Indira Gandhi National Open University MMPC-007

School of Management Studies

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
 MMPC-007
BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
School of Management Studies

BLOCK 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUINCATION 5
BLOCK 2
ORAL COMMUNICATION AT WORK 69
BLOCK 3
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION AT WORK 135
BLOCK 4
COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATION 199
COURSE DESIGN AND PREPARATION TEAM
Prof. K Ravi Sankar Dr. Anjali Ramteke
Director, School of Management Studies,
School of Management Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi
Sh. T V Vijay Kumar
Prof. P.K. Singh School of Management Studies,
Director IGNOU, New Delhi
Indian Institute of Management
Tiruchirapalli Dr. Leena Singh
School of Management Studies,
Prof. V Chandra
IGNOU, New Delhi
International Management Institute
New Delhi
Prof. Niroj Banerji
Prof. Anju Sahgal Gupta Retd. Professor
Retd. Professor Department of Humanities & Social Science
School of Humanities Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology,
IGNOU, New Delhi Prayagraj

Prof. Malti Mathur Dr. Smriti Verma

Director Innovinc Services, Nagpur
School of Humanities Adjunct faculty, Konstanz University of Applied
IGNOU, New Delhi Sciences, Germany

Dr. Madhusri Shrivastava Dr. Jyotsna Sinha

Indian Institute of Management Department of Humanities & Social Science
Indore Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology,
Prayagraj
Prof. G Subbayamma
School of Management Studies, Dr. Archana Shrivastava
IGNOU, New Delhi Birla Institute of Management Technology
Noida
Prof. Srilatha
School of Management Studies,
Dr.Gaurav Shrivastava
IGNOU, New Delhi
Shri Vaishnav Vidyapeeth
Prof. Nayantara Padhi Vishwavidyalaya,Indore
School of Management Studies,
IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. Neeti Agrawal
(Course Coordinator & Course Editor)
Prof. Kamal Vagrecha School of Management Studies,
School of Management Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi

MATERIAL PRODUCTION
Mr. Y.N. Sharma Mr. Tilak Raj
Assistant Registrar Assistant Registrar
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi
October, 2021
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021
ISBN:
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means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University. Further
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Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, by the
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Laser typeset by Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E-II, Jamia Nagar, New Delhi-110025
 CONTENT

BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUINCATION 5

Unit 1 Basics of Communication 7

Unit 2 Process of Communication 22

Unit 3 Types of Communication 36

Unit 4 Forms of Communication at Workplace 52

BLOCK 2 ORAL COMMUNICATION AT WORK 69

Unit5 Listening and Reading Skills 71

Unit 6 Interpersonal Communication 86

Unit 7 Communication in Meetings 100

Unit 8 Presentation Skills 118

BLOCK 3 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION AT WORK 135

Unit 9 Basics of Written Business Communication 137

Unit 10 Short Business Correspondence 151

Unit 11 Long Business Correspondence 181

BLOCK 4 COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATION 199

Unit 12 Communication for Employment 201

Unit13 Technology and Communication 214

Unit 14 Cross Cultural Communication 231

Unit 15 Ethics in Communication 250

MMPC 007: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Dear learners,
Communication in one form or the other has been an integral part of our lives since
ages. Business Communication helps the employer and employee to share the
thoughts, get the work done and professionally achieve new heights in the business
world, communication can be oral and written. It can be formal and informal. Oral
communication can be in the form of listening, reading which involves effective
interpersonal communication techniques. Meetings are an integral part of any
organisation so proper communication in meetings play an important role. Written
communication can be in the form of letters, memos, reports etc. These play an
important role at the workplace. Technology and ethics is another important aspect
which needs to be understood while discussing communication. This course focuses
on these aspects.
The course is divided into four blocks and has 15 units in all. The course outline is
given below.
Block 1 : Introduction to Communication
Unit 1 : Basics of Communication
Unit2 : Process of Communication
Unit 3 : Types of Communication
Unit4 : Forms of Communication at Workplace
Block 2 : Oral Communication at Work
Unit 5 : Listening and Reading Skills
Unit6 : Interpersonal Communication
Unit 7 : Communication in Meetings
Unit 8 : Presentation Skills
Block 3 : Written Communication at Work
Unit 9 : Basics of Written Business Communication
Unit 10 : Short Business Correspondence
Unit 11 : Long Business Correspondence
Block 4 : Communication in Organisation
Unit 12 : Communication for Employment
Unit13 : Technology and Communication
Unit 14 : Cross Cultural Communication
Unit15 : Ethics in Communication
The learning objectives of this course are to understand:
 The meaning of communication and the process of communication;
 The different types of communication;
 The need and importance of oral communication at workplace;
 The written communication at work which includes the short and long business
correspondence;
 The communication techniques used for employment
 The relationship of technology with communication and;
 The role of ethics and values in communication.
 BLOCK 1
INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNICATION
BLOCK I INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNICATION
This block introduces you to the basics of communication. This is divided
into four units.

Unit 1: Basics of Communication: This unit discusses the evolution of

communication in human society and how the present form of communication is
developed. The unit explains the meaning of communication and tries to
differentiate between general and business communication through a case study.
It also discusses 7C’s of communication which will give you an idea how the
communication process works.

Unit2: Process of Communication: This unit discusses the process of

communication and explains the roles of sender and receiver in the process of
communication. The unit also discusses different types of barriers of
communication and how they can be overcome. The unit also discusses the
importance of feedback in the communication process.

Unit 3: Types of Communication: This unit focusses on different types of

communication like oral and written which are commonly used for business
purpose.

Unit4: Forms of Communication at Workplace: This unit describes

different forms of communication like formal and informal communication
and their sub classifications. The whole unit will give an idea about various
forms of communication used in different contexts.
 Basics of
UNIT 1 BASICS OF COMMUNICATION Communication

Objectives

After studying this unit you should be able to:

● Comprehend the role of business communication in business enterprises;

● Analyse the important dimensions of business communication;
● Understand how characters communicate verbally and non-verbally
through a case study.

Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Evolution of Communication
1.3 Elements of Communication
1.4 Difference between General and Business Communication
1.5 Purpose of Business Communication
1.6 Profile of an Effective Communicator: A Case Study
1.7 The ― You Attitude‖
1.8 Important Dimensions of Business Communication
1.9 Use of proper language
1.10 7C‘s of Communication
1.11 Summary
1.12 Keywords
1.13 Self-Assessment Questions
1.14 Further Readings

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Communication is one of the most essential skills. It is very important to
understand the nuances of communication. In this unit, we will be discussing
how the communication in its present form evolved. We will study the
differentiation between general and business communication.

We know that communication is important in an organisation. While working

in a business enterprise we interact with superiors, co-workers and
subordinates, converse one on one, or over the intercom or phone and read
and write emails, letters, business reports and proposals. All these activities
have one thing in common – the sharing of information.

No business enterprise or organisation can function without communication.

Communication is at the centre of all business activities. The better our
communication skills, the greater our chances of success.
7
 Block Heading
Introduction to Our business acumen and degrees can be of little use in a working
Communication
environment without proper communication. For example, although one may
have an excellent academic record, one may not be successful in a placement
interview if one is not able to convey one‘s concepts and ideas successfully to
the interviewers. Most successful entrepreneurs and managers in the business
world have superb communication skills.

1.2 EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is a way to interact with others. It is an integral part of our
lives. A proper communication results in proper understanding. Communication
techniques have evolved over the years or say ages and are a continuous
process. In this section, we will see as to how communication has evolved
with times. Communication is a process which involves exchange of
interaction or relaying an expression with the help of words or signs. Every
day we come across different focus of communication be it writing or talking
or listening. It is very important to communicate effectively so as to convey
the message clearly. There are different types of communication viz. verbal
and non-verbal. We Will discuss these in detail in unit 3. Let us now learn
how the communication in its present form evolved.

Cave paintings
Since age‘s humans have been using different ways to communicate. One of
the oldest methods of communication is cave paintings. Cave paintings are
just not paintings instead they conveyed a specific message like making the
territories, recording major events etc. The paintings were represented in the
form of symbols.
Communication through Symbols
Our ancestors had a certain way of communicating through different signs
and symbols. Petroglyphs (rock carvings) were created around 10,000 B.C.
These were the carvings on the rocks which depicted a story. Then the
ideograms (for example numerals) were developed. Later the characters were
created and lastly the alphabets were created which was a landmark in the
communication process.
Smoke Signals
In early ages, people depended on elements to communicate. Smoke signals
were one of the forms to transmit a message.
Carrier Pigeons
This was one of the popular methods of sending the written messages through
the pigeons who became the carriers of the message. The Carrier pigeons
acted like ‗postal service‘ and had a major role to play in World War I & II.
Postal System

During ancient times, Egyptians used the courier services to send the official
orders (decrees). India, China, Rome and Persia too had an organized postal
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system. The first mail box system and delivery of paid envelopes was started Basics of
Communication
in Paris way back in 1653.

Print

First printing press was developed by the Germans in 1440 and it brought a
radical change in the communication process. In the 16th century newspapers
came into existence.

Radio

After the print communication technique took a new turn and wireless power
evolved as one of the forms to transmit messages. Radio broadcasting started
in 1893.

Telegraph

Telegraph communication was a revolution in long-distance communication.

Morse code was developed by Samuel Morse which was a series of clicks,
tones and lights to transmit the message. The first telegraph message was sent
in 1844.

Telephone

The invention of the telephone became a major form of verbal

communication and till date it is the most reliable form of communication.

Television

Then came television which, like telephone, is an integral part of our lives.
Television is a mode of indirect communication.

Internet

The 1950s saw the emergence of computers which now has become the
major source of communication. This saw the technology penetrating
considerably in the communication process. The year 1973 saw the
emergence of the term ‗Internet‘ which now is the most used term.

E-mail

Emails or the electronic mails have now become an integral form of

communication in the personal as well as professional lives.

Text Message

Text messages are another mode of communication which is short and fast
and uses a data network.

Social Media

This is the latest mode of communication and has digitized the world. The
use of social media platforms has brought the world closer. During the
pandemic this has been one of the most popular modes to transmit messages.
9
 Block Heading
Introduction to Communication over the ages has gone through lots of transformation. Today
Communication
it has become quite convenient and efficient to communicate.

Activity 1

Think about the way you communicate in your daily life. List any three
modes of communication which you use frequently.

a) ………………………………………….

b) ………………………………………….

c) ………………………………………….

1.3 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

In activity 1 you have listed three modes of communication which you
frequently use. Now assess that whenever you communicate, whether it was
effective or it relayed a proper/ appropriate message or not. The answer
would probably be ‗No‘. This is where we need to understand the meaning of
communication and what are the different elements which can make a
communication effective.

Definition

Communication as a word has been derived from the Latin word

‗communicationis‘ which means ‗to share‘. To define communication it can
be said that ‗it is an act of purposefully and actively exchanging information
between two or more people to send or receive a message through a shared
system of signs and symbols.‘ In section 1.5 you will see how a
communication develops or takes place between two people.

The basic elements of communication are as follows:

● Source
● Message
● Channels
● Receiver
● Environment
● Context
● Interference

These elements form the whole process of communication which we will

learn in detail in Unit 2.

1.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GENERAL AND

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
We now know that communication deals with transfer of information from
one person to the other. When we talk about business communication it
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relates with business related areas/topics. It is derived from general Basics of
Communication
communication related to business activities. General communication deals
with day to day or general topics which may or may not be specific in nature.
The difference between the two lies in the nature of the communication.
Table 1 shows the difference between the two.

Table 1: Business Communication versus General Communication

Business Communication General Communication

Format It uses a specific format for It uses varied formats for
communication. communication.
Category It is usually formal in nature. It involves personal touch.
Extent/Reach It usually is practical & It can be vast and can be
unbiased. fictitious and biased, at
times.
Demonstration/ It specifically follows the It is informal and different
Presentation norms and procedures of the methods can be used.
organisation.
Aim/Intention It focuses on the aim of the It does not have a focus.
organisation.
Kind/ It is official in nature. It is personal in nature.
nature/Pattern
Feedback This requires feedback. Feedback may not be
important.

Activity 2

Identify the following as business or general communication:

a) Communicating the attrition report to the HR Manager.

b) Poor communication leads to conflict.
c) Top management communicates the rules and procedures to be followed
in routine activities.
d) She seems to have some communication problems.
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………

1.5 PURPOSE OF BUSINESS

COMMUNICATION
Business communication plays a key role in a business enterprise or industry.
All managerial or administrative activities involve communication, be it
11
 Block Heading
Introduction to planning, organizing, recruiting, coordinating or decision making. Communication
Communication
serves as a means to measure the success or growth of an organisation.

Participation in the communication process involves developing skills in

collecting and organizing information, analyzing and evaluating facts,
appreciating the difference between facts and inferences, and communicating
effectively.

Communication is successful only when the purpose is fulfilled. The purpose

of communication may be to inform, persuade, or motivate a desired action.
In each situation/case, there is a positive change intended to be brought out in
the audience/listener or the receiver of the communication-change of attitude
or perception, or belief in the target audience in a desired manner. So, in the
ultimate analysis all business communication is manipulative, purposive and
goal-directed. Therefore, the measure of communication effectiveness
depends on the extent to which the final goal is achieved.

1.6 PROFILE OF AN EFFECTIVE

COMMUNICATOR: A CASE STUDY
Let us now understand the profile of an effective communicator through a
case study.

The Case of the Less Expensive Customer

[Sunday: 1.00 p.m. The showroom of Fitwell Shoes in Phoenix Mall! Mr. X
and Mrs. X enter holding a box of Fitwell shoes. Mr. X is a Vice President
with a multinational company. He is wearing a bright orange T shirt, olive
green bermudas and sandals. Mrs. X is wearing a light pink saree. She has a
shopping bag and a small purse. Mr. X enters the shop first as Mrs. X stops
outside for window shopping. On entering the shop he is greeted by Mr. A,
the young sales executive trainee who is sent from headquarters for training.]

Mr. A: Good morning Sir! How can I help you?

Mr. X: Well I had bought this pair of shoes last Sunday and only worn them
once, I feel that they are seconds (Tries to hand over the box to Mr. A, who
has his hands behind his back)

Mr. A: Sir, seconds are not stocked in this showroom.

Mr. X: (opening the box of shoes) It struck me here itself but I liked the
colour and perhaps overlooked it. The stripes on the two shoes do not match.
It seems to be a manufacturing defect.

Mr. A: (Looking at the shoes but still with his hands behind his back). Sir,
this is the way they are designed. It is not a manufacturing defect.

Mr. X: (Trying to hand over the shoes to Mr. A to have a look) This can‘t be
the design. It is an alignment defect and it looks like a ―seconds‖ pair.
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Mr. A: (Still not taking the pair) Sir, I can show you other pairs also. They Basics of
Communication
are all designed the same way. (He asks a shop assistant to get a couple of
pairs of the same make, and moves on to attend to other customers. When he
returns after about five minutes, he finds Mr. X trying a different pair). See, I
said that they are all made the same way. It is the design, not a manufacturing
defect.

Mr. X: Then I have a feeling this showroom is selling defective pieces. They
are not from fresh stock.

Mr. A: I told you as a policy, we do not keep any ―seconds‖ in the

showroom. In fact, we don‘t have much ―seconds‖ stock because our
production line is most modern.

Mr. X: (Picking up his pair of shoes) Anyway, I want to return them. I don‘t
want to wear a defective pair. And then you tell me that I can‘t return it.
What kind of shop is this?

Mr. A: (looking grim but speaking steadily) Sir, I told you they are not
defective. Secondly you have already used them. How can I take them back?

[At this moment Mr. G, the manager of the showroom, comes from his cabin,
notices them and walks to Mr. X]

Mr. G: May, I help you gentleman?

Mr. A: He is Mr….. (Trying to introduce Mr. X)

Mr. X: (Interrupting Mr. A) I‘m Mr. X, I bought this pair (showing him the
shoes) last week from your showroom. I find that there is something wrong
with the design (points to the toes). In fact, a couple of my friends pointed it
out.

Mr. G: Did you notice this while buying them?

Mr. X: I noticed this but didn‘t bother much.

Mr. G: Why?

Mr. X: Maybe I was concentrating on the colour.

Mr. G: Well, Mr. X, this is no design or manufacturing defect. On the

contrary they are made to look this way. You can see all of them (pointing at
the pairs lying on the floor) have the same pattern.

Mr. X: But they look old. And, I don‘t want to wear something that looks like
seconds.

Mr. G: We don‘t have a policy of….

Mr. X: (Interrupting him) Then, I am leaving them here (drops the pair on the
floor). Please do whatever you want with them.

Mr. G: (Looking down at the pair for a while) do you have a receipt?
13
 Block Heading
Introduction to Mr. X: (Searching for a while in his wallet and the box of shoes). Let me
Communication
check with my wife (and turn to look for her; she is coming towards them).
Do you have the receipt for these shoes?

Mrs. X: No, I don‘t think you gave it to me (and starts looking into her purse)
No.

Mr. X: I don‘t know. I may have left it at home.

Mr. G: Please give us a moment (and ask Mr. A to accompany him to his
cabin).

Mrs. X: What are they saying?

Mr. X: They don‘t have a policy of taking sold goods back.

Mrs. X: I told you, they won‘t take them back.

Mr. X: Is it? They will have to take them back.

[In the meanwhile Mr. A emerges from behind the shop and approaches Mr. X]

Mr. A: See, we will have to check with our head office regarding this. You
may find out after two days.

Mr. X: I can‘t come on weekdays.

Mr. A: Then, next Sunday?

Mr. X: But I have other things to do on Sunday.

Mr. A: Then you can find out over the phone (and gives him a card with a
phone number).

Mr. X: (instead of taking the card he takes out his own business card from his
wallet and gives it to Mr. A) Why don‘t you inform me?

Mr. A: Sure we will. But in case we are not able to get through to you,you
could also try.

Mr. X: (Reluctantly) Ok (takes the card and turns to leave).

Mr. A: (Picking up the pair from the floor). You may keep them with you in
the meanwhile.

Mr. X: (Moving back towards him). What will I do with them?

Mr. A: Sir, until and unless I have heard from our head office, I can‘t keep
them here. Secondly in the absence of any receipt, they might get misplaced.

Mr. X: (looking hard at him and thinking for a while) O.K. but do let me
know soon.

Mr. A: (Packing the pair back in its box and handing it over to him) sure.

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[On the advice of Mr. G, the next day, Mr. A speaks to Mr. V, General Basics of
Communication
Manager (Sales) at the headquarters. Mr. V asks him to fax the details. Mr. A
sends the following communication]

Dear Sir,
A customer, Mr. X, wants to return a pair of shoes, which he had bought from
the showroom a week back. He claims that there is a manufacturing defect in
the design. In fact, he is accusing us of selling seconds from this shop. Mr. G
and I tried to convince him about our policies; but all in vain. Finally, to
prevent him from creating an ugly scene, we promised we would let him
know our decision after consulting the head office. I have also been
successful in convincing him to take the pair back with him. But he will
certainly want a reply from us within a couple of days. Please advise.
Regards,

Mr. A

[The following day being Monday, Mr. A leaves the town on an official tour.
On Tuesday morning Mr. G finds the following message from Mr. V on the
fax machine.]

―If he is a ₹ 4500/- customer, don‘t ask questions, give him a new pair and
salute him. But if he is a ₹ 1250/- customer, then tell him clearly that it is not
possible‖.

Please remember that the customer is king; but kings are also big and small
and rich and poor.

In this case study who is the most effective communicator? And why?

Most readers would consider Mr. A to be the most effective communicator.

Why?

Mr. A is convincing, polite, calm, flexible, smart, clever, uses proper

gestures, gives options, behaves as a professional sales person- his
communication is audience conscious. He knows what, when, and how much
to say.

1.7 THE “YOU ATTITUDE”

An important dimension of business communication is the ―you‖ attitude of
the speaker. The interest of the listener/receiver must be the informing
principle of the message. Mr. A observes this by finally making the reluctant
Mr. X keep back the pair, till they hear from the head office. Mr. X would not
have Mr. A‘s first reason, that is, hearing back from head office, for taking
back the pair. But the second reason is that the shoes may get misplaced in
the absence of a receipt that motivates Mr. X effectively.

Mr. A is successful in manipulating the whole situation effectively through

his ability to communicate effectively not just from his point of view but
from the listener‘s point of view too.
15
 Block Heading
Introduction to Mr. A‘s audience directed communication is seen also in his assurance to
Communication
inform Mr. X on the phone but, he convinces Mr. X to also try to contact the
showroom to negate the possibility of their not getting through.

An important aspect of Mr. A‘s communication is its tone of sincerity. The

message must be perceived by the audience as a true and reliable statement of
intentions.

1.8 IMPORTANT DIMENSIONS OF BUSINESS

COMMUNICATION
The most central player in this case study is Mr. X. He is confident and
persistent. He has the air of a well-dressed, relaxed multinational company
executive. But he is not able to keep his cool while pressing his point. He
flashes up. Instead of being a persuasive communicator, he tries to force the
issue.

