Chapter 1 (Notes)

Cell
It is the structural and functional unit of life.

• Cell is termed as the structural unit of life as it provides structure to our body.
• Cell is considered as the functional unit of life as all the functions of the body
take place at cell level.

Discovery of cell:
The word cell is derived from Latin word ‘cellula’ which means “a little room”.

• Cell was first discovered by Robert Hook in 1665.

• He observed the cell in a cork slice with the help of a primitive microscope.
• He observed cork’s honeycombed or porous structure and called these
compartments or units, cells.
• Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1674) was the first to observe free living cells,
like bacteria, protozoa, red blood cells and sperms in his homemade
microscope.
• Robert Brown in 1831 discovered the nucleus in the cell.
• J.E. Purkinje, in 1839 gave the term protoplasm.

Cell Theory:

• The cell theory, that all the plants and animals are composed of cells and that
the cell is basic unit of life, was presented by two scientists, a German
botanist, M. Schleiden (1838) and a German zoologist, T. Schwann (1839).
• The cell theory was further expanded by a German physiologist, Rudolf
Virchow (1855).
He gave the phrase Omnis cellula-e-cellula, i.e., all cells arise from pre-
existing cells.
Modified cell theory is termed as cell principle or modern cell theory which
postulates that:
• All living organisms are composed of cells or cell products.
• All living cells arise from pre-existing cells.
• All cells are basically alike in chemical composition and metabolic
processes.
• Every organism starts its life as a single cell.
Shape, size and number of cells:
Cell shape:
• The shape of cells is related to the specific function they perform.
• Some cells like Amoeba and WBCs have changing shapes.
• In some cases, the cell shape could be more or less fixed and peculiar for
a particular type of cell; for example, nerve cells have a typical shape.

Cell size:
• The size of the cell also varies considerably in different animals and
plants.
• The average cell size varies from 0.5 to 20µ (µ = micrometer).
• In human body, the smallest cell is RBC and the longest one is the
nerve cells.
• The smallest cell is Mycoplasma (PPLO-Pleuro pneumonia like
organism). It is about 10 micrometer in size. The largest cell is an egg
cell of ostrich.

Cell number:
• The number of cells in living beings differs from the one in unicellular
organisms to many in multicellular forms.
• The number of cells in not definite in multicellular organisms, and may
increase along with the growth and volume of organism.

Structure of cell:
Structurally the cell is formed of three major parts:

1. Plasma membrane or cell membrane

2. Cytoplasm and its contents
3. Nucleus

Plasma membrane (cell membrane):

Plasma membrane is the covering of the cell that separates the contents of the
cell from its external environment.
It is a living part of the cell and is present in cells of plants, animals and
microorganisms.
It is very thin, delicate, elastic and selectively permeable membrane.
It is composed of lipid and protein.
The well accepted model of plasma membrane is “Fluid mosaic model” given
by Singer and Nicolsan in 1972.

Function:
As it is selectively permeable membrane, it allows the flow of limited
substances in and out of the cell.
Substances can pass across a membrane by two processes- diffusion and
osmosis.

Diffusion:
“Diffusion is the spontaneous movement of molecules from a region of its
higher concentration to a region of its lower concentration.”

Osmosis:
The movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane
from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower water
concentration is called osmosis.

Let us see what will happen if you put an animal cell or plant cells into
solution of sugar or salt prepared in water?
1. If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration than
the cell, i.e., if solution is a very diluted solution, the cell will gain water
by osmosis. Such a dilute solution is called hypotonic solution.
Water molecule will pass across the plasma membrane in both directions, but
more water molecules will enter the cell than will leave. The cell will therefore,
swell up and increase in volume. This process is called endosmosis.
2. If the medium surrounding the cell is exactly the same water concentration
as the cell, there will be no net movement of water across the plasma
membrane resulting in no change in the size of the cell. Such a solution is
called isotonic solution.
 3. If the medium has a lower concentration of water than the cell, i.e., if it is
very concentrated solution, the cell will lose water by osmosis. Such a
concentrated solution is called hypertonic solution.
In this case too, water crosses the plasma membrane in both the directions, but
this time more water leaves the cell than enter it. The cell will therefore, shrink
and reduce in volume. This process is known as exosmosis.

Plasmolysis
The shrinkage of protoplasm away from the cell wall of a cell when it is placed
in hypertonic solution. The shrinked cell is also called as plasmolysed or crenated
cell.

Cell wall:

Cell wall is non-living, thick and freely permeable covering made up of

cellulose.
It is present in eukaryotic plant cells and in prokaryotic cells.
 Functions:
• It determines the shape and rigidity to the plant cell.
• It protects the plasma membrane.
• It prevents desiccation or dryness in cell.
• It helps in the transport of various substances in and out of the cell.

Cytoplasm:

It is a jelly-like, viscous, colourless semi-fluid substance that occurs between

the plasma membrane and the nuclear membrane.
The aqueous ground substance of cytoplasm is called cytosol that contains a
variety of cell organelles and other insoluble waste products and storage
products, like starch, glycogen, lipid, etc.

Functions:
• Protoplasm acts as a store of vital chemicals like amino acids, proteins, sugars,
vitamins, etc.
• It is the site of certain metabolic reactions, like glycolysis, synthesis of fatty
acids, nucleotides, etc.

Nucleus (brain or heart of the cell)

Nucleus is dense and spherical organelle.

