blood vessels. Smooth muscle fibers are spindle-shaped and contain a single
nucleus. They lack striations, giving them a smooth appearance under a microscope. Smooth muscle
contracts more slowly and can sustain contractions for extended periods without fatiguing. (Fig.2.21)
Cardiac Muscle: Cardiac muscle forms the walls of the heart and is responsible for pumping blood
throughout the body. It is striated like skeletal muscle but differs in its involuntary nature. Cardiac muscle
fibers are branched and interconnected, forming a network that allows coordinated contractions of the heart.
They contain a single nucleus and have specialized structures called intercalated discs, which facilitate rapid
electrical and chemical communication between neighboring cells. (Fig.2.21)

Muscle tissues have the primary function of generating force and movement in the body. Key functions
include:
Movement: Muscles generate forces that produce movements of body parts, ranging from gross
movements like walking to fine movements like writing.
Posture and Support: Muscles provide support to the skeletal system and help maintain posture and body
position against the force of gravity.
Heat Production: Muscle contractions generate heat, contributing to body temperature regulation.
Constriction/Dilation: Smooth muscle in blood vessels and other hollow organs controls the constriction
and dilation of these structures, regulating blood flow, airflow, and other physiological processes.
Pumping Action: Cardiac muscle contracts rhythmically to pump blood throughout the circulatory system.
Muscle tissues are highly specialized and possess remarkable contractile properties. Their coordinated
actions allow for complex and precise movements, essential for various physiological processes and overall
organismal functioning.
 Figure 2.21. TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUES: Different Types of Muscle Tissues and Their Location.

Nervous tissue is a specialized type of tissue found in the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal
cord, and peripheral nerves. It is responsible for coordinating and transmitting electrical signals in the body,
allowing for communication between different parts of the body and the integration of sensory information.
Nervous tissue is composed of two main types of cells: neurons and neuroglia.

Neurons: Neurons are the fundamental units of the nervous system and are specialized for transmitting
electrical impulses. They consist of a cell body, which contains the nucleus and most of the cellular
organelles, and two types of extensions: dendrites and axons. Dendrites receive signals from other neurons
and transmit them towards the cell body, while axons transmit signals away from the cell body to other
neurons, muscles, or glands. (Fig 2.22). Neurons have a unique structure with specialized regions, such as
the axon hillock, where electrical signals are generated, and synapses, where signals are transmitted to
other cells. Neurons are highly specialized and diverse, allowing for the complex functions of the nervous
system. (Fig 2.22).
Neuroglia: Neuroglia, also known as glial cells, are non-neuronal cells that provide support, protection,
and maintenance functions for neurons. There are several types of neuroglia, including astrocytes,
oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells. Astrocytes help maintain the chemical environment
around neurons, provide structural support, and contribute to the blood-brain barrier. Oligodendrocytes
produce myelin, a fatty substance that wraps around axons, insulating them and speeding up the conduction
of electrical signals. Microglia are involved in immune defense, protecting the nervous system from
infections and inflammation. Ependymal cells line the cavities of the brain and spinal cord, producing
cerebrospinal fluid and assisting in its circulation. (Fig 2.23)

Figure 2.22. NERVE CELL: Structure represents different parts of nerve cell.
Nervous tissue performs essential functions in the body:
Sensory Input: Nervous tissue receives and processes sensory information from the external environment
and internal body conditions through specialized sensory receptors.
Integration: Neurons in the central nervous system integrate sensory inputs, process information, and
generate appropriate responses.
Motor Output: Nervous tissue sends signals to effectors such as muscles and glands, enabling coordinated
movement and physiological responses.
Memory and Learning: Nervous tissue is involved in the storage of memories and the acquisition of new
knowledge through processes such as synaptic plasticity.
Homeostasis: The nervous system plays a vital role in maintaining the body's internal environment by
regulating functions such as body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, and hormone secretion.
The complexity and interconnectedness of nervous tissue allow for the rapid transmission of information
and coordination of various body functions. It is a critical component of the nervous system, enabling
sensory perception, motor control, and higher cognitive processes.

Figure 2.23. TYPES OF NEUROGLIA: Different types of Neuroglial Cells.