To some extent Mr. X‘s attitude is reflected in his dress, choice of colours
(bright orange and olive green) and the style of shorts (Bermuda) and sandals
(casual). He is equally casual in his arguments. He jumps from one argument
to another. First the manufacturing defect, then ―seconds‖, and finally his
own choice of not wearing something that looks odd. Mr. X‘s argument that
he had noticed it but did not bother much is not very convincing. Moreover,
if he did not bother much, then why should he accept other people‘s
observations?

Mr. X‘s approach and attitude are marked by his sense of being a customer; a
buyer who he assumes always enjoys a superior voice in a deal. He himself is
a Vice President in a multinational company. But, he lacks the most
important dimensions of communication—coherence, logic and tone of
persuasive reasoning. His conversation with Mrs. X, who claims to have
told him that ―they won‘t take them back‖ shows that he believes that things
can be forced. In contrast to Mr. X‘s expressions we see that Mr. A makes
categorical statements that are assertive in nature. The difference is a
statement made by them is obvious and it lies in the nature of the language
used by those two speakers.

M. X has completely failed as an effective communicator.

1.9 USE OF PROPER LANGUAGE

One of the very basic dimensions of effective communication is the
knowledge and use of proper language for a specific purpose. Just as
communication is always purposive, language is also purposive. Therefore
we have to study the relation between language and the purpose of its use.
The purpose can be to inform, to persuade, to create or to argue one can use
language by combining some of these purposes- one can inform as well as
persuade.
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Some learners may think that, as a communicator, Mr. G was more successful Basics of
Communication
than others. For, he is clear, both about his role and purpose. He is polite,
firm and a better listener. Listening is also an effective form of
communicating. Not communicating deliberately is as in Mr. G‘s case, also
purposive. He is strategic in his role to help resolve the problem at the
conflicting stage. As a strategy, he does not exactly contradict Mr. X‘s
complaint. He does not begin by telling Mr. X that he was wrong, that there
was no manufacturing defect in the particular pair bought by him. Instead in a
soft manner, he asks Mr. X, ―you had not seen it at the time of buying them‖.
And he put in his ―why?‖ but only after first giving Mr. X a chance to tell his
point. That shows Mr. G as a questioning communicator.

Mr. G knows the strategy of effective communication. He does not

contradict. He does not go about convincing Mr. X that there was no design
or manufacturing defect. On the contrary he points out that it was a deliberate
patterned shape.

Mr. G‘s communication strategy is to be noted. He does not directly tell Mr.
X that it was not a ―seconds‖ pair. Instead he responds impersonally. He
politely informs Mr. X about the company‘s policy. This impersonal
communication is best suited to negative situations.

Another strategy used by Mr. G is to divert the topic discussion or contention

at a crucial juncture. When Mr. X dumps the pair on the floor telling Mr. G
and Mr. A to do whatever they want to do with them, he is clearly frustrated
and feeling helpless. Here Mr. G makes the psychological move from the
shoes to the receipt when Mr. X says that he does not have the receipt with
him Mr. G dramatically withdraws from the scene taking Mr. A with him. In
doing so he gives the impression to Mr. X that he is going along with Mr. A
to discuss how they can help him. By creating a time gap in the
communication, Mr. G enables Mr. A to return with the final resolution of the
situation.
A few learners may consider Mr. V to be the most effective communicator.
He is brief, has clarity of policy; is humorous and decisive, certain and firm
and above all, is prompt and unimposing in his role as a final adviser in the
case. He offers specific guidelines to be followed by Mr. A according to the
status of the customer.
The other perspective is that Mr. V is professional in his advice. He
communicates as a senior to a junior and should use assertive sentences. His
advice to Mr. A appears to be an order rather than a piece of simple advice.
He uses jargon to justify his discrimination between rich and poor customers
‗customer is King‘ is a cliché. But Mr. V‘s shrewdness is communicated
through his use of Jargon to apply common sense to marketing policy: A big
and rich king to be saluted and the small and poor king to be simply shown
the door.
The final character in the case is Mrs. X; she shares a brief verbal
communication in the situation. But we get to know a lot about her through
17
 Block Heading
Introduction to her non-verbal communication mode. For example, Mrs. X chooses to stay
Communication
away from the scene of dialogue. Her silence is deliberate. For it
communicates that she knew that it would be of no purpose to try to return
the pair.

Her clothes and purse communicate her purpose of coming out with her
husband. She had come with him to do her own shopping. Her decision to
stay out for a while appeared to be for some window-shopping. But, in the
context of the situation, her staying away seems to be a deliberate decision to
allow Mr. X to speak for himself. For, she herself was not of the view that the
shoes could be returned. Mrs. X uses short assertive sentences. She is factual.
She thinks and speaks more like Mr. A than Mr. X.

Mr. A‘s ability to communicate in writing is seen in his fax to Mr. V. In this
fax, the details of the incident, which was all oral communication, are put in
written communication. It gives an accurate account of the incident. It is brief
and to the point. Its language is simple and conversational. Its short sentences
give the expression a certain raciness, a smooth flow of ideas. The use of
connectives such as ‗in fact‘ ‗finally‘ and ‗but‘, gives his writing coherence
and logic.

Mr. A‘s written communication is a factual reporting of the incident in a

single chronologically organized paragraph, Mr. A is able to convey the total
situation accurately as it happened, developed and what the pending decision
was.

All the characters in the case study communicate verbally and non-verbally.
Verbally we find spoken and written forms of communication used to
exchange thoughts, inform, argue, convince, advise and instruct. But verbal
communication is given full force and meaning by the personality of the
communicator. The speaker‘s dress, gestures, body language, tone, clarity of
approach, understanding of the subject matter of the communication, silence,
humor, assertiveness and aggressiveness-all combine to constitute the
personality of the communicator in a certain context and relationship with the
receiver or audience determining the sense of the total message
communicated.

Further, the effectiveness of communication depends upon the kind of

personality that communicates. When a communicator chooses certain words
and organisation of words and not others, s/he projects a personality with a
particular center of concern and relation to the person he is addressing. Such
self-dramatisation in language is known as style. The speaker or writer,
according to his personality chooses his style of verbal and non-verbal
communication to purposely establish a particular center of interest and
relationship with his/her audience. In other words, his/her entire act of
communication is the index of his/her mind, thoughts, concerns and attitude
towards his/her audience himself and his/her subject. It can be said that
his/her whole personality is at work when s/he seeks to perform as an
effective communicator.
18PAGE
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1.10 7 C’S OF COMMUNICATION Basics of
Communication

In the business world effective communication is the key to success. An

effective communication is applicable to both oral as well as written
communication. It is therefore very important to understand 7C‘s of
communication which help in conveying important messages effectively in
turn increasing employee engagement and productivity. The 7C‘s of
communication are:

1) Clarity
2) Correctness
3) Conciseness
4) Courtesy
5) Concreteness
6) Consideration
7) Completeness

We will discuss each one of them one by one.

1) Clarity: This means that a specific message has been sent instead of
trying to send too many messages at one particular time. This involves
use of simple and precise services. The following are the features of
clarity.

● Clear understanding
● Clarity of thoughts and ideas
● Use of simple, appropriate and precise words

2) Correctness: Use of correct language, grammar, data etc. is very

important to communicate the message clearly. The features of
correctness are:

● Timely, exact and correct message

● Confidence Booster
● Greater impact on the audience

3) Conciseness: This means communicating using minimum but

appropriate words. It has the following features:

● Time saving
● Avoids excessive usage of unnecessary words
● Short and limited
● Appealing and comprehensible
● Non- repeatable

4) Courtesy: This is one of the important C‘s of communication as it shows

the respect, politeness, judicious behaviour to the other party in turn
creating goodwill. It has the following features:
19
 Block Heading
Introduction to ● Consideration of the feelings of the audience
Communication
● Positive and focused
● Unbiased

5) Concreteness: As the term suggests it is specific, meaningful and clear

and avoids ambiguity and double-meaning. This has the following
features:

● Supports facts and figures

● Clear and precise
● Avoids misinterpretation

6) Consideration: This implies that the audience is taken into consideration

in terms of his/her view points, culture, mind-set, values etc. The features
of this are:

● Stresses on ‗you‘ approach

● Empathetic
● Optimistic

7) Completeness: The last C of communication is completeness. As the

term suggests it means that any communication be it personal or
professional should be complete. It should deliver all the facts and
information required to send the message to the receiver. It has the
following features:

● Builds reputation of the organisation

● Cost saving
● Removes the barriers of vague information
● Helps in better decision-making.

We have learnt 7 C‘s of communication and it is quite clear that

communication is one of the most initial skills that should be practiced.

Activity 3

Write an example for each of the 7 C's of effective communication.

7C’s of Communication Example

Clarity
Correctness
Conciseness
Courtesy
Concreteness
Consideration
Completeness
20PAGE
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 Basics of
1.11 SUMMARY Communication

In this unit we have discussed the evolution of communication, definition and

the specific purpose of communication. Communication has evolved over a
period of time. It started with the symbols and in the present times
technology has penetrated to a large extent in the way we communicate. The
way we communicate depends to a large extent on our attitude and beliefs.
There is a distinction between business communication and general
communication. The distinction between the two lies in terms of format,
category, extent, presentation, aims, nature and feedback. The dimensions of
communication and the use of proper language has been discussed through
the case study. We have also learnt the 7 C‘s of communication which are:
Clarity, Correctness, Conciseness, Courtesy, Concreteness, Consideration
and Completeness. This helps us in understanding the way one should
communicate to make the communication effective.

1.12 KEYWORDS
Communication: The act of transmitting ideas, thoughts or information from
one person to another.
Business Communication: It refers to communication related to business
activities.
Concreteness: It is an aspect of communication where a message should be
definite and specific.
Courtesy: It is an act of showing respect and politeness in one‘s behaviour
toward others.

1.13 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the role of business communication in business enterprises.
2) Analyse the ―you‖ attitude as an important dimension of business
communication.
3) ―Communication is successful only when the purpose is fulfilled‖.
Explain.
4) ―Listening is also an important form of communication.‖ Discuss
5) Explain the verbal and non-verbal forms of business communication.

1.14 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Chaturvedi, P.D. & Chaturvedi, M. (2006). Business communication:
Concepts, Cases and Applications. Pearson.
Raman, M.& Sharma, S. (2016). Technical Communication: Principles and
Practices. OUP.
Sharma, R.C. &Moha, K. (2002). Business Correspondence and Report
Writing. Tata Mcgraw Hill.

21
 Block Heading
Introduction to
Communication UNIT 2 PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
● Understand the Two Way Communication Process;
● Comprehend the barriers to communication;
● Understand ways to overcome barriers to communication.
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Linear Concept of Communication
2.3 Shannon – Weaver Model of Communication
2.4 Two – Way Communication Process
2.5 Barriers to Communication
2.6 Intrapersonal Barriers
2.7 Interpersonal Barriers
2.8 Organisational Barriers
2.9 Case Study
2.10 Summary
2.11 Keywords
2.12 Self-Assessment Questions
2.13 References and Further Readings

2.1 INTRODUCTION
As we know that communication is one of the most integral parts of any
individual or an organisation. There is a specific way to communicate
effectively. Therefore, it is important for us to understand the process of
human communication so as to avoid the common errors which take place in
a communication. This unit discusses different models of communication to
understand the process. There can be a one way communication and a two
way communication. We will discuss different models to help us develop an
understanding of how communication flows. Apart from these models we
will also discuss the barriers to communication.

2.2 LINEAR CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION

The following five fundamental questions are asked in the early stages of
communication:
● Who says?
● What is said?
● Where is it said?
22PAGE
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● To whom it is said? Process of
Communication
● With what effect it is said?

The transmission of information from a sender to a recipient is considered to

be a one-way process of communication.A receiver passively receives the
message and acts as directed or requested by the sender, according to the
linear perspective. The goal of communication is to manipulate or control the
receiver. It is assumed that the message reaches the receiver intact and
unchanged as it travels through the medium chosen by the sender. Figure 1
below gives the Linear View of communication.

Figure 1: The Linear View

2.3 SHANNON -WEAVER MODEL OF

COMMUNICATION
C.E. Shannon and W. Weaver were among the first to point out that messages
may be altered or blocked in the process of communication.Shannon's
communication model is based on a mathematical or mechanical
understanding of the communication process, with the fundamental issue
being that the message received does not equal the message sent. Noise, he
said, was to blame for the gap. Later in 1949, the Shannon model was
published in a mathematical theory of communication co-authored by
Weaver. Weaver pioneered the use of feedback as a noise reduction
technique. The Shannon-Weaver model, on the other hand, did not consider
feedback to be an essential component since it saw communication as a linear
process with feedback as a separate act of communication. Therefore, in the
Shannon-Weaver model, a dotted line is used to represent feedback
(figure 2).

The concept is predicated on the notion that communication takes place only
after the message has been received, and that it should be received as intact as
possible. Of course, this is a theoretical notion of perfect communication. In
real life, filters in both the sender's and receiver's minds influence the
meaning of the message. Feedback, to some extent, corrects any distortions
and tends to complete the communication cycle.Figure 2 shows the Shannon-
Weaver model of communication.

Noise

Information Encoding Decoding

Channel Destination
Source Process Process

Feedback

Figure 2: Shannon-Weaver Model

23
 Block Heading
Introduction to Figure 3 represents the process of communication which has the following
Communication steps:
Source of Information (ideation)
The information source is the first step in the communication process. The
sender has some unprocessed data. His/her goal is to turn the data into a
message that can be shared. The information source of the communication
process is the source of a message.

Figure 3: Process of Communication

Encoding
The sender composes the message after giving it some thought (verbal
symbols or any other symbolic form of expression). Encoding is the term for
this procedure.

Channel of Transmission
A channel is a suitable medium for sending a message, such as orally, in
writing, electronically, in code, or via a signaling system.

Decoding
Decoding involves receiving, comprehending, and interpreting the message.
This is how a recipient receives the message.

Acting
The communication process comes to a close when the receiver acts on an
interpreted message, just as the sender intended.

As a result, we can observe that communication completes a full circle,

bringing the sender and receiver together as two sides of the same coin.
Modern management considers communication to be a vital ability for
successful managers because of its uniting process and role.

Noise
This mechanism is susceptible to noise, which can obstruct or distort
communication, preventing the message from being sent from the transmitter
to the receiver.
24PAGE
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Noise, according to certain communication theorists, refers to extrinsic Process of
Communication
disturbances in the physical environment around the act of communication,
such as poor audio quality, phone dropouts, bad printouts, or unreadable
writing.

Filters
Filters are responsible for communication distortion induced by subjective
elements such as the sender's and receiver's attitudes. These are psychological
in nature. Attitudes, beliefs, experiences, self-awareness, and the ability to
think coherently are among them. As the sender's communication travels
through the receiver's filters, which are made up of his/her experience,
knowledge, and sentiments, misinterpretations and other issues may occur.

2.4 TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication is now viewed as a two-way process in later
conceptualizations of the process. The receiver also serves as the sender of
feedback to the transmitter to complete the communication cycle (sender). As
in telemarketing or call centre communication, both the sender and the
recipient play a reciprocal and reversible role.

The two-way approach is more modern. It views communication as primarily

a reciprocal process involving the exchange of messages. Because the sender
(source) and receiver (receiver) are often the same individual, there is no
clear separation between the two positions.

The sender is considered as the determiner of the message's meaning in the

previous linear perspective. The two-way notion incorporates the receiver as
an active participant in the message's development and interpretation. The
message is how the recipient interprets it based on his or her own
experiences, beliefs, and feelings. People who have worked together and
formed common attitudes and perspectives with regard to the organisation
they work in or the community they live in may have common interpretations
of circumstances, ideas, strategies, and events. Transactional communication
is another name for two-way communication. We will also study the
transaction model in detail in unit 6. The flow of two-way communication is
depicted in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Two-Way Communication Flow

25
 Block Heading
Introduction to
Communication
2.5 BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
In any type of communication process there are certain barriers which need to
be understood so that they can be removed or avoided to make the
communication process effective.A barrier works like a sieve, allowing just a
portion of the message to get through, preventing the intended reaction. You
must understand how barriers work, why they generate misconceptions, and
how to reduce their negative effects in order to communicate easily and
successfully in a company, regardless of your position. How many times have
you said, "I intended to say this but didn't!" or "I meant to say that but
didn‟t!” Communication obstacles arise even when we have the greatest of
intentions, and our written and spoken messages are misconstrued. These
sorts of obstacles can be categorised as:
● Intrapersonal
● Interpersonal
● Organisational

2.6 INTRAPERSONAL BARRIERS

Because of variances in views, experiences, education, culture, and
personality, each individual is unique. As our thinking differs, we perceive
the same information in various ways. These distinctions are due to inherent
or intrapersonal obstacles. Let us explore all the common causes that lead to
these intrapersonal barriers.
● Wrong assumptions
● Varied perceptions
● Differing background
● Wrong inferences
● Blocked categories
● Categorical thinking

Wrong Assumptions
Many roadblocks stem from erroneous assumptions. For example, a doctor
who instructs a patient to take medicine only 'SOS' (i.e. in an emergency)
without knowing if the patient knows the phrase 'SOS' is establishing a
communication barrier since the doctor has made an incorrect assumption
about the patient's knowledge level.Wrong assumptions are frequently
established because the sender or receiver lacks sufficient information of the
other's history or believes erroneous notions that have been entrenched in his
or her head. To strengthen your skills as a communicator, try to put yourself
in the shoes of the listener. This exercise will prevent making wrong
assumptions about the receiver.
Varied Perceptions
We all know the story of the six blind men and their description of an
26PAGE elephant. The elephant was perceived by each man as a fan, a rope, a snake, a
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sword, a wall and a tree. None of the blind men were wrong, as the part of the Process of
Communication
elephant body touched by each man compared well with the various objects
they named. This is how different individuals hold different viewpoints about
the same situation.

Similarly, individuals in an organisation also perceive the same situation in

different ways. It is all a matter of perception. The best way to overcome this
barrier is to step back and take a wider, unbiased perspective of the issue.

Differing backgrounds
There are no two people with the same background. Due to differences in
education, culture, language, environment, and socioeconomic standing,
backgrounds might differ. How we understand a message is heavily
influenced by our background.

It is important to understand the audience's background in order to improve

communication abilities. This information can accordingly be used to
construct the message. Empathy or identification with another person is the
solution to this barrier. We must make an effort to understand what the
listener can find incomprehensible in our message due to the difference of
our background and that of the listener. The language understood by the
receiver should be used to avoid ambiguity and reduce multiple meanings.

Wrong inferences
Let us say you have just returned from a business trip and discovered that two
of your coworkers are missing.They do not turn up for several days. Since
there is a recession on, you draw an inference that they have been promoted
and transferred to another department. This is an example of fact-inference
confusion. It has happened because you failed to distinguish between what
actually exists and what you had assumed to exist.

Because inferences are more dramatic than facts, they might give more
opportunities for gossip and rumour to spread. It is critical that inferences be
backed by facts when professionals evaluate materials, solve problems, and
design processes.

Blocked categories
In general, we only respond favourably to information that aligns with our
own beliefs and attitudes. When we hear information that contradicts our
personal beliefs, habits, or attitudes, or appears unfavourable to us, we are
more likely to respond adversely or even dismiss it. The three common,
unpleasant, and negative reactions to unwanted information are rejection,
distortion, and avoidance.

Communication and other technologies are advancing so rapidly that many

people find it difficult to quickly adapt themselves to these developments.
Instead of taking advantage of these developments, which help expedite the
communication process, such people tend to resist and criticize them, which
is a result of having a closed mind.

27
 Block Heading
Introduction to Those who are adamant in their beliefs, on the other hand, may have
Communication
difficulty communicating successfully. One of your classmates, for example,
may believe that only science students are capable of thinking; another may
believe that young executives are more efficient than senior executives.
These individuals are classified as blocked because they may be unable to
tolerate any divergence from their point of view.

Categorical thinking
People who believe they know everything about a subject will not accept any
more knowledge of this subject. This way of thinking can be a huge
roadblock, resulting in a barrier to communication.

The use of terms like all, always, everybody, everything, every time, and
their opposites like none, never, nobody, and nothing is a hint to
recognising this barrier in ourselves and others.If a message contains too
many of these words, then there is a fair chance of the communication getting
distorted. To avoid this barrier, substitute these words with phrases like „in
most situations‟ or „most likely‟. Use terms like 'it appears to me' or 'the
evidence shows' to label your viewpoints. If your data is sufficient, it is
preferable to confess that you are uninformed of the remaining facts than to
be vague.

2.7 INTERPERSONAL BARRIERS

Intrapersonal barriers are caused by an individual's attitudes or habits,
whereas interpersonal barriers are caused by the limited communication
abilities of either coder, decoder or both. Furthermore, they may arise as a
result of a disruption in the communication route or medium. When two
people are communicating, the features that define them as individuals might
be the source of a communication gap.

In a business environment, we neither attempt to change these traits, nor can

we do it, however we can try and understand how differences in individual
traits cause communication gaps. The most common causes of interpersonal
barriers are:
● Limited vocabulary
● Incompatibility of verbal and non-verbal messages
● Emotional outburst
● Communication selectivity
● Cultural variations
● Poor listening skills
● Noise in the channel

Limited vocabulary
Inadequate vocabulary can be a big communication barrier. We occasionally
find ourselves looking for the perfect word or phrase that best expresses what
we want to say.If we fumble for words during a speech it will leave a poor
28PAGE
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impression on the audience. On the other hand, having a large and broad Process of
Communication
vocabulary can help us make a good impression on our listeners.