Nucleus is bounded by two membranes, both forming nuclear envelope.
Nuclear envelope contains many pores known as nuclear pores.
The fluid which present inside the nucleus is called nucleoplasm.
Nucleus contains chromosomes and chromosomes contain genes which are
the centres of genetic information.

Nucleolus (factory of ribosomes) may be one or more in no. & not bounded
by any membrane. It is made up of protein and RNA.

Functions:
• Nucleus controls all the metabolic activities of the cell.
• It regulates the cell cycle.
• Nucleus is the storehouse of genes.
• It is concerned with the transmission of hereditary traits from the parent to
offspring.
 Cell organelles:
1. Golgi Apparatus:
It was first reported by Camillo Golgi in 1898.

Golgi apparatus consists of a set of membrane bound, fluid filled vesicles,

vacuoles and flattened cisternae (closed sacks).
Cisternae are usually arranged parallel to each other.

The plant cells contain many freely distributed subunits of Golgi apparatus
called dictyosomes.

Functions:
• Its main function is to store, modify, package and dispatch the substances.
• It is also involved in the synthesis of cell wall, plasma membrane and
lysosomes.
 2. Endoplasmic Reticulum:

It is a membranous network of tube-like structures extending from nuclear

membrane to plasma membrane.
It is absent in prokaryotic cells and matured RBCs of mammals.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum:
(i) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): ribosomes are present on the
surface for the synthesis of proteins.
(ii) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): ribosomes are absent and is
meant for secreting lipids.

Functions:
• It gives internal support to cell.
• It helps in transport of various substances from nuclear membrane to plasma
membrane or vice versa.
• RER helps in synthesis and transportation of proteins.
• SER helps in synthesis and transportation of lipids.

3. Ribosomes (engine of the cell)

Ribosomes are also called as Palade particles as they were discovered by
Palade, a scientist.

These are extremely small, dense and spherical bodies which occur freely in
the matrix (cytosol) or remain attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
These are made up of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins.

Function:
They play a major role in the synthesis of proteins.
 4. Mitochondria (powerhouse of the cell):

They are small rod-shaped organelles.

It is a double membrane structure with outer membrane being smooth and
porous whereas inner membrane being thrown into a number of folds called
cristae.
They contain their own DNA (that’s why called semiautonomous
organelle) and ribosomes.
They are absent in bacteria and red blood cells of mammals.

Functions:
• They are the sites of cellular respiration, hence provide energy for the vital
activities of living cells.
• They store energy releases during reactions, in the form of ATP (Energy
currency of the cell). Therefore, they are also called ‘power house’ of the cell.
• ATP = Adenosine triphosphate

5. Centrosome and Centrioles:

Centrosome is found only in eukaryotic animal cells. It is not bounded by any

membrane but consists of centrioles.
Centrioles are hollow cylindrical structures arranged at right angle to each
other and made up of microtubules.
Function:
Centrioles help in cell division and also help in the formation of cilia and
flagella.

6. Plastids:

Plastids are present in most of the plant cells and absent in animal cells.
They are usually spherical or discoidal in shaped and double membrane
bound organelles.
They also have their own DNA (that’s why called semiautonomous
organelle) and ribosomes.
Plastids are of three types:
(a) Chloroplasts: These are the green coloured plastids containing
chlorophyll. Chloroplasts aid in the manufacture food by the process of
photosynthesis.
(b) Chromoplasts: These are the colourful plastids (except green colour).
(c) Leucoplasts: These are the colourless plastids.

Chloroplast (kitchen of the cell)

• The chloroplast has an inner and outer membrane with an empty intermediate
space in between.
• Inside the chloroplast are stacks of thylakoids, called grana.
• The dense fluid inside of the chloroplast is called stroma
• These thylakoids contain the chlorophyll that is necessary for the plant to go
through photosynthesis.
• The grana are interconnected by stromal lamellae.
 Function:
• Chloroplasts trap solar energy and utilise it to manufacture food for the plant.
• Chromoplasts impart various colours to flowers to attract insects for pollination.
• Leucoplasts help in the storage of food in the form of starch, proteins and fats.

7. Lysosomes (suicide bags of a cell)

Lysosomes are small, spherical, sac like structures which contain several
digestive enzymes enclosed in a membrane.
They are found in eukaryotic cells mostly in animals.

Functions:
• Lysosomes help in digestion of foreign substances and worn-out cell organelles.
• They provide protection against bacteria and virus.
• They help to keep the cell clean.
• During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, for example when the cell gets
damaged, lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest their own cell.
Therefore, lysosomes are also known as suicide bags of a cell.

8. Vacuoles:

Vacuoles are liquid/solid filled and membrane bound organelles.

In animal cells, vacuoles are small in size and temporary.
In mature plant cell, vacuoles are large and permanent and occupies 90%
space of cell volume.
Due to its size, other organelles, including nucleus shift towards plasma
membrane (eccentric nucleus).
The outermost layer of vacuole is called tonoplast.

Function:
• They help to maintain the osmotic pressure in a cell.
• They provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant cell.
 9. Peroxisomes:

They are small and spherical organelles containing powerful oxidative

enzymes.
They are bounded by a single membrane.
They are found in kidney and liver cells.

Function:
• They are specialized to carry out some oxidative reactions, such as
detoxification or removal of toxic substances form cell.

Differences