Incompatibility of verbal and non-verbal messages

Non-verbal cues provide a deeper insight into a sender‟s message. Ignoring
or misinterpreting nonverbal cues might lead to the message being entirely
misinterpreted. As a result, not only should one strive to read others'
nonverbal clues, but one should also be mindful of one's own body language.

Generalisations, based on assumptions about physical appearance or dress,

can also lead to severe communication barriers. Physical appearance often
serves as one of the most important non-verbal cues.

One can follow certain guidelines to improve the physical appearance to give
a strong impression. These can be:
● Dress appropriately for the event
● Keep your clothing tidy and clean
● Choose a suitable hair style
● Wear clean and polished shoes

Emotional outburst
In most cases, a moderate level of emotional involvement intensifies
communication. Excessive emotional engagement, on the other hand, might
be a communication barrier. Extreme rage, for example, might create an
emotionally charged environment in which reasonable debate is
difficult.Likewise, prejudice, stereotyping, and boredom all hinder effective
communication. Positive emotions such as happiness and excitement also
interfere in communication, but to a much lesser extent than negative
feelings.
Emotions are an integral part of our being, whether in business or personal
encounters. By sharpening self-awareness, intention and empathy, emotions
can help in developing an environment that is highly conducive to good
communication. Yet, situations do arise where people react negatively.
Depending on their nature and the situation, this negative reaction may be
classified as hostile or defensive. Both reactions occur when the receiver of
the message perceives some kind of threat. Hostility can be considered as a
move to counter-attack the threat, whereas defensiveness is resistance to it.

It is important to maintain one‟s composure in all kinds of communication.

Viewing issues from different perspectives helps develop objectivity and
rational thinking, which in turn can eliminate many of the causes of hostility
or defensiveness.

Communication selectivity
Communication selectivity is a barrier imposed by the recipient in a
communication process when s/he pays attention to only a portion of the
message.This happens because s/he is interested only in that part of the
29
 Block Heading
Introduction to message which may be of use to him/her. In this case, the sender is not to
Communication
blame. The receiver is the one who interrupts the flow of communication.

Take for example, a meeting held by the CEO of a company. S/he has called
all her/his senior executives from various divisions i.e.production, marketing,
finance and human resource (HR). S/he addresses a variety of subjects during
the meeting. However, until s/he has each participant's complete attention,
s/he may not be able to get the entire point over. If the production manager
and the marketing manager focus solely on their respective divisions, they
may not be able to have a comprehensive understanding of the CEO's
message. Such a situation creates the gaps between different divisions in turn
resulting in less productivity.

Cultural variations
This is one of the most predominant interpersonal factors contributing to
communication failure. As businesses are crossing national boundaries to
compete on a global scale, the outlook of the global and domestic workforce
has changed drastically. European, Asian and American firms have expanded
their business worldwide to create international ties through partnerships,
collaborations and affiliations. The management and employees of such
organisations need to closely observe the laws, customs and business
practices of their host countries while dealing with their multinational
workforce. To compete successfully in such a business environment, one
must overcome the communication inadequacy arising due to different
languages and cultures. We will learn cross-cultural communication in more
detail in Unit 14.

Poor Listening Skills

Poor listening habits are a frequent communication barrier. It is important to
keep in mind that listening and hearing are not the same thing. Hearing is a
passive activity, whereas listening involves deliberate attention and correct
decoding of the speaker's information. Misunderstandings and disputes can
be avoided if individuals pay close attention to the message.The various
distractions that hinder listening can be emotional disturbances, indifferences,
aggression and wandering attention.

Sometimes an individual is so engrossed in his/her thoughts and worries that

s/he is unable to concentrate on listening. If a superior goes on shifting the
papers on his/her desk while listening to his/her subordinate, without making
eye contact with the latter, s/he pays divided attention to the speaker‟s
message. This divided attention adversely affects the superior-subordinate
relationship, besides distorting the communication.

Noise in the channel

Any undesirable signal that obstructs communication is referred to as noise.
It is not restricted to aural disruptions, but may also take the shape of visual,
audio-visual, textual, bodily, or psychological manifestations. Each of these
kinds of noise transmit additional information that might detract from the
message and even upset the receiver.
30PAGE
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Technical or physical noise refers to the din (noise) of machines, the blare of Process of
Communication
music from a stereo system, or other such sounds which make it difficult for
the listener to hear. Human noise can be experienced when a late comer
arrives at a meeting distracting everybody‟s attention. Disturbance in mobile
and fixed line communication to weak or nil signal strength, poor acoustic of
a room, badly typed and edited documents and illegible hand-writing are
some more examples of technical noise.

2.8 ORGANISATIONAL BARRIERS

Communication obstacles exist not just between individuals or between two
persons, but also inside organisations. Every company, regardless of size, has
its own communication strategies and must operate under its own
communication environment.

In a large organisation, where the flow of communication is downward,

feedback is not guaranteed. Organisations with a flat structure usually tend to
have an intricately knit communication network. Irrespective of size, all
organisations have communication policies which describe the protocol to be
followed. It is the structure and complexity of this protocol that usually
causes communication barriers.

A majority of large corporations are discovering that a rigid hierarchical

structure restricts communication. This is due to the multiple transfer points
in these hierarchical systems' communication flow, which can cause the
message to be distorted, delayed, or lost.To avoid these, there should
preferably be a sender-receiver contact or the message should be transmitted
with minimum transfer stations.

The main organisational barriers are:

● Too many transfer stations

● Fear of superiors
● Negative tendencies
● Use of inappropriate media
● Information overload

Too many transfer stations

The more links there are in a communication chain, the greater are the
chances of miscommunication. Imagine, for instance, that your professor asks
you to convey a message to X. You, because of some inconvenience or sheer
laziness, ask your friend Y to do this job. Now there are four people involved
in this communication channel. Let us see how the message gets distorted as
a result of the increased number of transfer stations.

Professor: X was supposed to meet me today regarding the submission of an

assignment on Business Communication. But I want X to meet me on Friday
as I am going out of station tomorrow.

31
 Block Heading
Introduction to You (to your friend Y): Ask X to meet the professor tomorrow regarding
Communication
the assignment, as the Professor is going out of station today.

Your friend Y (To X): X, you have to meet the professor today as s/he will
not be available tomorrow.

This is an example of how messages get distorted in large organisations with

several layers of communication channels. The message gets distorted at each
level not only because of poor listening or lack of concentration, but also
because of several other reasons. Some employees may filter out parts of the
message they consider unimportant. Whatever the reasons for filtering or
distorting the message, having too many transfer stations is always an
obstacle to effective communication and should be avoided. Transfer stations
do serve a purpose, but having too many of them is counter-productive.

Fear of Superiors
Fear or awe of superiors hinders subordinates from speaking openly in
strictly organized organisations. Some employees may avoid any
conversations with their superiors in order to avoid speaking directly to their
employer.At the other extreme, they may present all the information that they
have, feeling that they may be censured for leaving out some information
which may be vital in the superior‟s eye. This results in voluminous reports
with critical information mingled with irrelevant elements in written
communication. Such unfocused messages result in a lot of wasted time.
Negative Tendencies
Many organisations create work groups. While some groups are formed
according to the requirements of the task on hand such as completing a
particular work project other small groups are also formed for recreational,
social or community purposes. These groups may be formal or informal, and
generally consist of people with similar values, beliefs, behaviour, attitudes
and opinions. Nevertheless, sometimes a conflict between members and non-
members of a group results in a communication barrier.
The student members of the sports club of an educational institution may be
annoyed with non-student members who create obstacles in allocation of
more funds for sports equipment. This type of opposition gives rise to
insider-outsider equations and paves the way for negative tendencies in the
organisation.
Use of inappropriate media
While choosing the medium for a particular occasion, the advantages,
disadvantages and potential barriers to communication must be considered.
While deciding the medium, such as phones, emails, computer presentations,
teleconferencing and video-conferencing, the following factors should be
considered:
● Time
● Type of message
● Cost

32PAGE ● Intended audience

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For example, the telephone is not a good medium for delivering sensitive Process of
Communication
information. Such communications are best delivered in person or by private
chat messenger if the receiver is in another office. For information that has to
be recorded and retrieved in the future, printed letters are preferred since they
are permanent. Effective communication usually requires a combination of
mediums, such as an email followed by a phone conversation.

Information Overload
One of the most serious issues confronting businesses today is the loss of
efficiency caused by the manual processing of enormous amounts of data.
Information overload is the term for this situation. The usual results of
information overload are fatigue, disinterest, and boredom. Under these
circumstances, further communication is not possible. Important and essential
information is frequently mixed in with too many irrelevant data and
overlooked by the receiver. As a result, information quality is far more
essential than quantity.

To reduce information overload in an organisation, screening of information

is a must. Messages should be directed only to those people who are likely to
benefit from the information. Major points should be highlighted leaving out
all irrelevant details.

2.9 CASE STUDY

Let us now go through a case study which explains the concept of
communication failure.

Communication Failure
Mr. and Mrs. S went to Max Apparel to buy a pullover. Mr. S did not read
the price tag on the pullover selected by him. At the counter while making the
payment he asked for the price. ₹ 950/- was the answer. Meanwhile Mrs. S,
who was still shopping, came back and joined her husband. She was glad that
he had selected a nice white pullover for himself. She pointed out that the
item had a 25% discount. The counter person nodded in agreement. Mr. S
was thrilled to hear that. “It means the price of this pullover is ₹ 712/-. That‟s
fantastic”, said Mr. S.

He decided to buy one more pullover in green.

In no time he came with the second pullover and asked them to be packed.
When he was requested the amount for payment, he was astonished to find
that he had to pay ₹ 1900/- and not ₹ 1424/-.

Mr. S could hardly reconcile himself to the fact that the counter person had
quoted the discounted price which was ₹ 950/-. The original price printed on
the price tag was ₹ 1266/-.

33
 Block Heading
Introduction to Activity 1
Communication
a) Identify the three sources of Mr. S‟s information.
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b) Discuss the main barrier involved in this case.
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c) What should Mr. S have done to avoid the misunderstanding?
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d) Who is to blame for this communication gap? And Why?
…………………………………………………………………………….
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2.10 SUMMARY
In this unit we have learnt the ways to communicate. This can be one way or
two ways. We have understood the process of human communication which
helps in avoiding the pitfalls which take place at the time of communication.
The unit discusses the linear concept of communication which tries to address
five basic questions and is a one way process in which the sender sends the
message to the receiver without getting feedback. The second model which
34PAGE
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was discussed is the Shannon-Weaver Model where it was found that during Process of
Communication
the process of communication the message can be blocked and therefore
feedback was introduced. Later on the unit discusses the two-way process of
communication. The unit also discusses the barriers of communication which
can be intrapersonal, interpersonal and organisational barriers. The unit ends
with a discussion of all the aspects of the process of communication through
a case study.

2.11 KEYWORDS
Feedback: It is the response sent from the receiver of the message to the
sender of the message.

Intrapersonal Barriers: Includes the aspects of an individual‟s personality

which pose a threat to the communication process.

Interpersonal Barriers: Elements beyond one‟s own personality which can

pose threat to the communication process.

Organisational Barriers: Disturbance in the flow of communication within

the employees of an organisation.

2.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Differentiate between the Shannon-Weaver and Two -Way Model of
Communication.

2) What are intrapersonal barriers to communication? Discuss.

3) Distinguish between intrapersonal and interpersonal barriers of

communication with examples.

4) What are the main organisational barriers to communication? Discuss.

5) Explain the following terms with reference to communication barriers

with examples.

● Emotional outburst
● Cultural differences
● „Know-it-all‟ attitude

2.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Sharma R.C. & Mohan, K. (2002).Business Correspondence and Report
Writing. Tata McGraw Hill.

Chaturvedi, P.D & Chaturvedi, M. (2006).Business Communication:

Concepts, Cases and Applications. Pearson

Raman, M. & Sharma, S. (2016). Technical Communication: Principles and

Practices. OUP.

35
 Block Heading
Introduction to
Communication UNIT 3 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Objectives

After studying this unit you will be able to:

● Understand the difference between verbal and non-verbal communication;

● Explain different types of verbal communication;
● Understand the different types of non-verbal communication and their
role in our life.

Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Verbal Communication
3.3 Types of Verbal Communication
3.4 Non-Verbal Communication
3.5 Types of Non-verbal Communication
3.6 Summary
3.7 Keywords
3.8 Self-Assessment Questions
3.9 References and Further Readings

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Robert Burton famously said that “a blow with a word strikes deeper than a
blow with a sword”. Therefore, it is important to choose our words
judiciously and cautiously as it determines the success of our communication
at personal and professional levels. Our personal and professional worlds
move on the wheels of communication. A person with better communication
skills achieves more success at personal and professional level as compared
to a person who has average or below-average level of these skills.
Communication is essential in advising, counselling, guidance, mentoring,
giving orders, delegation, giving warnings, preparing advertisement and
marketing among others. A major part of our spoken words i.e. oral
communication is supplemented by body language, gestures, signs and
expressions and these are non-verbal components of communication. Rodney
Overton believes that about 55% of the communicator‟s message is
understood non-verbally. He also writes that only 7% of the message is
understood through what is said and 38% of the success of the
communication depends on the way it is said. Verbal and non-verbal
communication plays a pivotal role in general communication (mostly
informal communication in general life settings) and professional
communication (mostly formal communication in workplaces, schools etc.).
In this unit, we will go through the details of various types of communication
36PAGE to understand the difference between them and their importance.
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 Types of
3.2 VERBAL COMMUNICATION Communication

Verbal communication is the sum total of the time spent in speaking,

listening and writing in a personal and professional capacity. In other words,
we can understand verbal communication as the establishment of
communication between people using oral or written words. The message is
transferred from the sender to the receiver through an oral or written channel
of communication. Verbal communication thus stands for both spoken and
written communication. It can be one-way communication where the
message flows from the sender to the receiver and nothing goes back to
sender from the receiver or it can be a two-way communication where the
communication is negotiated between two people i.e. the sender sends the
message and the receiver responds. They exchange information, clarify
doubts and work together in harmony to achieve a common goal.

3.3 TYPES OF VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Basically verbal communication can be classified into two categories and
they are -
● Oral communication
● Written communication

Oral communication is something where we speak with someone through

words whereas written communication includes the words which are in a
written form. Let us now discuss these types of communication.

Oral Communication
This is the most common and popular mode of communication in our
personal and professional life. Oral communication, as already explained,
involves establishing communication through spoken words. It can be formal,
informal, one way or two-way communication. It can involve a face to face
interaction, telephonic conversation or communication through video
conferencing. In other words, it involves a speaker (sender of the message)
and a listener (or more than one listener who are the receivers of the
message). The speaker and the listener may establish a one way or two-way
communication depending on the setting.

Oral communication can be of two types viz. formal or informal. Informal

oral communication involves persons speaking and listening to everyday
occurrences like talking to friends, family members or colleagues on topics
not related to business or other formal situations. Informal oral
communication is mostly casual in nature and is based on social relationships
between people. It is unofficial in nature and normally occurs outside the
hierarchy of school, college, and businesses.

On the other hand, formal oral communication does not involve casual
exchange of information and is governed by organisational hierarchies and
chain of commands. The flow of information which follows is controlled by
strict codes bound by time and structure put in place by the management
37
 Block Heading
Introduction to team. Formal oral communication is practised religiously in certain situations
Communication
like interviews, oral evaluations/viva voce, lectures, debates, speeches,
presentations, group discussions in a business meeting or in a school. It is a
talk between the management team and employees or school administration
and staff members/students. It can be a situation where the information needs
to be conveyed very quickly for example the announcement of the scheduled
departure or arrival or an airplane/train/bus etc. Formal oral communication
is more reliable since it is communicated in official capacity and in most
cases, can be traced back to its source. On the contrary, informal oral
communication is not governed by such strict hierarchies and normally is not
very reliable since most of it is said in a casual setting. The information
moves freely in informal settings as opposed to formal settings where the
information moves through predefined channels.

Written Communication
Let us now understand the second type of verbal communication i.e. the
written communication. Written communication can be understood as the
sending of messages through written words. In this mode of communication,
the sender of the message uses written mode to transfer the message. The
message is communicated through letters, manuals, reports, emails,
handbooks, books, circulars etc. Written communication is a very effective
way of communication since it involves documentation that can be preserved
or can become a permanent record for future use. It is primarily a formal
mode of communication and unlike oral communication it is not very flexible
in nature. A written document can be used as evidence in a legal scenario and
hence it is a reliable mode of communication in professional settings. The
language used in this form of communication is usually formal in nature. We
use complete sentences, words and avoid short forms or jargons. Written
communication is also very popular in informal settings. In today‟s world of
social media and multimedia messaging, we use written communication in
our daily lives as well as in official communication in abundance. Social
media messaging, SMS and instant message (IM) has become an integral part
of our lives. Formal or informal language is used in such a medium of
communication depending on the relationship between the sender and the
receiver of the message. It is important to note that regardless of the type of
language used; the conversation or exchange of information in written form
on these new mediums/platforms of communication can be documented and
preserved for future personal, professional, legal and other uses.

Written communication has its own merits and demerits. In its formal sphere,
written communication moves very slowly as compared to oral
communication. Electronic or paper form of written communication is
destined to a waiting period and the receiver cannot access the message
spontaneously as in the case of oral communication. At times, it can be
unbearably slow, especially in the case of formal communication controlled
by bureaucratic chains of command and management hierarchy. It also
depends on the literacy of the person. On the other hand, oral communication
does not require a person to be literate to transfer the message. Human beings
are born with the ability to acquire language and we start speaking much
38PAGE earlier than we learn to write. Written communication is a skill learnt in life
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and a person needs to go through many years of training to become Types of
competent in this form of communication. Communication

A child learns to speak in a specific language just by imitating the elders

around him or her however writing is taught. It is commonly agreed that
human beings are born with Language Acquisition Device (LAD) and they
acquire language in a social setting. So, it is not necessary for a person to
become literate in order to participate in oral communication. It is a natural
and faster process. On the other hand, written communication depends on the
literacy of a person and it is a slower form of communication. It is crucial to
understand that we need to become proficient in using both forms of verbal
communication in our personal and professional endeavours.

Activity 1
Make a list of the formal and informal verbal communication mediums you
use in your everyday life. Explain which medium of verbal communication is
used more frequently and why?
…………………………………………………………………………………

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3.4 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

All forms of communication do not require the use of words in oral or written
form. In this form of communication, the speaker generally does not
exchange words; however the communication takes place through non-verbal
cues. It is an essential part of the communicative process and various experts
have opined that it constitutes more than 50% of the communicative process.
Non-verbal communication may be visual or auditory in nature. Symbols,
signs, gestures, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, physical
appearance may be considered as visual non-verbal cues. A platoon of
soldiers coordinating according to the beat of a drum by following a pattern
of different lengths and notes in their parade is an example of auditory non-
verbal communication. Another example could be a bell in a school which is
used in specific ways to govern the timetable of the school.

Non-verbal communication governs a major aspect of our lives. We interact

with signs and symbols on a daily basis. These conversations are normally
one-way communication. For example, the traffic lights communicate with a
very large group of commuters by guiding their movements for a swift flow
of the traffic and controlling a probable situation of chaos.
There are a number of symbols which are adequate for one way
communication. They indicate important information to us just through a
simple picture, like a motorbike or telephone to tell us important information
39
 Block Heading
Introduction to we need in our day to day lives. Let us now look at the following sign and
Communication
understand its meaning.

The above sign tells the commuter that a U-turn is prohibited on a particular
road. Such non-verbal signs and symbols replace words and sentences thus
removing literacy barriers between people and the essential traffic guidelines.
Think about a situation where a person from an English speaking country
visits a non-English speaking country with an international driving license.
These symbols and signs will communicate with that person while s/he is
driving a vehicle. There are different words for toilet for men and women
however using standard symbols representing specific gender make it easier
for the person who wants to use public washrooms/toilets.

Non-verbal communication is a form of universal communication which is

not restricted by language boundaries and the same signs and symbols can be
used everywhere. These signs and symbols act as a tool to include the
illiterate population in all major activities. For example, every political party
has a symbol and an illiterate voter identifies the candidate through the
symbol of the political party. It would be impossible to select the candidate of
one‟s choice from a large pool of candidates contesting in a particular
election. It takes care of two different perspectives. First, it helps the illiterate
identify a candidate of their choice and it makes the process faster. Second, a
literate voter can just look at the symbols to identify his or her choice of the
candidate to vote instead of reading the names which will make the process
slow.

Now think of a football or cricket match. These matches are attended by a

very large number of people and it would be impossible to communicate with
the audience and convey the match proceedings. A cricket umpire makes
gestures through his/her hands to inform everyone if the player is out or has
scored a boundary. A football referee uses coloured cards, flags and other
gestures to communicate with the audience. These gestures and symbols are
fixed and universally accepted. The people watching a football match can
understand the proceedings of the match through these symbols, gestures,
signs regardless of their ethnicity or the language they speak. These are
simple one-way communication and do not require the use of language
(speech or written). Hence non-verbal communication is important in our life
especially when the nature of the communication is one way and is directed
for a large audience. In other scenarios where we need language, non-verbal
communication complements the verbal communication.
Let us look at the advantages and disadvantages of non-verbal
communication in table 1.
40PAGE
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Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of non-verbal communication Types of
Communication
S.No Advantages Disadvantages
1. It is very useful for one way It can only be a one-way
communication when a person communication in most cases.
or a large group of people
needs to understand a simple
message quickly.
2. It is easy to understand and The meaning of the message is
people almost act instinctively fixed and limited.
on specific signs, symbols etc.
3. Literacy of a language is not People need to learn the meaning
essential in comprehending of a particular sign. Traffic signs
nonverbal signs and symbols. interpreted incorrectly may result
in an accident.
4. A very large data set can be Making and interpreting these
presented through graphs, graphs, charts etc. require
charts etc. professional training. It can be
time consuming and expensive. It
also requires literacy skills.
5. Most of these signs and Installing and maintaining these
symbols are universal and are signs, symbols for mass
not governed by language consumption has its recurring cost
boundaries. and can be a burden on finances.
Improper signs, boards, hoardings
can either incorrectly guide
someone or may divert the
attention of the drivers resulting in
an accident.
6. It facilitates the ease of These signs may be interpreted
communication. incorrectly sometimes and may
result in miscommunication

Figure 1: Percentage of Students

41
 Block Heading
Introduction to Look at figure 1. This is a visual representation of the mode of transport used
Communication
by students. It is easy to understand and data of a large group can be
summarized in a very comprehensive manner. However, it is important to
note that this requires some literacy skill by the audience it caters to and in
some cases additional training is required to interpret such signs and symbols.
Another example is a training course at a driving school. The learners are
trained to read the traffic signs before they appear for an exam.

We can comfortably say that non-verbal communication is universal, quick

and efficient in nature but in some cases it requires additional training and/or
literacy skills for the receiver to comprehend the message.

Activity 2
Look at the following example and write at least three examples of non-
verbal communication to a large audience.

Example: Get your kids (0-5 years) vaccinated. Polio round scheduled for 19
and 20 October, 2021.
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3.5 TYPES OF NON-VERBAL

COMMUNICATION
Let us now discuss different types of non-verbal communication. The
categorisation of non-verbal forms of communication is very difficult since
there are a number of things that come under non-verbal mode of
communication however we can broadly categorize it as Kinesics (Body
language, facial expression, eye contact), sign language, Proxemics and
Chronemics (Time and Space), Paralanguage, meta-communication, Haptics
(touch), and silence.

Kinesics
Kinesics can be understood as the study of the body‟s physical movements
for the purpose of communication. In other words, we can understand it as
the way our body communicates without words and using various movements
of hands, facial expressions, eye contact, etc. For example, nodding of head
communicates an acceptance/denial by the receiver. During the process of
communication, some movements made by our body are conscious and some
are done unconsciously. The conscious movements along with the
unconscious movements play a very important role in effectively conveying
our message. Let us look at the following parameters to understand Kinesics
42PAGE
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in a better way as these parameters play an important role in the business Types of
world. Communication

1) Physical Appearance: Personal appearance is not really part of the

physical movement of the body however it governs our first impression
in most cases. It is a prerequisite even before we begin communicating
with someone. People form opinions about us just by our physical
appearance. Physical appearance includes clothes, hairstyle, accessories
like a watch or pen or the kind of perfume we wear. The purpose of
clothing and other essential items like a watch or pen has changed in
today‟s world as mediums of expressing ourselves. A well-dressed
person with appropriate accessories on him/her is considered cultured
and educated as compared to a person who dresses to fulfill essential
needs or does not have a neat hairstyle.

2) Posture: It can be understood as the way we present ourselves. It

includes the way we stand, talk, walk, sit and hold ourselves while we
move around during the process of communication. It is a variable
component of communication and varies according to the circumstances
we face while communicating our messages. It is a very important
component since it speaks volumes about our personality. A nervous
posture may reflect lack of confidence or a weak command over the
subject. It also explains the amount of experience we have as a
communicator in a particular discourse. A confident speaker has
command and experience on the topic to keep the audience interested
and motivated during the process of communication. We should not
fidget with our mobile phones, play with a pen or our legs and hands
should not shake in order to maintain a confident and positive posture.

3) Gestures: The movements we make with our hands, head or face are
termed as gestures. Too many or too little gestures may impede the
effectiveness of the communication. Nodding our head in negation or
acceptance on a viewpoint appropriately supplements the verbal
communication but on the other hand, it may make it ineffective if used
inappropriately. Too much or too little movement of hands should be
avoided. It requires a fair amount of practice and preparation to use the
gestures effectively.

4) Facial Expressions: Our facial expressions are an integral part of the

communicative process since it expresses the intent of the speaker. We
can understand the intention of the speaker by looking at the facial
expressions and hence it becomes important for the sender of the
message to supplement his/her words through appropriate facial
expressions. For example, a motivational speaker needs to make sure that
the facial expressions are positive and show the energy that s/he wants to
convey to the audience. A negative or dull facial expression will
contradict a positive and motivational message.
5) Eye contact: Eye contact with the audience can change the effect of the
message on the receiver. Our eyes communicate in various ways. A good
eye contact with the listener/receiver of the message can make the
43
 Block Heading
Introduction to conversation more powerful. On the other hand,avoiding eye contact
Communication
may result in a disinterested audience and portray the speaker as weak
and not confident. The audience may also have the impression that the
speaker does not have a good command on the subject. It is important to
establish appropriate eye contact. The speaker should not stare at the
listener, instead, try to establish eye contact to affirm that s/he is
committed to convey the message to the listener. Maintaining eye contact
reaffirms the audience about the keenness, confidence and willingness of
the speaker to establish communication with the listener. However,
looking down or looking away conveys that the speaker is shy, nervous
or disinterested in the process of communication.

Activity 3
Collect pictures (about 10) of people from newspapers, magazines or the
internet. These pictures should have different emotions/expressions/gestures
and accordingly interpret them.

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Sign Language

Sign language is a highly developed system of non-verbal communication. It

uses audio, visual and audio-visual signs and symbols to communicate. We
have already discussed that sign language is the most popular mode of non-
verbal communication. There are universally accepted symbols and signs and
are widely used in the world. However, there are culture specific signs and
symbols and can be understood differently by people from different cultures.
A thumbs-up is a positive sign and used primarily to show agreement or
motivate people in Western society however it is a sign of negation in the
Indian subcontinent. Sign language can also be understood as communication
through body language, gestures and facial expressions. It is used in place of
speech and in some cases it is also used to supplement oral communication.
We have fully developed sign language for specially-abled people. They use
a different system of signs and symbols to communicate. Look at the
following picture for a better understanding of how such specially-abled
people use sign language.
44PAGE
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 Types of
Communication

Source–ID 134983662© SabelSakya, Dreamstime.com

These are the signs and symbols used by such people to communicate. On the
other hand, normal people use universal and cultural symbols to
communicate non-verbally with each other. The most popular universal sign
is a traffic light and is understood by almost everyone in the world.

We do have cultural signs as well. In India, we use many signs which

represent our culture. For example, the symbol of „OM/Ohm/Aum frequently
used in India is known as the sound of the universe. We can see another
example. The symbol „V‟ represents different meanings in different parts of
the world. Let us have a look at those meanings:
● USA: It represents a symbol of peace.
● Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and the UK: The symbol is
considered to be a sign of rudeness and defiance.

The sentence “are you an early bird or a night owl?” is a popular question to
ask people if they wake up early or stay awake late at night. In this example,
an early bird is a sign to wake up early and a night owl is a sign of staying
awake late at night. These symbols and signs make our life easy and
supplement our communication making it more effective.

Importance of Sign Language

We have already discussed the importance of sign language. Let us now
understand it better. There are universal and cultural signs and symbols. We
also have a highly developed sign language used by specially-abled people.
Think about establishing communication with people who speak a language
other than yours. How will you communicate with them? How will you ask
for food or water etc.? Sign language plays an important role in such types of
communication. We can just use our hands and point towards a specific
object and make signs as if we want something to drink in glass or we want
something to eat.

Think about a situation where a security agency is conducting a raid and they
are searching an area. They do not want to make any noise and hence they 45
 Block Heading
Introduction to need to use some signs to communicate with each other or else it will
Communication
jeopardize their search operations and compromise the safety of the security
personnel. They will use visual signs to communicate. What do we do when
we hear a siren from a police car, firefighter‟s truck or an ambulance? These
are audio signs that inform us that the police, firefighters or medical staff are
dealing with an emergency situation. We give way to such vehicles when we
see them flashing the lights mounted on their roof and/or hear the siren.
These lights and sound together are audio-visual symbols. They communicate
with us about an emergency situation. It makes our life easy and helps us
work efficiently. The effective use of signs and symbols is very important for
successful communication in all walks of life.

Proxemics
Proxemics studies deal with the necessary space/distance two people should
maintain between each other during a process of communication. As the
name suggests, it helps us understand the proximity i.e. the state of being
close to a person according to the relationship. It is the study of the physical
space between individuals. We display some sort of relationship with a
person when we shake hands or hug them without any exchange of words.

Edward T. Hall in his study of Proxemics divides the space between people
during an interaction into four zones depending on the relationship people
share with each other. These are as follows:

1) Intimate: The Intimate zone has the shortest distance between people; it
only extends to 45 cm (1.5 feet). This space is shared by close family
members like parents, spouses, and relatives. This space is also shared
between very close friends and lovers. A hug, pat on the back, holding
hand, sitting in close proximity are some of the examples of
communication which falls under this zone of communication.

2) Personal: The Personal zone begins at 46 cm and ends at 120 cm (4

feet). According to Hall, this zone is shared between good friends,
colleagues, classmates, and some close acquaintances. This space
indicates a certain level of familiarity between people. The more familiar
the person is, the more s/he will be closer to the 46 cm mark and move
away towards the 120 cm mark depending on the level of familiarity. It
is very difficult to maintain this space in modern society. Think about a
ride in a metro train during office or school hours. Passengers stay in
close proximity to each other though they may be complete strangers to
each other. It may be disturbing and uncomfortable to some people
however it is not possible to avoid such situations completely in modern
times.

3) Social: This zone of communication is mostly formal and official. It

begins at 1.21 meters (4 feet) and ends at 3.60 meters (12 feet). In this
zone, we interact with people in official capacity, newly formed school
or office groups, new acquaintances or strangers. Interacting with
complete strangers to ask for directions or in an interview is an example
of communication in this zone.
46PAGE
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4) Public: As the reading suggests it is related to communication in a Types of
public sphere. It starts at 3.61 meters (12 feet) and may end at 7.5 meters Communication

(25 feet) or to the range of eyesight and/or hearing. Classroom lectures,

seminars, training sessions are some of the examples of formal events in
this zone of communication. An address by the President or Prime
Minister of a country on Independence Day, Republic Day or on any
other occasion can also be an example of communication in this zone of
communication. Table 2 defines these zones of communication in
Proxemics.
Table 2: Zones of Communication in Proxemics

Zones Distance Appropriate people/situations

Zone 1 –
0 - 18 inches Parents, children, partners, spouse
Intimate
Zone 2 – 18 inches – 4
Close friends, relatives
Personal feet
Co-workers, social gatherings, work
Zone 3 – Social 4 feet – 12 feet
situations
12 feet and Total strangers, actors, important
Zone 4 – Public
beyond officials
It is very important to understand the proper zone of Proxemics i.e. to
maintain proper distance during a process of communication to establish
strong personal and social relationships.

Chronemics
Thomas J. Bruneau, a scholar who studied non-verbal communication in
detail, was the first to use the term Chronemics to explain the function of
time in the communicative process. In other words, we can understand it as
the study of the use of time in human interaction. Time is a valuable resource
and how we use it in our daily transactions defines our behavioural pattern. If
a person is late for an interview or sends late responses to emails then it is
perceived that the person cannot use the time effectively and create a
negative impression. If a person arrives too early for an interview then it may
be perceived as over-eagerness of that person. Time can be Monochromic or
Polychromic.

1) Monochronic Time System

Edward T. Hall writes that it is part of the popular business culture where
time is considered money. In this system, work is divided in small segments
of time for effective scheduling, arrangement and management purposes. Hall
considers the American viewpoint about time as Monochronic in which
Americans view time as a commodity and it should not be wasted or taken
lightly as it equals to loss or waste of money.
2) Polychronic Time System
This type of time system is defined by multi-tasking. Instead of small
segments, time is viewed as a wider unit where many tasks can be done at the
47
 Block Heading
Introduction to same time. For example, we can answer our phone while typing on our
Communication
computer or taking notes. Polychronic time-oriented culture is popular in
South America, Arab and Asian countries where time is not divided into
small segments like monochronic societies where time is measured as per the
cultural practices.
Paralanguage
This form of non-verbal communication helps us understand things beyond
speech and signs. When we answer a phone call and hear the other person
saying hello, we instantly recognize the gender of the speaker and the voice if
it is familiar. We can identify the person if we recognize the voice. We can
also guess the state of mind of the person just by hearing the word „hello‟.
The listener can easily guess if the speaker is distressed or happy.
The pitch of our voice, the tone of our speech can convey a lot of meaning.
For example, it will have different effects if a teacher responds in a moderate
pitch to an incorrect answer given by the student as compared to a loud
response. In case of a moderate response, the student will not feel
humiliated/scolded and will try to answer correctly in future however if the
teacher shouts at the student then it may be humiliating for the student and
s/he may lose motivation to participate in future classes. Let us look at the
following to understand paralanguage in a better way.

a) Speech Volume Variation – The volume of the speech should be

appropriate according to the needs of the audience. It should not be too
loud or inaudible.

b) Rate of Speech – It refers to the speed at which words are spoken. The
speed should not be too fast or too slow. It should be adjusted as per the
competency level of the listeners.

c) Pause (punctuation) – It is very important to pause or punctuate at the

right place or it may change the meaning of the message. You must have
noticed that some people pause too many times and use non-fluency
sounds like „Ummm‟ when they talk. We should not pause too many
times and avoid using non-fluency sounds to communicate effectively
with our listeners.

d) Word Stress – It is important to stress at the right word and right

syllable of the word. For example, when we pronounce the word climate
the stress will be on the first syllable CLI– and –MATE should be
unstressed. Correct word stress is essential for the success of an effective
communicative process.

Haptics
We can understand it simply as the language of touch. The way we
communicate through touch is one of the most basic forms of
communication. An infant communicates with his or her mother or other
family members primarily through touch. An adult can also understand each
other by this form of communication. Touching hands, kissing, slapping,
hugging etc. can come into this category of communication.
48PAGE
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Silence Types of
Communication
It may be intriguing how silence can be a medium of communication but
surprisingly it is one of the most common forms of non-verbal
communication. For example, a person singing on a stage suddenly stops and
becomes silent. S/he will attract the attention of all the people including those
who were not listening to him/her initially. A person accused of a crime can
be assumed guilty if s/he remains silent when asked to present a defence. A
moment of silence is a sign of respect at a funeral. A teacher can attain the
attention of students in a noisy class by using his or her silence effectively.
We convey a lot when we are silent. Silence can also be a barrier to
communication. If we are silent when we are asked to answer a question or
give our opinion then it may impede communication. We need to use our
silence judiciously to make our communication more effective.

Meta-communication
This form of communication mostly deals with the interpretation of the
message by the receiver. The term was made popular by an English
anthropologist and linguist Gregory Bateson. He proposed that the
interpretation of the message is governed by all the verbal and non-verbal
components of the communicative process along with relation between the
speaker and the listener. A speaker may say something but it may mean
something very different. For example, an ironic statement like „the police
station got robbed‟ not only conveys that someone has looted the police but
another group of audience will interpret it as the incompetence of the police
security. They were not able to defend themselves, how do we expect them to
protect the general public? However, such an interpretation has its own
limitations. The audience needs to have the competency to understand the
irony of the sentence.

Activity 4
Look at the following and classify them as verbal or non-verbal communication.
1) An advertisement on annual sales.
2) A red plus sign on a board.
3) A mobile phone mechanic displays pictures of a mobile phone and a
screwdriver on a banner.
4) A teacher writing on a whiteboard.
5) Discussing a project in a meeting.
6) A picture of a skull and two bones on a bottle.

Verbal Communication Non-verbal communication

49
 Block Heading
Introduction to
Communication
3.6 SUMMARY
We have learned that communication is broadly divided in two categories,
verbal and non-verbal communication. Both forms of communication are
essential in our day to day lives. Oral (verbal) communication is supplemented
by non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is not just limited
to signs and symbols but it includes a very large pool of non-verbal
behaviour. Our dressing sense, the pitch of our voice, the tone of our speech,
gestures, facial expressions, eye contact with the listener, silence, our
response time etc. communicates with other people and helps us to establish a
successful communication in personal and professional spheres. This unit
gives a brief idea about various types of communication and their
importance.

3.7 KEYWORDS
Verbal Communication: It is the communication between people using oral
or written words.
Non-verbal Communication: Use of Symbols, signs, gestures, body
language, facial expressions, eye contact, physical appearance to
communicate.

Sign language: It is using signs and symbols to communicate.

Gestures: It is the movement of the head, hand or body parts to express

something.

Body Language: non-verbal communication through the use of physical

behaviour, expressions, and mannerisms to communicate.

Proxemics: It deals with the necessary space/distance two people should

maintain between each other during a process of communication.

Chronemics: It is the study of the use of time in human interaction

3.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) What are the different types of Verbal Communication?
2) What is Non-Verbal Communication?
3) What is the difference between Kinesis and Sign Language?
4) Explain the concept of Proxemics and Chronemics?
5) How is Paralanguage different from Meta-communication?
6) How is silence a medium of communication? Illustrate with
examples.

50PAGE
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 Types of
3.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS Communication

Downes, J. J. (2020). Effective Communication: Communication Skills

Training. A Guide to Effective Communication Skills for Couples, with
Friends, in the Workplace a. (n.p.): Gavino Masala.

Kumar, S. &Lata, P. (2011). Communication skills. New Delhi: Oxford

University Press.

Orey, M. (2021). Communication Skills. Association for Talent

Development, Virginia, USA.

Tuhovsky, I. (2017). The Science of Effective Communication: Improve Your

Social Skills and Small Talk, Develop Charisma and Learn How to Talk to
Anyone. United States: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

Satkala. (2019). Communication Skills in English. Akhand Publishing House,

New Delhi.

51
 Block Heading
Introduction to
Communication UNIT 4 FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
AT WORKPLACE
Objectives

After studying this unit you will be able to:

● Understand the concept of communication at workplace;

● Understand types of communication at workplace;
● Appreciate the benefits of effective communication at the workplace.

Structure

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Formal Communication
4.3 Informal Communication
4.4 Conflict Resolution at Workplace
4.5 Crisis Communication
4.6 Benefits of Effective Communication at Workplace
4.7 Summary
4.8 Keywords
4.9 Self-Assessment Questions
4.10 References and Further readings

4.1 INTRODUCTION
We have already discussed that effective verbal and non-verbal
communication is critical to the success of a person at personal and
professional levels. Similarly, it is important for the success and growth of an
organisation to have a robust communication channel where the flow of
information is fast and accurate.Nowadays, organisations provide preliminary
training to communicate effectively at the workplace to their employees at
entry-level and organize workshops in which the existing employees at
various levels can enhance their communication skills. They offer training
courses for soft skills, email writing skills, competency-based interviewing
skills etc. The organisational intent behind investing money and resources in
such skill enhancement training is to increase the efficiency of their
employees while communicating at the workplace. This will lead to faster
and accurate communication with reduced probability of delays and
minimized transfer of incorrect information at the workplace. Any delay or
transfer of incorrect information would result in loss of production time that
equals to loss of money for the company.
Large organisations require various departments to work together and need
their employees to communicate effectively to achieve their operational
52PAGE goals. The employees in these departments communicate with each other in
\*
order to exchange essential information. They may interact verbally in a face Forms of
Communication
to face meeting or over the phone or they may write emails, letters, memos, At Workplace
etc. The nature of these correspondences is mostly formal but at times they
also communicate informally on various occasions. The communication at
the workplace can be internal or external. The employee of an organisation
interacting with each other at various or the same level is internal
communication. The employee of an organisation interacting with people
outside their organisation is called external communication. The external
communication can be between the employees of an organisation and their
clients, prospective customers, service providers, contractors, vendors,
sponsors, investors, media, general public, etc. We give or take orders,
instruct, guide, coach, counsel, write letters/emails/memos, prepare
invoice/account statements, give or participate in a presentation, prepare
promotional and branding material, etc. The goal behind all types of
communication at work is to get the work done quickly and efficiently. The
communication at the workplace follows a proper channel and hierarchy
governed by the system of reporting to one‟s manager. In this unit, we will
learn about these formal and informal types of communication at the
workplace and their importance for the growth of an individual and
organisation.

4.2 FORMAL COMMUNICATION

Formal communication or we can call it as official communication which is
governed by specific communication channels, hierarchies and organisational
policies. The examples of formal communication are emails, letters,
applications, minutes or recordings of a meeting, a video or teleconferencing
for business purposes etc. The use of language, tone, pitch, and style of
writing and speaking should display professionalism and should be accurate
for effective communication. The etiquettes of communication at the
workplace are normally predefined and it requires deliberate efforts from the
employees during the process of communication. The employees are bound
to follow the procedures without which the work in progress may face an
impediment and may experience a delay resulting in loss. If the employees do
not follow proper language etiquettes and predefined channels or processes
then they may not be able to leave a good impression of their work ethics
which will eventually result in slowing down their growth cycle. Formal
communication at the workplace has its own pros and cons. Let us have a
look at some of those.

● Formal communication is a reliable form of communication. It normally

has a paper trail and can be traced back to its source. It is more reliable
since it can be documented for future references and therefore has legal
validity.

● Formal communication needs to follow a strict hierarchy or chain of

commands that makes it move slowly. Employees are expected to not
skip the hierarchies and send any request to senior management through
proper channels. The movement of information through various desks

53
 Block Heading
Introduction to makes it slow. It is time-consuming and sometimes ends up costing time
Communication
and/or money to the concerned people.

● The flow of information is restricted and monitored. It prevents

unnecessary gaps in the communication but it slows down the process.

● Formal communication through proper channels is a secure form of

communication. The access to information is only limited to the parties
involved in the transaction. It is not accessible to everyone in the
organisation or outside the organisation since it is not available in public
domain unless required. For example, an email sent by an employee to
his or her immediate manager is only accessible by the two of them. On
the other hand, an email consisting of general human resource policies
sent by the human resource manager to all the employees can be
accessed by the employees of that.

Formal communication is broadly divided into different categories based on

the organisational hierarchies and predefined channels. They are vertical
(downwards or upwards), horizontal or lateral, and diagonal or crosswise
communication as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Types of Formal Communication based on hierarchies

Let us now discuss these types one by one.

Vertical Communication
The information in vertical communication is transferred between employees
at different levels. It can move from top to bottom or from bottom to top
following a structural hierarchy, as represented in figure 2. Vertical
communication can be further classified as follows for a better understanding.

1) Downward Communication
This is the most common form of formal communication at a workplace.
The information flows from higher managerial levels to lower levels. It
follows a chain of commands from a superior level to a subordinate
level. They are mostly job instructions, policy documents, official
announcements, production reports, procedure manuals or any other
information essential for functioning of the business processes conveyed
to the employees through email, letters, brochures, pamphlets, etc.

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2) Upward Communication Forms of
Communication
At Workplace
In this form of formal communication at the workplace, the flow of
information is from bottom to top. It follows a chain of hierarchy from
subordinate levels to superior levels. It normally consists of requests,
work reports, complaints from base level employees to managerial
and/or above levels. This type of communication is essential to keep the
management informed about the viewpoints of employees, the state of
morale at junior levels, to receive the reactions of employees on various
policies and procedures etc. This form of communication takes place in
group meetings, reporting to supervisors, filing complaint or suggestion
forms and dropping in the designated boxes or through email requesting
to redress a grievance, etc.

Figure 2: Vertical communication

Let us learn some of the differences between upward and downward

communication. This is represented in table 1

Table 1: Difference between downward and upward communication

Downward Communication Upward Communication

It is a process of communication
It is a process of communication from
from a subordinate level to a
a superior level to a subordinate level.
superior level.
It is authoritarian in nature. The It is democratic in nature.
employee at the superior or Employees at the subordinate levels
management levels needs to exert do not need to exert any authority
authority while giving instructions for while sending work reports, making
daily business purposes. requests or giving feedback.
The frequency of this type of
The frequency of downward
communication is very low. It only
communication is high because it
occurs when there is a need to
involves important daily business
communicate with the superior
instructions, orders, advice etc.
level.
The purpose of this form of The purpose of this form of
communication is to keep the communication is to give feedback
subordinate informed with the or make requests to the
necessary information. management.
Initiatives are taken by higher Employees at subordinate levels can
management to make the only take initiatives to establish
communication. relationships.
55
 Block Heading
Introduction to Let us discuss the advantages and disadvantages of vertical communication
Communication
as given in table 2.

Table 2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Vertical Communication

Advantages Disadvantages
It is mostly documented and It is a slow moving communication
1) commands a certain level of and generally involves multiple
authority. parties in one transaction.
It is binding on the sender and The true intention of the sender or
2) receiver since it normally has a receiver can be hidden under the
paper trail. official message it carries.
It is less flexible and any change or
3) It has legal validity.
corrections requires official approval.
It involves time and money to train
Vertical communication is
people to communicate effectively
4) considered official and
using appropriate verbal and non-
authentic in nature.
verbal language.
Horizontal or Lateral Communication

This form of communication takes place between two or more employees at

the same level. They may be working in different or the same department.

Figure 3: Horizontal Communication

For example, a sales executive communicating with another sales executive is

horizontal communication. A sales manager communicating with another
employee at similar managerial level like sales manager, production manager,
finance manager etc. will be considered under this form of communication.
This form of communication is a little flexible since it is happening between
employees at the same levels and hence the response time is low as compared
to vertical communication. The flow of communication in this type of
interaction is horizontal and it facilitates the coordination between different
teams of the same department or different departments. In other words, we
can understand horizontal communication as interaction between employees
working at similar or same levels in an organisation as shown in figure 3.

Look at the following emails and identify the formal and informal email.
Discuss why they are formal or informal in nature.

56PAGE
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 Forms of
Email 1 Email 2 Communication
At Workplace

To To

From From

Subject Subject

Dear Sir/Madam, Hi,

I am writing this email in response What‟s up? It has been a long day. I
to a job advertisement posted on had so much work. Phew! Hope your
your website. I meet the essential day was better. I Hope to have a
eligibility criteria and have the respite tomorrow. Let's catch up at
desired experience. Please find my our regular place. Ping me back
CV in the attachment. Thanks… Have a good day ……Bye
Kind Regards, bye

Gang Plank
Henry Fayol gave the concept of Gang Plank in communication at the
workplace. It is another type of horizontal or lateral communication. In
modern horizontal communication, the employees working at the same
levels, in the same or different departments, regularly contact each other for
business purposes. There is no need for formal authorization for such
communication. For example, all the managers from various departments in
an organisation report to the vice president. If a sales manager wants to
communicate to his/her counterpart in the purchase department then s/he is
not required to contact the purchase manager through the vice president.
Gang Plank in communication at the workplace operates in a similar fashion.
Let us look at the following picture to understand the theory by Henry Fayol.

Figure 4: Gang Plank by Henry Fayol

There is a chain of authority and Fayol calls this line of authority as the
Scalar Chain. According to Fayol, this chain of authority links employees at
57
 Block Heading
Introduction to various levels with their immediate managers. He believes that every
Communication
subordinate member of an organisation should know his or her superior for
effective communication. And this chain of command (scalar chain) should
always follow the defined hierarchies. However, this chain of command can
be broken in urgent situation scenarios but it is important to keep the
immediate supervisors of both the employees to be informed about this
bypassing of command. Let us look at figure 4. If F wants to communicate to
P then the message must pass through all the levels of hierarchies in the
organisation. In a normal scenario, the message must travel from F to A and
from A to P and all the way back to F. It will result in a slow and tiring
process of going through all the channels. But, in an urgent situation, F can
send a message directly to P making an „FP‟ Gang Plank. It is important for
both of them to keep their immediate supervisors informed.

This form of horizontal communication is not very popular in the modern

business world. The employees at the same level are not necessarily bound to
keep their immediate supervisors informed about their correspondences
unless it is absolutely necessary.

In table 3, we will discuss the pros and cons of the horizontal or lateral
communication

Table 3: Advantages and Disadvantages Horizontal or Lateral

Communication

Advantages Disadvantages
It facilitates coordination
between employees of the same The senior management team may
1) or different departments of an remain uninformed of the
organisation. They can share proceedings in these departments.
their best practices.
It involves less complexity as The flexibility in this form of
compared to vertical communication may facilitate too
communication. The senders much discussion between the
2)
and receivers of the message employees at the same levels. This
enjoy a certain level of may result in confusion and delay in
flexibility. completing assigned tasks
Frequent communication between
employees at the same level may
It can expedite communication
3) facilitate too many informal
and save time.
discourses that may affect the formal
policies and procedures at times.

Diagonal or Crosswise Communication

This form of formal communication at the workplace crosses the
departmental and hierarchical boundaries. They take place between people
across departments and levels of an organisational structure. The people
communicating in this form of communication are neither from the same
levels nor do they belong to the same department. It refers to communication
between managers and workers located in different departments. For
58PAGE
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example, a sales executive at the base level of organisational structure can Forms of
Communication
communicate with a manager in the finance department in this form of At Workplace
communication. These employees are from different levels and they are
located in other divisions as shown in figure 5. This form of communication,
along with vertical and horizontal communication has become an integral
part of modern organisations because sometimes it is important for
employees to transcend their level and departmental hierarchies to function
effectively. Think of a situation where an employee in sales discovers a
critical error performed by the marketing team and instead of writing an
email to his or her immediate manager directly informs the manager of the
marketing team. It will help rectify the error quickly since the message will
not get stuck with the chain of organisational commands.

Figure 5: Diagonal Communication

Let us discuss the advantages and disadvantages of diagonal communication

as given in table 4.

Table 4: Advantages and Disadvantages of Diagonal Communication

Advantages Disadvantages
It affects the chain of commands
It is the most direct form of
and breaks the established
1) formal communication at the
hierarchical structure in an
workplace.
organisation.
It is one of the fastest and It can bypass the authority of the
efficient modes of immediate supervisor who may not
communication at the workplace. have any idea about the actions of
2) his or her subordinate and may be
taken by complete surprise if such
interactions create any confusion
or crisis.
It can help deal with critical It can transfer conflicting
situations in the most efficient information if conveyed verbally
3)
way. which may be difficult to verify
and hence can create confusion.

4.3 INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

The interaction between employees of an organisation in performing their
duties is mostly formal in nature, but it is not sufficient because human
beings need to interact with each other without the boundaries and chain of 59
 Block Heading
Introduction to commands of formal communication to develop interpersonal relationships.
Communication
Thus, we establish interaction with other members at our workplace beyond
our professional duties. We develop casual friendly relationships with our
colleagues and communicate on topics outside work. It is an important aspect
of our professional life that gives us respite from the boundaries of
predefined chains of commands and channels which defines our life at the
workplace. This form of communication is natural and hence people talk
about various topics outside work. People discuss sports, movies, politics,
future plans, etc. more freely. This type of communication is mostly oral. It
moves faster between the people as compared to formal communication. Due
to its inherent nature, it does not leave any paper trail and the information
cannot be validated for its authenticity.

Informal communication often begins between employees through social

interactions. In many cases, such type of communication at the workplace is
considered effective as it helps in team building activities and people can
come together to work as one unit. Employees can also help in motivating
each other by extending help with work-related issues. Informal
communication can help build a strong interpersonal relationship between
employees who can work together more efficiently as one team towards
achieving a common goal. It is important to note that it can lead to the
spreading of incorrect information and gossip because the flow of
information is not controlled and may lead to loss of production time.

These gossips can popularize a rumour which may not be in the interest of
the business. It is difficult to contain them in the initial stage because they
travel quickly. Informal communication comes with its own share of
advantages and disadvantages as given in table 5.
Table 5: Advantages and Disadvantages of Informal Communication

Advantages Disadvantages
This is a more flexible form of
It can cause misunderstanding and
1) communication because the
spread rumours.
channel is multidirectional.
Informal mode of communication
It is difficult to control the flow of
at the workplace travels faster as
2) information and it can popularize
compared to formal
inaccurate data, distort facts, etc.
communication.
It can provide feedback about the
These informal communications are
behaviour of managers to the
orally transferred among people. It
senior management. A bad or
does not leave a paper trail. It is
3) good manager is always at the
impossible to fix the responsibility
centre of such informal talks and
of such communication at the
the information reaches the
workplace.
senior management.
It can result in the leakage of
It is a very powerful tool of confidential information. This can
4) communication and can impact affect the functioning of the
formal organisational structure. business process and may result in
financial losses.

60PAGE
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 It is an inexpensive way of Forms of
communication. The Communication
At Workplace
management team can use this
channel to spread positive A person with malafide intentions
information quickly to a large can spread information that may
5)
amount of information. They can damage the company‟s reputation
be positive rumours about that may result in losses.
prospective growth of the
company, a future deal, or high
increment.
A competent management can
use such informal
communication for participatory It is difficult to assess the
decision making where the authenticity and validity of these
6) employees can unofficially give suggestions because a lot of them
their honest feedback about can be based on perceptions and
company policies, procedures word of mouth.
and suggestions for
improvement.
It may become a problem if too
It is non-authoritative and hence many unofficial versions of an
7)
democratic in nature. official policy become popular.

It can destabilize the formal channel

It can supplement the formal of communication at the workplace.
8) channels of communication at the The spread of unchecked rumours
workplace. can become too powerful and
difficult to contain at times.

Types of informal Communication

Informal communications at the workplace are mostly harmless gossip. The
subject of these interactions at the workplace may include information about
sports, movies, entertainment, a person switching jobs, an employee getting
married or divorced, etc. This type of communication is popularly classified
with the term Grapevine. It is an essential characteristic of workplace
communication in all the organisations. Information flows in all directions
through Grapevine. It is governed by personal relationships and social norms
instead of formally recognized rules or procedures. This type of
communication can be vertical, horizontal or diagonal. Prof. Keith Davis
(1979) studied this form of communication and opined that “the grapevine is
a natural part of a company‟s total communication system...it is a significant
force within the work group, helping to build teamwork, motivate people, and
create a corporate identity”. He classified it into the following categories as
shown in figure 6.

Figure 6: Types of Informal or Grapevine Communication

61
 Block Heading
Introduction to Single Strand Chain
Communication
It involves the transfer of information from one member of a line or group to
another. For example, member A transfers some information to member B.
Then, member B transfers that information to member C who transfers the
same information to member D and the chain moves in a similar fashion as
shown in figure 7.

Figure 7: Single Strand Chain

In a single strand chain grapevine, the information moves from one person to
another in a linear manner.

Gossip Chain
This type of informal communication can be understood as one seeking and
transferring information to all the other members of a group. This one person
is the key point in the spread of information. S/he stays at the centre of
information exchange. For example, member A can transfer information to
member B, member C, member D and so on. Look at the figure 8 to
understand it in a better way.

The exchange of information in this type of informal communication depends

on person A at the centre. S/he actively seeks and transfers information to
other members actively. The other members do not pass information to each
other directly.

Figure 8: Gossip Chain

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Probability Chain Forms of
Communication
In this type of grapevine communication, the information is transferred from At Workplace

one person to another randomly. They do not choose a participant. The

information does not move in a sequence or pattern. Here, member A can
transfer information to member B or D or I and so on. Then those members
can transfer the same information in a similar fashion. Let us look at figure 9
and try to understand how it works.

Figure 9: Probability Chain

You can notice in figure 9 that the flow of information is randomly moving
between the participants. Unlike Single Strand Chain or Gossip Chain, it does
not follow any sequence or chain and is not centred on one member to be
transmitted. The information moves more freely and is faster. You may also
notice that it does not involve all the members at times and moves randomly
on the law of probability.

Cluster Chain
The message is transferred to select members and every member who has the
information selects another set of members. The information moves in the
form of a cluster of people communicating, transferring the message to new
members. For example, person A transfers information to B and C. In this
case, person A is the sender of the message and B and C are receivers. Then
the new members take up the role of senders and transfer the information to
new receivers. Let us look at figure 10 to understand how Cluster Chain
Grapevine works.

63
 Block Heading
Introduction to
Communication

Figure 10: Cluster Chain

Look at figure 10 closely. You would notice that a message transferred by

person A is further transferred by the receiver to a new set of receivers. Here,
A transfers the information to B, C, D and F. Then F transfers it to G who
again transfers it to H, I and J. The receiver is taking up the role of sender
every time after receiving the information from the previous sender.

4.4 CONFLICT RESOLUTION AT WORKPLACE

The process of communication at the workplace is not always cordial and
about establishing good relationships. There are people from different
families and educational backgrounds working together as a team in an
organisation. They have different types of personalities, exposures, and
experiences of life. And hence, unfortunately, they may have a difference of
opinion which may result in a conflict situation.
These conflict situations may escalate and become very large eventually
disrupting the smooth functioning of business processes if not addressed at an
early stage. They may arise because of personal or professional differences
and a manager must handle it professionally and use effective strategies to
reach an amicable conflict resolution. They may use the following strategies
in the due process of conflict resolution.
a) Active Listening
Active listening is one of the most important steps in becoming a good
communicator. In a conflict situation, the mediator (manager or peer) must
listen carefully to understand the issue properly. Both parties must be heard
completely and patiently. The mediator must be patient and carefully listen to
the argument of each side without any interruption. This will lead to two
possible benefits. The parties involved in the conflict situation will get a
chance to vent out their differences and the mediator may be able to combine
the opposing ideas and facilitate a peaceful resolution beneficial for both
parties. But, without active listening, one cannot reach a resolution.
b) Set Goals
The mediator is responsible to set the goals of the meeting by motivating all
the parties that they are here for resolution. There should be a willingness
64PAGE from all the parties involved to reach a common ground for a successful
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resolution of the conflict. They should listen to each other actively and Forms of
Communication
brainstorm about possible common grounds. It is alright to disagree with a At Workplace
colleague‟s point of view however in a conflict resolution situation the parties
involved should acknowledge that they are here to solve a problem together
and should work with each other as a team instead of against each other.
c) Stay Professional
The conflict situation at the workplace may arise because of personal
differences between two employees at the same or different levels. The
problems involving personal differences may heighten the emotional
response and intensify the conflict situation. The parties involved in the
process of conflict resolution should keep a check on the emotional responses
and stay calm at all times. It will help maintain a calm and composed
presence. A calm and composed behaviour is a sign of strong professional
etiquette. It also helps in dealing with the conflict situation with a clearer
mind and hence reaching resolution becomes easier.
d) Stay Neutral
This is one of the most important strategies for effective conflict resolution.
A neutral mediator has high acceptance among the parties involved in a
conflict situation. The mediator must listen to all the parties involved
patiently, summarize the point of difference for all of them to display that
s/he is not favouring one party or another. The parties involved in a conflict
resolution are more likely to accept the solution proposed by the mediator if
all the parties consider him or her as a neutral mediator. On the other hand, if
the mediator is perceived as biased then the conflict resolution is more likely
to fail.
e) Fact Check
It is very important to fact check during the process of conflict resolution. It
is the responsibility of the mediator to verify the facts before reaching a
conclusion. It is important to crosscheck all the facts and listen to all the
perspectives thoroughly. The mediator should allow every single party
involved in the conflict situation to present their side of story in detail to get
the relevant facts. It may be very helpful when proposing a solution. A
thorough investigation is essential to establish the correct version of the facts
and propose a solution which will be acceptable by all the parties. The
mediator cannot afford to overlook any of the facts presented during the
process of conflict resolution because it may affect the success of the
proposed solution

4.5 CRISIS COMMUNICATION

This type of communication at the workplace deals with protecting and
defending the employees and company for any unforeseen situation. It deals
with the threat which can cause damage to the entire business at
organisational and employee levels. At the organisational level, crisis
communication is required to deal with situations like a data security breach,
product recall, bankruptcy situations, etc. At the employee level, it may deal
with fire or accident injuries, sexual harassment etc. The goal of crisis
65
 Block Heading
Introduction to communication at the workplace is to have a seamless communication
Communication
network that can effectively deal with the crisis situation effectively and
efficiently. For example, you must have participated or heard about fire drills
in an organisation. The purpose of these drills is to train employees to act
effectively during a fire accident in the company premises.

We have media relations experts working for an organisation. They are

experts who are trained to communicate effectively in a situation which
involves the media to protect the reputation of the business. Crisis
communication is integral for the efficient functioning of an organisation.
The stakeholders cannot afford to take a risk and do not have a structure in
place to communicate in crisis situations. An organisation must have a robust
communication plan and train employees properly in order to have effective
crisis communication in place. It will help the organisations to be prepared in
case of financial disaster, natural calamities, personal injuries etc.

4.6 BENEFITS OF EFFECTIVE

COMMUNICATION AT WORKPLACE
1) Effective communication at the workplace can help establish strong
interpersonal skills among employees. They can deal with any
misunderstanding clearly and work together as a team towards a
common goal.

2) It helps in developing a healthy work culture where people trust each

other. They have faith in the vision, mission and goals of the company.

3) It can promote a positive social environment. People perform better

when they develop social connections with their colleagues. They can
keep each other motivated.

4) Effective communication helps in building rapport between employees

and management. Clear channels of communication can improve
employee satisfaction because of the transparency and ease of
communication.

5) Communication is necessary to keep the instruction clear and

comprehensible. Employees will easily understand their job instructions,
policies, procedures. This will again improve employee satisfaction.

6) Effective communication can promote team spirit. The employees will

not only work as a team but help each other achieve the goals.

7) It will help to solve conflict situations easily. It is not possible to avoid

conflict situations where people come together for common cause. We
have already discussed how effective communication can help in conflict
resolution in previous sections of this unit.

8) It will promote a safe environment at the workplace. When the company

effectively conveys that the organisation is concerned about the safety
and security of their employees at the workplace, it is prepared for any
kind of medical or natural emergencies then employees feel safe and
66PAGE
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 secure while discharging their duties. Communicating this information Forms of
Communication
effectively will increase the morale of the employee and they will be At Workplace
motivated to work hard to achieve the common goals.

Activity 2
Look at the following and classify them as formal and informal
communication at the workplace.
1) A note in an employee‟s personal diary.
2) Discussion between employees in the cafeteria.
3) An appraisal discussion in a meeting room.
4) A conflict resolution process through email.
5) An email sent to a colleague using an official email ID regarding
weekend plans.
6) A brochure distributed by the HR manager about the incentive policies
7) A discussion among the team members about applying for a leave to
attend a colleague‟s marriage.
Formal Communication at Informal Communication at
Workplace Workplace

4.7 SUMMARY
We have the importance of effective communication at the workplace.
Communication at the workplace can be categorized as formal and informal
communication. Formal and informal communications play an important role
in the growth and success of an organisation and its employees. Formal
communications are authoritarian in nature and follow a proper chain of
commands. On the other hand, informal communications are democratic in
nature and do not follow any established chain or hierarchy of commands. It
is important for an organisation to effectively use both channels of formal
and informal communication to achieve maximum efficiency. And, it is also
important for an organisation to train employees to communicate effectively
in discharging their daily duties to achieve its goals.

4.8 KEYWORDS
Formal Communication: It is the transmission of information via an
approved and predefined medium of communication for official purposes.
Vertical Communication: It is a form of formal communication where
information flows from superior to subordinate and vice versa.
67
 Block Heading
Introduction to Horizontal Communication: It is a form of formal communication where
Communication
information is exchanged among different departments or divisions of an
organisation.

Diagonal/Crosswise Communication: It is a form of formal communication

where information is exchanged among employees at different management
levels in different departments or divisions of an organisation.

Grapevine: It is the unofficial flow of communication among coworkers of

an organisation. It is also known as informal communication

Conflict Resolution: It is a way of finding solutions for inter-organisational

conflicts among employees.

Crisis Communication: it refers to communication to handle major threats

faced by an organisation.

4.9 Self-Assessment Questions

1) What is formal communication at the workplace?
2) What is the difference between diagonal communication and Gang
Plank?
3) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of skipping the defined
hierarchy of communication at the workplace?
4) What is informal communication at the workplace?
5) How can a grapevine be beneficial for a company?
6) What is effective conflict resolution? Explain with examples.
7) What is crisis communication?

4.10 FURTHER READINGS

Overton, R. (2007). Business Communication. Martin Books, Boat Harbour,
Australia.
Snyder, J. L. & Forbus, R. (2014). Today's Business Communication: A How-
To Guide for the Modern Professional. United States: Business Expert Press.
Kumar, S. & Lata, P. (2015). Communication Skills, Second
Edition. India: Oxford University Press.
Harvard Business Review. (2013). HBR’s 10 Must Read on Communication.
Harvard Business Review Press, Boston.
Harvard Business Review. (2011).Harvard Business Review on
Communicating Effectively. Harvard Business Review Press, Boston.
Bennie, M. (2009). A Guide to Good Business Communication: How to Write
and Speak English Well in Every Business Situation. United Kingdom: How
To Books. Erikson, Thomas. St. Martin Essentials, New York.

68PAGE
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 Forms of
Communication
At Workplace

BLOCK 2
ORAL COMMUNICATION AT WORK

69
 Block Heading
Introduction to
Communication
BLOCK 2 ORAL COMMUNICATION AT WORK
Block 2 focusses on oral communication and its use at the workplace. The
block is divided into four units.

Unit 5 Listening and Reading Skills: In this unit we will discuss the
meaning and importance of listening. The unit also discusses the process of
listening and tries to identify the barriers in the process of listening. The
second part of this unit discusses different aspects of reading and how
important it is to build an effective communication process.

Unit 6 Interpersonal Communication: This unit focusses on different

aspects of interpersonal communication. The unit has inbuilt case situations
which will help you understand the need for effective interpersonal
communication. The unit also explains different models of interpersonal
communication to make you understand the importance of these models.

Unit 7 Communication in Meetings: In this unit we have tried to discus

various concepts related to the use of communication in meetings as meetings
are an integral part of any organisation. This unit will explain how meetings
can help in effective decision making.

Unit 8 Presentation Skills: This is the last unit of this block where we will
learn the need and importance of presentation skills. The objective of this unit
is to help you design and give effective presentations.

70PAGE
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 Listening and
UNIT 5 LISTENING AND READING Reading Skills

SKILLS
Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

● Explain the meaning of listening;
● Describe different types of listening;
● Discuss the concept of effective listening;
● Explain the process of listening;
● Understand the barriers of listening;
● Explain the process of reading; and
● Understand the critical reading skills.
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Meaning and Importance of Listening
5.3 Types of Listening
5.4 Effective Listening
5.5 Characteristics of Good Listener
5.6 Process of Listening
5.7 Barriers to listening
5.8 Ways to overcome barrier
5.9 Critical reading skills
5.10 Expanding vocabulary
5.11 Summary
5.12 Keywords
5.13 Self-assessment Questions
5.14 References and Further readings

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Listening and reading are two important components of any kind of
communication. We often come across certain instances where people do not
perform their duties well as they are not able to comprehend the instructions
given to them. This shows that they have not listened to the instructions
attentively. Therefore, it is important to understand the concept of listening
and how one can develop effective listening habits. Effective listening is very
important for the success of individuals and organisations both. In this unit,
we will discuss different aspects of listening and understand the
characteristics of a good listener.

71
 Block
Oral Heading
Communication Reading is another component of communication. In business organisations,
At Work
reading is an important aspect that involves reading the annual reports,
manuals, policies etc., on a daily basis. Reading skills are important at
the workplace in terms of speed and selection. In this unit, along with
listening we will discuss different aspects of reading.

5.2 MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING

Listening is a form of oral communication. It involves four distinct
components which form the whole concept of listening. These are:

● Hear
● Comprehend
● Retain
● Recall
Listening is a two-way process which involves the exchange of views, ideas
and emotions of the two parties involved. There is a difference between
listening and hearing. Hearing is a part of listening as mentioned above but is
considered to be a physical activity. So when we talk about the components
of listening we have to include the comprehension part also. Since listening is
a mental activity, comprehension plays an important role. The other two
components recall and retain if aligned with the comprehension part, makes
listening effective.
Listening skills are important for business communication as it helps
organisations in becoming more productive. Since listening is a natural
process, it can only be inspired by increasing concentration and being
conscious. Listening can be verbal and non-verbal. Verbal involves the
speaking aspect and non-verbal listening involves observations. Listening has
certain features these are as follows:
Features of good listening
Listening can benefit in many ways. The most important ones are listed
below:
1. Reduces miscommunication: Proper listening leads to comprehending,
retaining and recalling whatever has been said more effectively thereby
reducing miscommunication and errors.
2. Increases confidence: Proper listening increases the confidence of the
speaker as well as the receiver and builds a strong bond between the two.
3. Increase productivity: If the listening process is appropriate then a
proper communication builds between the superior and the subordinate.
This helps in building a good rapport which in turn will result in
employees being motivated. This will then increase productivity of the
organisation.
4. Saves time and Cost: If listening between different levels of the
organisation is proper then the chances of distortion in the information is
quite less which results in reduction in time loss thereby reducing the
cost.
72PAGE
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 Listening and
Reading Skills
5.3 TYPES OF LISTENING
Many experts have suggested different types of listening. It can vary from
individual conversation to body language to group discussions. Here, we will
discuss eight types of listening which are commonly used.

These are:
● Biased listening
● Sympathetic listening
● Empathetic/Therapeutic listening
● Critical listening
● International listening
● Appreciative listening
● Selective listening
● Rapport listening
Let us discuss these one by one:
1. Biased Listening: As the same suggests this type of listening is based on
preconceived notions and expectation. Here the listener wants to hear
only what s/he wants to listen. This may be subconscious. This type of
listening usually occurs at work places and happens where the personal
relationships are stressed.
2. Sympathetic Listening: This type of listening shows the caring attitude
of the listener. S/he understands what the person is saying. This type of
listening occurs amongst close friends or relatives. In this type of
listening body language, type signing, nodding etc. plays an important
role.
3. Empathetic/Therapeutic Listening: This type of listening is similar to
sympathetic listening but in this case the listener not only just listens but
experiences the feelings of the speaker herself/himself. At times this type
of listening can affect the listener deeply. This is also known as
therapeutic listening.
4. Critical Listening: This type of listening is judgmental in nature. Here
the listener gives a critical view of what is being said. This type of
listening is good for businesses as it helps the listeners to stick to the
point and streamline the things. Using critical listening helps in a)
decision-making; b) analysing the situations and c) finding solutions to
the problems.
5. Informational Listening: As the name suggests this type of listening
involves paying attention to the kind information being conveyed by the
speaker.
It is quite similar to critical listening as in this we retain the important
points and discard the non-essential points. This type of listening usually
73
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Oral Heading
Communication has technical and practical centres. For example, in a meeting about a
At Work
new product launch or new marketing campaign, the listeners tend to use
the combination of critical and informational listening.

6. Appreciative Listening: Listening for pleasure is helpful in certain

cases. We all love having deep conversations. This type of listening
can be listening to music which relaxes you etc. It is usually done on
one’s own and involves mutual appreciation for whatever is being
listened to.

7. Selective Listening: This means that we tend to hear only these

things/information which we actually want to hear. This is only
listening which has negative connotations attached with it. It may
result in miscommunication. At times we tend to drift away or get lost
while struggling hard to hear only the selective portions.

8. Rapport Listening: As the name indicates, this type of listening

involves a combination of many other types of listening which have
already been discussed. This is usually used when we want to develop
a relationship with someone. This type of listening involves showing
interest with an inclination to respond appropriately.

We have learnt some styles of listening but there can be many more as the
listening skills of each individual is different. These types help us in
understanding which type of listening we should use in making the
communication effective.

5.4 EFFECTIVE LISTENING

Effective listening skills are important in personal as well as professional
lives. Around 70-80 percent of our working hours are spent in
communicating in one form or the other. These are certain components of
effective listening. These are:
● Concentration / Focus
● Body Language
● Language
● Avoiding Noise

Concentration/Focus: This is the first and foremost component when we

talk about effective listening. Focus should be there when we listen to
someone. This shows a positive attitude and respect to the speaker. At times
we tend to lose contact with the speaker and drift away in our own world
while the speaker keeps on speaking. In this case you should refocus and try
to understand what the speaker wants to say.

Body Language: An appropriate body language helps to give a positive

message to the speaker. This involves active listening. Non-verbal cues make
a lot of difference while being in tense or a difficult discussion.

Language: Language or use of appropriate words is very important for being

74PAGE an effective listener. In certain instances it is seen that the speaker uses some
\*
complex words and sentences and it becomes difficult for the listener to Listening and
understand what the speaker is saying. In this case the speaker may be Reading Skills

communicated to make his/her language simple so that it communicates the

exact message.

Avoid Noise: At times during meetings or other important discussions our

concentration is interrupted by external noise like beeping of phones,
someone peeping in a meeting room etc. In this case the phones should be
switched off or kept on silent mode and doors closed while an important
discussion is on. This helps in making the process of listening more effective.

A checklist should be followed for effective listening. These are:

● Practice Listening
● Reflect on Conversations
● Focus on Conversation

5.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD LISTENER

We have learnt various types of listening and how listening can be made
more effective. Now let us learn what are the characteristics of a good
listener. There is a relationship between the personality traits of an individual
and listening, though much has not been explored on this front. However, we
will list a few characteristics of a good listener which can make the process
of listening more effective. These are:
● Verbal competence
● Taking notes
● Intelligence
● Motivation
● Hearing ability
● Environmental distractions

Let us discuss these in brief.

Personality Traits: It is not necessary that a good listener possesses a great

physique. However, the body language of the listener like making eye contact
with the listener does impact listening.
Verbal Competence: This is important to become a good listener. A good
vocabulary helps in effective listening and aids in retention.
Taking Notes: While listening, making notes does not affect listening
however it will help to carefully synthesize the information at a later stage
too.
Intelligence: A good listener should be intelligent enough to comprehend
what the speaker is saying.
Motivation: A listener should be interested in the topic which will then
motivate him/her to listen to the speaker. If motivation is not there, then there
are chances that listening may not be good.
75
 Block
Oral Heading
Communication Hearing Ability: A good listener possesses good hearing ability. Hearing
At Work
does not restrict only sound, it is how much you gather from the
conversation.
Environmental Distractions: Good listeners have the ability to adjust to the
distracting elements. They do not get deterred from the external distractions.

Now let us learn the difference between a bad listener and a good listener in
table 1.
Table 1: Difference between Good and Bad listener

Parameters Good Listener Bad Listener

1. Interest area Seeks opportunity Shows no interest
2. Content vs.
delivery Focus on content Focus on delivery

3. Biasness Low High

4. Flexibility High Low
5. Listening ability High Low
6. Attentiveness High Low
7. External
distraction Avoids distraction Distracted easily

8. Mental status Highly focused Less focused

9. Reaction Does not react to

Reacts to emotions
emotions
10. Speech vs Challenges, summarises
thoughts Day-dreamer
mentally

A good listener, therefore, is the one who can overcome all the limitations
and can focus on the conversation

5.6 PROCESS OF LISTENING

Listening in itself is a whole process and involves different steps. These are
six steps involved in the listening process. These are:

● Identification
● Reception
● Comprehension/Understanding
● Evaluation
● Retention
● Respond

76PAGE
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Identification: This is the first step in the process of listening, which Listening and
involves identifying the speech and sound. It is deliberate in nature as an Reading Skills

effort has to be made to identify the sound and select the important message.

Reception: This is the second step. The hearing ability plays an important
role in receiving the message. Since listening is an active process the
meaning from both verbal and non-verbal cues are to be interpreted.

Comprehension/Understanding: In this step the listener tries to determine

the meaning of the topic/words being spoken. This is like decoding the
message. This occurs when there is a synchronisation between the speaker
and the listener.

Evaluation: In this step the listener tries to evaluate the information received
both qualitatively and quantitatively. Through this step the listener forms an
opinion about the message received.

Retention: This step shows the ability of the listener to retain the message.
Here, the listener categorises the information gathered by him/her for the
future. Usually the information is stored in the memory for future use.

Respond: The last step is using the information stored at the right time and
right place. The listener can respond through verbal or non-verbal cues.

The process of listening is quite crucial than the process of reading as

chances of miscommunication and misunderstanding is more here. The
retention may be low, leading to forgetfulness which may lead to mistakes.
Therefore, developing proper listening skills is important

5.7 BARRIERS TO LISTENING

There are a number of different barriers to listening. Identifying the
barriers to listening is important in developing effective listening skills.
These are as follow:

1. Selective listening
As discussed in types of listening, this type of listening becomes a
barrier.
We all listen selectively at some time or other. It is a necessary at times
to avoid distraction but it can become a barrier if the listener has the
following issues while listening selectively –
a. Preconceived notions about the speaker
b. Biases about the topic
Identifying any preconceptions before the review meeting will help
reduce this barrier.
2. Speed of speech vs speed of thought
There is a considerable difference between the speed at which
people talk and the speed at which they think. The average person
speaks at about 125 words per minute, whereas thinking speed is
77
 Block
Oral Heading
Communication usually 500 words per minute. We all have a tendency of thinking
At Work
faster than we can realize. Therefore, there are chances that we
overthink about what is being said and reach the conclusion before
the speaker finishes his/her speech. This acts as a barrier to
effective listening.
3. Lack of interest
This is one of the most common barriers to listening. If the listener
is not interested in the topic, then it acts as a hindrance in the
listening process.
4. Beliefs and attitudes
We all have some opinions on various issues and hold specific
values and traits. Moreover, at times we strongly feel about certain
subjects and value specific behaviour. As a result, we may react
emotionally if someone challenges our beliefs and attitudes. This
reaction can act as a barrier in the listening process.
5. Reaction to speaker
At times listeners tend to react to the speaker rather than listening
to what s/he is saying. As a result, the message in the speech gets
lost which in turn makes listening less effective.
6. Repetition of words
Over-repetition of words and phrases is distracting. Likewise, the
use of unfamiliar (e.g. jargon) words can also be a distraction.
Another important point to note is that words can mean different
things to different people. Therefore, too fast or too slow speed of
speech along with repetition of words can cause confusion in the
minds of listeners. Hence, acting as a barrier to listening.
7. External distractions
This can come in different disguises such as background noises
(i.e. a telephone ringing or a fire engine racing down the road),
physical discomfort (i.e. too warm, too cold, uncomfortable seat),
lighting in the room or distracting pictures on the wall. Some
distractions are within our control while others are uncontrollable.
Therefore, it is important to try and avoid these distractions from
becoming barriers.
These are the major barriers to the process of effective listening, however,
there can be other barriers as well.
Activity 1
Listen to a news or an educational broadcast either on television or radio.
Identify all the points which acted as barriers to the listening process.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
78PAGE …………………………………………………………………………………
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 Listening and
5.8 OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO LISTENING Reading Skills

It is important to understand the ways of overcoming the barriers to listening.

The following steps can be considered to reduce barriers to listening:
1. Reduce distractions.
2. Prioritize listening over speaking.
3. Practice reflecting instead of deflecting.
4. Asking questions.
5. Listen carefully before advising.

1. Minimize distractions
To avoid getting distracted, ensure that you are physically facing the
speaker and make frequent eye contact with them while they are
speaking. Make sure you are seated or standing comfortably. Put the
cellphone on silent mode. This motivates the speaker as s/he will get the
undivided attention.

2. Listening over Speaking

In communication, self-control is crucial. If you think you're a talkative
person, consider practising self-control in communication. Allow time
for the other person to talk. One should wait until a colleague or
teammate has finished speaking before responding. Finally, pay attention
to how the audience reacts while one is speaking. If you realise the
audience is distracted, ask them questions to get them to talk more and
bring their attention back to the conversation.

3. Practice reflecting instead of deflecting

To create a bond with the speaker, the listener should demonstrate
interest ,avoid connecting your own experiences to their predicament. A
better strategy is to just listen and respond with comments that are
focused on the other person's circumstances. This demonstrates that
you're truly interested in their point of view.
Deflecting should be avoided at all costs if you want to listen well.
Instead, try reflecting. Reflecting entails paraphrasing what the speaker
has said back to them. It also involves asking a follow-up question based
on what you've heard is another way to reflect. It assures the speaker that
the listener is attentive and is interested in his/her talk.

4. Ask questions
A good listening approach is to ask questions. Focus on asking questions
that are intended to extract more information from the speaker and are
based on what they have previously said. The finest queries are non-
judgmental and originate from anything spoken previously by the
speaker.

79
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Oral Heading
Communication 5. Listen fully before advising
At Work
When someone discusses a problem or worries with you, it might be
tempting to provide advice, especially if you want to assist them address
that difficulty. Wait to provide advice until the speaker clearly requests
it. Even if you want to provide advice, consider if the speaker is actually
seeking help or simply searching for an outlet to vent. Instead of giving
advice, try expressing empathy with phrases like "That sounds difficult,"
or try pondering.

5.9 READING
We have four main language skills and these are listening, speaking, reading
and writing. Reading is a third language skill. It is the process where we look
at the text (written symbols) and these are converted into words which are
then formed into sentences which gives a meaning. Reading can be loud or
silent. There are three components of reading. These are:

● word recognition
● comprehension
● fluency
It is not essential that everytime we read we identify all the words.
Sometimes we decipher the meaning without even identifying all the words.
For e.g. reading a messy handwriting. In such cases the gist of the text can be
understood.

There are cases where we can identify the words but cannot make out the
meaning of the same but are able to understand the text. This usually happens
when we come across a new word.

Reading is an important receptive skill. All three components of reading i.e.

word recognition, comprehension and fluency helps in developing the
reading skills. Fluency helps in reading smoothly. For fluent reading, a lot of
practice is required. Continuous reading helps in developing fluency.

Importance of Reading
Reading helps us in receiving information and increases learning abilities.
Reading helps in

● Learning new things;

● Discover new things;
● Enriches vocabulary;
● Access to different kinds of information across the globe;
● In being empathetic.

Therefore reading is one such skill which if developed helps both

individually as well as professionally. In business communication this forms
an integral part. Reading reports, policies, organisational documents etc. and
interpreting them correctly helps the organisation.
80PAGE
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 Listening and
5.10 READING SKILLS Reading Skills

There are two prominent skills required for effecting reading – speed of
reading and comprehension. Let us discuss these skills in detail.

A. Reading speed
Speed of reading refers to the amount of text one can read in a single
reading session. On the bass of the reading speed, we can create four
categories which are as follows -

1. Scanning
Scanning is a reading method used to quickly locate specific
information. When scanning, one may have a question in mind and
read a section of the text to discover the solution, disregarding
irrelevant material.
Scanning is the process of reading quickly in order to identify certain
data. Scanning can be used in research to uncover specific
information, to examine fact-heavy topics, and to respond to questions
that require factual evidence. The purpose of scanning is to find and
focus on certain data. Facts may be hidden within lengthy text
portions that have little to do with your topic or claim. Scanning is a
process that needs focus and can be exhausting. One may need to
learn how to not let his/her concentration wander.
2. Skimming
Skimming is the process of reading quickly in order to acquire a basic
overview of the subject. Skimming reveals what broad information is
contained inside a segment. Use skimming to preview (read before
you read), review (read after you read), and determine the core
concept from a long selection you don't want to read, or discover
source information for a research paper. For example, one can skim
through pages during preliminary review of books or reports.
Skimming can reveal to readers much about the basic concept and
style of the text, as well as its striking resemblance or contrast from
other sources, to determine if you should read it at all.
In order to skim through a text, plan to go briskly through the pages if
you want to skim. One will not read every word; instead, s/he will
focus on typographical signals such as headers, bold text and italic
text, indenting, bulleted and numbered lists. One will be on the
lookout for essential words and phrases, names of places and people,
dates, nouns, and new terms.
3. Careful reading
It is a slow form of reading wherein one can read between 50 to 350
words in a minute. Such a reading skill is essential for proofreading,
reviewing, problem solving and memorising.

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It involves fast or rapid reading of the text where one can read
between 300 to 600 words in a minute. This type of reading skill is
essential when one is not supposed to memorise the text or is not
burdened by the pressure of reading.

B. Comprehension
Reading comprehension is the capacity to comprehend what you read.
Strong reading comprehension often entails a wide range of literacy
abilities required to comprehend and discern meanings within a book.
Several components of efficient reading comprehension include fluency,
the capacity to decipher foreign terminology, and the use of context cues
from the reading to identify significant parts of a book. Some important
skills to improve reading comprehension are expansion of vocabulary,
fluency of language, decoding, drawing inferences and retention. Now, let
us discuss these one by one.

1. Fluency
Fluency refers to a combination of elements. First, it assesses your
ability to read properly and fluently. Fluency is also concerned with
your capacity to swiftly interpret new words while reading. Fluency
refers to how it feels to read, and it has a direct influence on your
ability to grasp what you read. For instance, if an individual’s reading
skills improve, s/he will be able to rapidly uncover meaning of what
s/he has read which in turn will aid in comprehension of the material.

2. Expanding vocabulary
Knowing the meaning of different words and when to use them is a
key component of being an effective reader. Increasing your
vocabulary is a simple approach to enhance your reading skills. A
vast vocabulary may assist you in selecting the appropriate term or
phrase for the circumstances which can allow one to grasp different
kinds of text with their context. You can improve your capacity to
generate assumptions, create thoughts, and grasp the texts you read if
you can swiftly interpret new meanings and find links between new
terminology and familiar concepts.

3. Decoding
Decoding is a talent that requires you to identify the words one may
have heard before but have never seen them written. It is based on
vocabulary knowledge, or the capacity to hear individual sounds in
words and relate them to alphabets. Making the link between a
alphabet or a set of alphabets and the sounds they produce is an
important step in decoding words.

4. Inference
Inference is an important aspect of reading comprehension. When
82PAGE one create inferences, s/he relate information from texts to
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 his/her own thoughts and beliefs, which helps him/her understand Listening and
what s/he read. For example, if you read an article on polymers in the Reading Skills

rivers, you could conclude that in order to limit the quantity of

microplastic, you should recycle. Inferring occurs when we read a text
in which the aim and meaning are not explicitly expressed.
Furthermore, the capacity to link concepts and draw conclusions
might aid with retention.

5. Retention
Reading comprehension is generally concerned with memorising what
we read. The retention of knowledge is the foundation of
comprehension. One may improve their reading comprehension by
practising summarising and recalling what s/he have read.

5.11 EXPANDING VOCABULARY

Vocabulary is one of the essential skills for effective reading. A vast
vocabulary may assist a reader in selecting the appropriate term or phrase for
the occasion and can easily communicate his/her message.

There are several advantages of strengthening the vocabulary which are listed
as follows:
● Clarity in concepts while reading
● Ease in comprehensions
● Better engagement with audience
● Depicts expertise in the field

Therefore, one should try and improve their vocabulary by adopting certain
practices. These practices are described as follows:

1. Discover the origins of words – It helps in building a strong foundation

of vocabulary. This will also help in better memorisation of the word.

2. Concentrate on practical concepts around the word – certain words

are used in some specific situations. For instance, use of technical jargon
in a particular industry. One should focus on incorporating such jargons
in their vocabulary, especially if they belong to a particular industry.

3. Linking of words – creating a link of a specific word to its synonym can

help one remember it easily. Also, creating a chain of such links in a
sequence will make one understand and remember the meaning and
context of the word as well.

4. Vocabulary tests – take quizzes and trivia available on internet or mobile

applications to improve vocabulary. It will be an innovative way of
revising and learning vocabulary.
5. Word awareness – one should be aware of the words s/he may read. One
may skip the word s/he may fail to understand while reading. Therefore,

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encountered for the first time and make a note of the same.

6. Creating a group of words – one may not just remember or learn a word
but also its synonym or related words.

7. Contextual meaning – one should also learn about the different contexts in
which a single word can be used.

8. Read – the easiest way to expand the vocabulary is to read more. It is a

good practice to have fixed reading time daily and focus on use of words
along with the context.

Activity 2
Read a book, chapter or a newspaper and make notes of unfamiliar words and
technical terms.

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

5.12 SUMMARY
This unit covers different aspects of listening and reading along with
highlighting their importance in business communication. There are different
types of listening such as biased, sympathetic, empathetic, critical,
informational, appreciative, selective and rapport listening. Moreover, the
unit emphasises on the certain aspects of good listening. Reduction in
miscommunication, increment in productivity, increased confidence and
reduction in time and efforts are some of them.

Effective listening skills are crucial for business as well as personal

communication. Concentration, language skills, body language and avoiding
noise are some of the ways in which listening can become more effective.
Furthermore, an effective listener needs to have a strong personality and have
verbal competence along with the hearing ability. S/he should also have a
certain level of intelligence and motivation to listen to the speaker.

Process of listening has five stages namely identification, reception,

comprehension, retention and response. However, there are certain barriers to
his process such as selective listening, speed of speech, speed of thought, lack
of interest, reaction to speaker, beliefs and attitudes and external distractions.
In this unit, one can also learn about the ways in which s/he can overcome
these barriers.
Reading is also an essential element of communication. Reading is mainly
related to verbal communication. It involves not just mere look at the written
text but also comprehending the written segment along with its context. A
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reader must develop critical reading skills to grasp the written text in its true Listening and
sense. Critical reading skills can be divided into two sets namely reading Reading Skills

speed and reading comprehension which can be classified further.

5.13 KEYWORDS
Listening: It involves hearing what one is saying and understanding its
meaning.

Hearing: The capacity to sense sound by detecting vibrations via the ear is
referred to as hearing.

Critical Listening: It is the act of comprehending what is being said as well

as assessing, judging, and making an opinion about what has been heard.

Reading: The process of looking at a succession of written symbols and

deducing meaning from them.

Skimming: It is the process of a quick reading to get the overview of text.

Scanning: It is the process of reading a text to find answers to a given

question.

Vocabulary: It is all of the language and words that a person or group of

people uses or understands.

5.14 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the meaning and importance of listening.
2) What are the different types of listening?
3) How do the barriers to listening affect the process of listening?
4) What do you understand by reading? Explain.
5) How can the vocabulary of the reader be improved?

5.15 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Ferrari, B. T. (2012). Power Listening: Mastering the Most Critical
Business Skill of All. United States: Penguin Publishing Group.

Grellet, F. (2010). Developing Reading Skills: A Practical Guide to Reading

Comprehension Exercises. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Leonardo, N. (2020). Active Listening Techniques: 30 Practical Tools to

Hone Your Communication Skills. United States: Callisto Media
Incorporated.

Rao, N. & Das, R. P. (2009). Communication Skills (2nd ed.). Mumbai:

Himalaya Publishing House.

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Communication
At Work UNIT 6 INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

● Define interpersonal communication;

● Understand the difference between professional and personal
communication;
● Understand various diagnostic models of interpersonal communication;
● Identify strategies for personal excellence in superior-subordinate,
coworker, and customer relationships at work.

Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Defining Interpersonal Communication
6.3 Significance of Interpersonal Communication
6.4 Principles of Interpersonal Communication
6.5 Barriers to Interpersonal Communication
6.6 Interpersonal Communication Models
6.7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Communication
6.8 Interpersonal Communication Styles
6.9 Interpersonal and Personal Management Skills
6.10 Summary
6.11 Keywords
6.12 Self-Assessment Questions
6.13 References and Further Readings

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Interpersonal Communication, whether effective or not, is a constant process
in the organisation. It is inseparable from and essential to everything that
occurs in organisational life. Regardless of the position one occupies,
effective interpersonal communication skills are essential for the following
reasons:

● It helps to develop professional connections with other co-workers,

colleagues, peers, leaders, and clients;
● It enhances the ability to relate with other people;
● It facilitates teamwork and collaboration;
86PAGE ● It results in increased job satisfaction;
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 Interpersonal
6.2 DEFINING INTERPERSONAL Communication
COMMUNICATION
The term ‗interpersonal‘ refers to ‗between persons‘ or ‗involving personal
relationship.‘ It is a two-way flow and involves the following: (a) information
content, (b) feelings related to the content, (c) perceptions of both self and
others, and (d) responses to the contexts in which the conversation is
happening. It includes verbal and non-verbal forms of communication and
can be both synchronous (face-to-face) or asynchronous (emails, chats,
messages, etc.). To understand the interpersonal communication process, it is
important to understand a few models like the two-person relationship model,
the communication in context model, and the strategic model. Unlike the
prior one-way model and interaction model, these models highlight a few
important aspects which are useful in analyzing how things work.

6.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF INTERPERSONAL

COMMUNICATION
Human evolution relied heavily on interpersonal contact. According to
previous studies, early humans who lived in communities rather than alone
were more likely to survive. The findings also suggest that those who have
strong interpersonal ties are more likely to transmit these traits down to the
next generation.

Interpersonal abilities have a wide range of applications in the real world.

They have a measurable effect on mental and physical well-being. People
with superior interpersonal communication abilities are less anxious, have
better stress management skills, and are happier in their personal and
professional connections. Contrary to this, prolonged isolation and lack of
interpersonal skills result in damages to the well-being of humans. Other than
making relationships and health better, interpersonal communication skills
are highly sought after by potential employers. All these examples show how
interpersonal communication meets our basic needs as humans for security in
our social bonds, health, and careers.

6.4 PRINCIPLES OF INTERPERSONAL

COMMUNICATION
Before we delve into the process, let us understand the four basic principles
of interpersonal communication which are as follows:

1) Inescapable: Whether you like it or not, it is impossible to avoid

communicating. If not verbally, the humans send much information non-
verbally. Therefore, there is no way to escape the communication
process.

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matter how hard you explain what you meant or apologize, people may
end up losing confidence in you. Therefore, communication is
irreversible in nature.

3) Complicated: To believe that communication is natural and easy is a

myth. The process involves both verbal and non-verbal factors that lend
to its interpretation. Owing to its complex nature, interpersonal
communication is open to misinterpretation.

4) Highly contextual: The communication process does not happen in

isolation. It operates in a psychological, environmental, and situational
context. Hence it is not in your control. It depends on the who, what,
where, and why of that conversation. The end result ultimately depends
on how the message is ultimately received.

After understanding principles of interpersonal communication, it becomes

important to understand the barriers to interpersonal communication.

6.5 BARRIERS TO INTERPERSONAL

COMMUNICATION
Barriers to interpersonal communication occur when the sender‘s message is
received differently from how it was intended. Typically, communication
breakdowns result from a lack of understanding and a missing attempt at
clarification. There are various known and unknown factors that might act as
barriers to successful interpersonal communication. Some of them are:

● Language barriers
In any communication process—oral or written, the sender(s) encodes(s)
ideas, which the receiver(s) decode(s) to understand and give feedback
accordingly. In this process, language plays a very important role. The
communication may fail if the sender and receiver do not have a
reasonably comfortable common language as a medium to exchange
ideas.
● Stress
Stressful situations can make people choose to remain detached or
reserved in nature. This results in isolation and minimum interaction with
others. This in turn makes it difficult for others to establish
communication with that person.
● Position
A superior who is hostile to subordinates‘ views and not open to
suggestions will end up not receiving information and ideas. This will
adversely affect interpersonal relationships.

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● Attitude Interpersonal
Communication
People with the ‗I‘ viewpoint are normally perceived as self-centred and
un-empathetic. This attitude can create a problem in communicating with
other people in an organisation. People with such an attitude keep
themselves first and thus every communication is centred around them. It
is important in the communication process to incorporate the feelings
and perception of the sender as well as receiver of the message.
● Distance
People separated by geographical boundaries and spatial distances may
find it difficult to communicate. However, with the advent of technology,
people can still communicate through social media, chats, emails, etc.
● Perceptions
Rigid perceptual labelling makes it difficult for people to change their
preconceived notions. With already made up mind, we refuse to listen
and an attempt to achieve effective communication suffers badly. In
other words, if one believes in a certain phenomenon then convincing
him/her otherwise will be a difficult task. For example, if the manager
believes that distribution of sample goods among consumers is futile,
then convincing him/her about the need for an effective marketing
strategy will have no benefits.
● Culture
People with different cultural backgrounds find it difficult to interact and
develop healthy interpersonal relationships. This can be attributed to the
different viewpoints inherited by people belonging to different cultures.
● Technology
Face-to-face interaction is still superior to technology-based
communication for developing effective interpersonal relationships. As
in face-to-face communication, one can get a more clear idea of posture,
gesture and expressions of the speaker as well as the reactions of the
listener.

Activity 1

Recall any recent event or a situation where your communication with your
partner/employee/colleague failed miserably. Unbiased, identify the list of
barriers you both experienced which could be the cause of communication
failure.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
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6.6 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
MODELS
Models are the diagrams that are useful in analyzing the process of
communication. These models help one who is trying to understand, diagnose
and perhaps repair a communication process. In this section, we will discuss
five models that can help us to understand interpersonal communication in a
better way. The case situation given in activity 2 highlights the problem in an
effective communication process. After studying this section, suggest ways in
which Mr. X and Mr. Y can improve their communication effectiveness.

ONE WAY MODEL

This is perhaps the oldest model of communication. It is based on Aristotle‘s
Rhetoric. Theories revolving around this framework are termed the Classical
Rhetoric and built around theories of argumentation as well as persuasion.
The model emphasizes the sender‘s need to consider the right techniques to
present the right message to the right audience as shown in figure 1. An
example of a one-way communication model would be listening to TV or
radio broadcasts where a message is communicated from the sender to
receiver in one direction.

Message and delivery techniques

Sender Receiver

Figure 1: One-Way model of Communication (Fisher, 1981)

Though the model is simple it provides a theory of composition and

communication for both oral and written discourse with an emphasis on
persuasion. Despite limitations, it serves as a useful diagnostic tool. The
major strength of this tool is that it emphasizes the significance of the
receiver.

Interaction Model
The model was given by Wilbur Schramm in the year 1997 and builds upon
the linear model of communication which we discussed in Unit 2.

Message (Delivered
Encoder through channels and Decoder
media)
Noise
Noise

Feedback

Figure 2: Interaction model of Communication (Schramm, 1997)

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Combining the ideas of several communication theorists, the interaction Interpersonal
Communication
model was an upgradation of the one-way model. The model included four
more concepts to the existing model: (1) channel, (2) encoding and decoding,
(3) noise, and (4) feedback. Figure 2 represents the Interaction model
(Schramm‘s model) of communication.

The participants take turns being the sender and receiver. They create
meaning by sending and receiving messages in both physical and
psychological settings. The approach rejects communication as a one-way,
linear process and instead adds feedback, making communication
more interactive and a two-way process.

In this model, the channel represents the source through which the message
is sent. It can be verbal and non-verbal. Media represents various tools such
as letters, memos, mobile phones, televisions and social media websites.

Feedback includes a return loop by which the sender receives reactions. It

answers various questions that occur in the speaker's mind like ‗Is my
audience happy with my speech? ‗Are my customers convinced with the
product details I shared with them?‘, etc. The inclusion of a feedback loop
allows a more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a
communication encounter. However, sometimes excess feedback may also
harm the communication process. In some instances, a sender has to think
through, encode and send the information without being distracted by the
feedback. Hence, though feedback can be used as an aid to understanding the
impact of the communication process, one needs to use other concepts
included in the model as well.

As the name suggests, the interaction model of communication is more

interaction-focused. It does not judge communication as effective or
ineffective rather acknowledges that communication is nuanced and complex.
It encourages the speaker to use feedback for simulating further questions
like ‗Why is my boss not replying to my email?‘, ‗Why is my audience not
looking interested?‘ etc. This helps in improving the effectiveness of an
overall communication process.

Though the interaction model came up as a major improvement over the one-
way communication model, it did not consider a few significant observations
which are: (1) communication process does not happen sequentially, i.e. one
step at a time as highlighted in the prior communication models, (2) in the
process of communication, the participants act both as sender and receiver
simultaneously, (3) role of self and others perception, and (4) communication
context. The other models were later developed to fill these gaps.

Two- Person Relationship Model

Although the interaction model was a major improvement over a one-way

model, it had its own drawbacks. In terms of the communication process the
points this model ignored were:
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time as highlighted in the prior communication models;

2) In the process of communication, the participants act both as sender and

receiver simultaneously;

3) It excluded sender‘s and receiver‘s perceptions of each other and

themselves; and

4) The wider social and organisational settings in which the communication

takes place.

According to the two-person relationship model, the communication process

is reciprocal: the sender‘s views of, and behaviour towards the receiver are
simultaneously affecting and being affected by the receiver as represented in
figure 3.

Sender‘s views of, and behavior Receiver‘s views of, and

towards receiver behavior towards Sender

Sender‘s views (way of

Sender‘s views (way of thinking and feeling).
thinking and feeling). of himself/ herself
of himself/ herself
Figure 3: Two-person relationship model of communication (Turner & Lombard, 1969)

Using this model as a diagnostic tool, we will be able to understand how the
communication process is related to human behaviour. In general, human
beings tend to reach cause and effect conclusions. For example, ―Mr. A has
slowed down on the project work because his project leader was not open to
taking his recommendations.‖ This is the most convenient one-way cause and
effect explanation. However, in doing this we ignore the possibility of Mr. A
as not looking any more inspiring to the project leader. This could be because
Mr. A‘s lagging enthusiasm and output make him assume that his suggestions
do not deserve much attention. The two-person relationship model suggests
that we must look not only at the explicit behaviour but also at how each
perceives the other.

According to this model, people tend to behave in ways that confirm their
self-perceptions. The model illustrates the strong influence of self-perception
on behaviour. Hence self-perception, the perceptual point of view, and the
inter-dependence of two on each other constitute the key ideas in this model.

Activity 2

Case Situation

Read the following case and answer the questions given at the end of the
case. Mr. X and Mr. Y were the best of colleagues. They joined the
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organisation in the same year and had a similar academic background. They Interpersonal
Communication
always got along well with each other. They had worked on several projects
together and were praised for their excellent team coordination by seniors. So
when Mr. X was told that Mr. Y selected a team that will work with him on a
new project and had not included him, he felt deceived. He immediately sent
a text to Mr. Y: ―I can‘t believe; you didn‘t include me in the team!‖

Mr. Y was in the middle of a meeting when his phone beeped with a new
notification. He could not stop himself and looked at the message. More than
the words he read Mr. X‘s anger, frustration, and humiliation. The text had an
impact on Mr. Y. He could not concentrate on his meeting and forgot to
discuss some very important points. He immediately recalled how Mr. X did
not support his idea in the recent meeting and responded, ―Even I could not
believe that you opposed my idea in front of all the senior executives‖.

The episode was short but the damage was severe. They lost their year‘s old
relationship. It took Mr. X and Mr. Y months to placate but the things were
not the same as before the damage had been done.

a) What barriers of interpersonal communication can you identify in the

above-given case that distorted Mr. X‘s relationship with Mr. Y?

b) Suggest the ways which could have built a better understanding and
avoided the conflict.

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

Transaction Model of Communication

With the progress in communication studies, scholars started viewing

communication as more than a process that is used to carry on conversations
and convey meaning. They observed that all communication happens within
some kind of context. While the earlier three models emphasized the
importance of looking into the individuals and their communication
behaviour, the transaction model of communication included the
conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the
role of context (Barnlund, 1970).

The transaction model of communication describes communication as a

process in which communicators generate social realities within social,
relational, and cultural contexts. The model revealed three new factors and
these are:
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which the communication belongs such as the norms of behaviour a
group establishes and expects its members to follow them.

2) Organisational Structure and Culture- This includes the

organisation‘s design, policies, rules, hierarchy, traditions, values, etc.

3) Task characteristics- This includes the nature of work or the problem

about which the communication is taking place.

The model asserts that we do not only communicate to exchange messages

but we communicate to develop connections, form intercultural alliances,
shape our self-concepts, and engage in discussion with others to form
communities as represented in figure 4.

Physical &
Psychological
context

Communicator Social Creation of Cultural Communicator

Context meaning Context

Relational
Context

Figure 4: Transaction model of communication

Unlike the interaction model, which assumes that players switch roles as
sender and receiver, the transaction model assumes that we are both senders
and receivers at the same time.

The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of

context. It prompts us not to simply hunt for an ideal or anoffender in a
complex situation. Since the transaction model of communication views
communication as a result of the multiple forces and functional
interdependence, it discourages us from judging good and bad until we
thoroughly understand it. Before shaping our opinions, the model urges us to
see communication as having multiple rather than single explanations, to see
interdependencies, to seek a relationship between communication and the
context in which it occurs.

Unlike the interactive model, which suggests that participants alternate

positions as sender and receiver, the transaction model suggests that we are
simultaneously senders and receivers.

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 Interpersonal
6.7 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND Communication
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Let us now discuss the concept of emotional intelligence and its relationship
with interpersonal communication.

Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to recognise one's own and others'
emotions, to differentiate between them, and to accurately categorise them. It
aids in determining how to act responsibly in light of this knowledge. People
with a high EI score have better mental health, superior job performance, and
more effective leadership skills, according to studies. In 1995, Daniel
Goleman coined the phrase "emotional intelligence" in his book ‗Emotional
Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ‘. According to him, there are
five areas of attention - 1) self-awareness, 2) emotion management, 3) self-
motivation, 4) understanding emotions in others and 5) relationship
management.

Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal

Communication
Research reveals that unhealthy communication patterns affect the growth of
emotional intelligence. The people/ families/ groups that discourage conflict,
self-expression, and assertiveness may not develop the essential skills of
expressiveness and receptiveness - the two significant tools of successful
communication. On the contrary, the people/ families/ groups that share a
healthy exchange of ideas, discuss with each other before making decisions,
have enough open areas to build positive interpersonal communication with
others. The following tips might be helpful in maintaining good interpersonal
relationships with others:
1) Assess one‘s assumptions before passing judgments.
2) Do not take refusals personally.
3) Do not typecast people.
4) Learn from the people who are better than you rather than considering
them as a threat.
5) Never act based on preconceived notions.

6.8 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

STYLES
Choosing a communication style is significant in making interpersonal
communication impactful. Effective communicator understands that there are
a few styles that may work more effectively than others. There are six main
styles of interpersonal communication used in business settings. These are:
Dominant style: A dominant style is normally a one-way form of
communication. The person is perceived to be low at listening skills. They
are not receptive to feedback. In a normal situation, it can alienate employees.
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form of two-way communication that involves sharing information rather
than directing behaviour. It is used to encourage others to express their ideas
and opinions in order to reach a mutual understanding. In most situations
particularly when cooperation is needed it is more effective than the
controlling style.

Systematic style: The systematic style of interpersonal communication is

used to establish schedules or impose organisation. Managers using this style
would be likely to cite company standards or rules. The systematic style is
useful for project planning and when working with strict deadlines.

Inspirational style: The dynamic inspirational style is used to motivate

people to act. This style can be effective in crisis situations, but it is generally
ineffective when the receivers do not have enough knowledge or experience
to take the required action.

Passive style: The manager is differential rather than directive and shifts
responsibilities to the team members.

The avoidance style: This style lacks communication. Managers using this
style try to avoid using their influence and may indicate a disinterest or
unwillingness to participate in the discussion.
Activity 3

a) What communication style would you prefer to adopt to the

following situation?
● Presenting an idea to your rigid team leader.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
● Addressing the media to clarify on the accidental death of a colleague
at the workplace.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

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 ● Giving a presentation to an off-shore client who is impressive and Interpersonal
Communication
reputed.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
● Warning your subordinate who has not submitted the work on time.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
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6.9 INTERPERSONAL AND PERSONAL

MANAGEMENT SKILLS
Interpersonal and personal management skills are essential as they are
associated with our performance. It involves a set of flexible skills that can be
improved through practice. Emotional intelligence plays a key role in helping
us ―manage behaviour, navigate social complexities, and make personal
decisions that achieve positive results‖. Following are a few ways through
which we can improve our interpersonal communications:
● Self-awareness- Being aware of the different aspects of self, including
traits, behaviour, and feelings.
● Self-management- Ability to use your emotional awareness to direct
your behaviour positively and productively.
● Social awareness- To read the emotions of others and react accordingly.
● Relationship management- Manage relationships through an awareness
of your emotions as well as the emotions of others.
● Building communication skills- Learn to apply the right language and
right style.
● Be empathetic- Consider the other person‘s perspective while
interacting.
● Active listening- Do not be judgmental while conversing.
● Avoid stereotyping- Create a welcoming environment free from bias.

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6.10 SUMMARY
Healthy interpersonal communication minimizes conflicts and promotes trust
and positivity. Within organisations, communication flow, information
overload, international operations, cultural diversity, etc. make
communication increasingly complicated. In such situations, diagnostic
models of interpersonal communication can serve as a useful aid to
understanding the problem and resolve them. The constructive way of
improving interpersonal communication is to enhance one's EI. There are
various strategies of interpersonal communication to adopt keeping
relationships, context, and consequences in mind.

6.11 KEYWORDS
Active listening: Listening that demands close attention to a message‘s literal
and emotional meaning.

Communication barriers: Problems that can affect the communication

transaction.

Decoding: The act of extracting meaning.

Emotional Intelligence: The ability to understand and manage one‘s own

emotions and understand and respond to the emotions of others to foster
strong interpersonal relationships.

Encoding : Act of converting the ideas into codes.

Feedback: The receiver‘s response to the message.

Noise: Any physical or psychological barrier that distorts the message.

Receiver: The participant in the process of communication who receives

information.

Sender: The participant in the process of communication who has an idea

and communicates it by encoding.

6.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Are the models we examined in this unit useful? Justify

2) How can one-way model of communication improve interpersonal

effectiveness despite having drawbacks?

3) What are the primary elements of the transactional communication

model? How does the communication model work?

4) What is interpersonal communication? What are its core competencies?

5) What skills are most important to be effective at the workplace? How

can those be improved?
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 Interpersonal
6.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS Communication

Arthur, T. N., & Lombard, G. F. (1969). Interpersonal Behavior and

Administration. New York: Simon & Schuster Limited.
Barnlund, D. C. (1970). A transactional model of communication in K.K.
Sereno and C.D. Mortenson (Eds.), Foundations of communication
theory (pp. 83-92). New York, NY: Harper and Row.

Beck, U (1992). Risk Society. SAGE India. https://in.sagepub.com/en-

in/sas/risk-society/book203184

Clair, R. S. (1977). Brent D. Ruben & John Y. Kim: General Systems Theory
and Human Communication. Rochelle Park, N. J.: Hayden Book Company,
1975. Behavioral Science, 22(1), 60–61.
https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830220111

Ellis, R. and McClintock, A. (1990). You take my meaning: Theory into

practice in human communication. London: Edward Arnold.

Fisher, D. (1981). Communication in organisations. West Pub.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than

IQ. New York: Bantam Books.

Hughes, M., Patterson, B. L., & Terrell, J. B. (2005). Emotional

Intelligence In Action: Training and Coaching Activities for Leaders and
Managers. Pfeiffer.

Schramm, W. (1997). The beginnings of communication study in America.

Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage.

Shannon, C. & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of

communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

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Communication
At Work UNIT 7 COMMUNICATION IN MEETINGS

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

● Understand formal meeting procedure;

● Distinguish between various types of meetings;
● Create an agenda and prepare minutes of the meetings;and
● Understand key attributes of effective meetings.

Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Meetings: An overview
7.3 Types of Meetings
7.4 Meeting Preparations
7.5 Minutes of the Meeting
7.6 Features of Productive Meeting
7.7 Input-Process-Output Model
7.8 Managing Conflicts in Meetings
7.9 Meeting Etiquettes
7.10 Effective decision-making in group communication
7.11 Summary
7.12 Keywords
7.13 Self-Assessment Questions
7.14 References and Further Readings

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Meetings are a central form of team communication in organisations. During
meetings, leadership is established, goals are shared and purposes defined.
Studies show that poorly – run meetings are imprudent and less than 50% of
time spent in meetings is considered effective and useful. They are the major
roadblocks that restrict many groups from becoming teams. This extensive
misuse of people‟s time and energy can be prevented if we learn how to
better design, run, and participate in meetings.

Meetings that are productive produce useful outcomes. They have a high
level of participation, positive energy, productive collaboration, and
meaningful conversations. Meetings, despite their critiques, are here to stay.
Managers must find ways to make meetings more productive in order for
them to run smoothly. This unit focuses on communication in meetings. It
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discusses the concept and types of meetings and the role of meetings in Communication
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effective decision making.

7.2 MEETINGS: AN OVERVIEW

A meeting is a group communication in action around a defined agenda, at a
set time, for an established duration. Essentially designated as a
communicative episode, meetings involve framing agenda, establishing
participation criteria, channel selection, and establishing the norms of
speaking. They can be effective, ineffective, or a complete waste of time.
Meetings can occur face-to-face, but post-COVID business houses and
industries are turning to video-conferencing as it saves cost and time of
travel. Regardless of how you come together as a team, group, or committee,
you will need to define your purpose in advance with an agenda. Irrespective
of the types of meetings, certain objectives are common to all meetings.
These are:

● Sharing information
● Improving productivity
● Resolving communication gaps
● Addressing the concerns of employees
● Forming policies
● Clearing doubts
● Addressing staff grievances
● Obtaining feedback
All these objectives if met, the meeting can be productive in nature. Meetings
are important as they help in collective decision making and provide an
opportunity to discuss issues of importance and provide feedback.

7.3 TYPES OF MEETINGS

Let us now discuss some major types of meetings which will help us
understand the importance of communication in meetings. Meetings are
purpose intensive activities. They can be:

The daily meeting, also known as a stand-up meeting, is a gathering of

people who work on the same project with a common goal and make
decisions informally by general agreement.

The weekly or monthly meetings, where members work on different but

parallel projects, and where there is a competitive element and a greater
likelihood that the chairperson will make the final decision.

The occasional, infrequent, or special project meetings are composed of

people whose normal jobs do not bring them together and whose work has
little or no relationship to the others. They are only united by the project; the
meeting exists to promote and motivate the project's success. Despite the fact
that actual voting is uncommon, each member effectively has a veto.
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most common. Surprisingly, it is also the most likely to succeed. Operational
imperatives usually ensure that it is brief, and the participants' previous
experience of working together ensures that communication is good.

The other two types are entirely different issues. In these meetings, all kinds
of human crosscurrents can throw the discussion off track, and mistakes in
psychology and technique on the chairperson's part can undermine the
meeting's goals. Furthermore, these meetings are likely to bring together the
more senior members of the organisation and result in decisions that have a
significant impact on the organisation's efficiency, prosperity, and even
survival. As a result, the lessons of this article are primarily aimed at these
higher-level meetings.

The meetings can also be classified based on the focus area. These can be:
● Status-update meetings
● Decision-making meetings
● Planning meetings
● Collaboration meetings
● Problem-solving meetings
● Brainstorming meetings
● Team-building meetings
● Debrief meetings
● Innovation meetings

Status-update meetings: The focus area of such meetings is desirability.

Usually, the „stand-up meetings‟ or weekly/monthly meetings fall under this
category.
Decision-making meetings: The focus of such meetings is trying to find out
the flaws/defects in the decision-making process. This is important to avoid
the „spot-light effect where only one part is looked upon and other
opportunities are missed.

Planning meetings: As the name suggests these meetings are based on the
plan of action i.e. what, when, how, where a particular decision is to be made
and implemented. This requires the plan to be known to the participants who
will be a part of the implementation process.

Collaboration meetings: The focus of these meetings is trying to achieve a

mutual goal. For example. collaborating for a marketing campaign where
collaboration is done with all the relevant documents and technological
know-how at a place.

Problem-solving meetings: The focus of these meetings is to analyse the

cause of the problem and try to resolve the issues. These are convened
usually during emergencies when a situation needs a solution.

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Brainstorming meetings: Such meetings are informal in nature and have a Communication
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friendly atmosphere. In such meetings, every participant feels that s/he can
contribute even though the idea may not work.

Team building meetings: The focus of these meetings is to create an

atmosphere where people come together as a team. The concern for each
other and caring attitude is developed. Even in the virtual set-up, the bonding
can be developed.

Debrief meetings: The focus of these meetings is on the future of the

organisation through information sharing. These are also known as feedback
meetings.

Innovation meetings: In the present day scenario, which is complex,

dynamic and competitive, such meetings have become all the more
important. The focus of such meetings is on innovative ideas to come up with
innovative products.

Every meeting has its importance and forms a major part of communication
thereby helping the organisations to sustain in the competitive world.

Activity 1
List different types of meetings based on focus area and give one example of
each.
…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

7.4 MEETING PREPARATIONS

The ability to work and communicate effectively in groups is a skill. How
you perform in meetings provides a cue to how competent you are and how
ready you are to assume responsibility, work in teams, and solve problems.
Meetings can have one or more purposes which may be to review progress,
assign responsibilities, make decisions, etc. A large part of what makes a
meeting successful occurs in the preparation phase. Poor planning and
mismanagement may turn meetings into a waste of time. Hence pre-
preparation can help participants make the best possible use of everyone‟s
time. Although meetings differ by department or unit, there are seven key
accountabilities expected of chairs or team leaders before a meeting takes
place. Each is explained in detail below:

1) Clarity of purpose and aims

Every meeting is called with a purpose. A clearly stated purpose highlights
the key decisions that must be made or actions that must occur at the meeting.
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least two days before the meeting. The purpose should be specific and to the
point like:
● Identify priority goals for next year;
● Examine and update product launch criteria;
● Decide how to promote a certain product.

2) Create an agenda
Effective meetings are disciplined and to have a disciplined meeting a well-
prepared agenda is a must. It is like a roadmap or a blueprint. It helps focus
the group's work towards achieving desired outcomes at a specific time.
Good agenda items provide focus and structure for a meeting. For a well-
drafted agenda, create a committee to help the chair decide the items. This
can also be done by sending out a call for agenda items before the meeting.
The following is the template for the agenda:
AGENDA TEMPLATE

DATE:
TO:
FROM:
SUBJECT:
DATE:
START TIME: END TIME:
LOCATION:
AGENDA: TIME LEADER EXPECTED
OUTCOME
A
B
C

3) Schedule the meeting

Making a list of attendees is only a part of the process while planning a

meeting. From the time of approaching attendees for seeking their availability
until scheduling a meeting, calendars can fill up quickly.To reduce turn-
around time, it is advisable doing some pre-work. It necessitates selecting
essential people who must attend. When asking for meeting times, try to be as
clear and concise as possible, eliminating any ambiguity or assumptions.
Next, it involves either scheduling or notifying them of the meeting's
schedule and location.

A meeting site can be chosen once an ideal day and time have been agreed
upon. A grid can be prepared. Establish at what time the meeting will begin
and end. If the meetings are long, include a short 10-15 minutes break in
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4) Share Agenda Communication
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Distributing the agenda ahead of time helps participants to prepare questions
and formulate opinions. There are legal bindings too for posting meeting
agendas on time. Every agenda should be accompanied with a clear cover
letter stating the objective of the meeting and expected outcomes.

5) Circulate Additional Information

Provide enough information before meeting so that people come with a
general familiarity with the issues to be discussed in the meeting. It will be a
good idea to share URLs if possible. People have a tendency to ignore long
and detailed content. Share information in a succinct outline.

6) Location
Ensure that the room/ location is complementing the kind of environment you
prefer for the meeting. Room arrangements can make a big difference in how
well a meeting goes or does not go. Most important is that participants can
see and hear each other. The seating arrangement should be such that the
interaction enhances the flow of information and ideas rather than create
communication barriers.

Activity 2
Recall any meeting you have attended in the past. Using the following
checklist, assess how well the meeting was conducted:
● Is the meeting held at the right place?
● Does the meeting fulfil a specific purpose?
● Was the location and seating arrangement appropriate?
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7.5 MINUTES OF THE MEETING

Secretary is responsible for preparing the minutes of the meeting (MoM).
Minutes are a formal record of what was discussed in the meeting. It has to
be transcribed and circulated to each member soon after the meeting ends.
Often, the draft of the minutes is circulated to all participants for their inputs
before finalizing. Once ratified, minutes serves as a reference for the decision
made and form a base for further action.

● Minutes are formal documents hence they should be written in the formal
style. The tone used in writing minutes should be neutral. It demands a
high level of accuracy, objectivity and concreteness. General opinion,
hearsay and informal talks cannot be the part of minutes.
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minutes are written in the past tense and passive voice. Minutes use
reporting verbs like said, stated, illustrated, explained, suggested, etc.

● To conclude, the minutes of the meeting are important documents and a

high degree of seriousness is required while drafting them.

The following is the template for making minutes of the meeting. The
template can be modified as per the requirement.
MINUTES TEMPLATE

Name of the organisation:

Nature of the meeting:

Day and Date:

Time and Place:

Name of Chairperson:

Members present:

Agenda of the Meeting:

Resolutions:

Thanks to the Chair:

7.6 FEATURES OF PRODUCTIVE MEETING

The first step to make your organisation productive begins with effective
meetings. The key to making the most of the time spent in a meeting is
ensuring that all meetings adhere to six core principles:

1) Meeting should have a leader

By leader, we do not mean a boss or a senior person in the organisation. Any
person who calls the meeting should generally be the meeting chair or a
leader. It is the leader‟s responsibility to distribute the detailed agenda in
advance, assign responsibilities, establish ground rules, moderate discussions,
and handle difficult people.

2) Purpose should be well defined

It is important for the chair of the meeting to have a clear idea of what
outputs s/he is expecting from the meeting. It is impossible to get a good
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outcome if you are yourself not sure about what outcomes you want. It is a Communication
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good practice if the leader articulates the goal of the meeting in the
beginning.

3) Well-defined Agenda
Each meeting should have pre-decided agenda items created by the meeting
leader and sent out at least 24 hours before the meeting. Each item should
have a time for discussion mentioned clearly in the agenda. This helps keep
meetings structured and disciplined. Additionally, it also helps wallflowers/
introverts to prepare and participate.

4) Time Management
Research states that people hate long meetings. When it comes to scheduling
a meeting, it is better to go short than long. This can be done by assigning the
time limit to each agenda beforehand. This forces the meeting‟s participants
to stick to the agenda item rather than shifting the discussion in a different
direction.

5) Participants should come prepared

Each agenda item has a person assigned who is responsible to carry out the
discussion. It is important that the person responsible should come prepared.
Along with the person who is responsible, all participants need to prepare as
well, by reading through the agenda and any pre-reads, along with thinking
about any questions they have related to that agenda.

6) Leader should be a Moderator

Meetings are criticized for losing focus. People start checking their mobile
phones, emails, etc., start talking with each other or even bring the discussion
out of track by talking on irrelevant issues, etc. The meeting leader needs to
address these issues as they come up. S/he needs to redirect conversations
when they go off-track and ensure people follow the ground rules of the
meeting.

Activity 3
Each one of you may have attended meetings at some point of time.Recall
any meeting you have attended in the past. Ask yourself how effective that
meeting was and how you would grade it on a scale of 1-10.

If you scale it poorly, identify what were the frustrations you experienced
with the meeting and if you scale it as an effective meeting, what elements
made that meeting effective?
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● Time plays an important role. Start and end the meetings on time.
● Remember all opinions are valid.
● Avoid side conversations.
● Don‟t encourage anything unrelated to the agenda.
● Avoid commotion.
● Issues discussed should remain in the room i.e. maintaining confidentiality.

7.7 INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT (IPO) MODEL

Meetings can be termed as a form of group communication. They are the
most effective ways for sharing the information between the members. Input-
Process-Output theory starts with members circulating the ideas to achieve
desired outcomes. It has the following features:

1) Meeting IPO (Input-Process-Output) is a structured approach to ensure

meetings are productive and useful.

2) IPO follows a straightforward process that begins with the desired

outcomes, then moves onto the process that will be used to accomplish
them, and finally to the inputs for each process step.

3) By making the desired outcomes and process visible, IPO improves

meeting engagement and creates clarity, alignment, and results.

How to create an IPO Model?

Each step in the IPO model has its own importance where members
communicate with each other to decide the perception of the group. The IPO
model is considered to be a cybernetic system which means it is a closed
circuit. Figure 1 shows how an IPO model can be created.

•What is required?
Outputs •Decisions, plans

•How will these inputs be

Process used to create the output?
•Agenda

•What will be useful to

Inputs create these outputs?

•Examples: Report, data,
etc.

Figure 1: Input-Process-Output Model

The IPO model starts with setting goals then brainstorming to develop the
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Input: This involves sharing of information and brainstorming to achieve the Communication
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outputs.
Process: This identifies the objectives which are to be achieved and the
means to achieve those objectives.
Output: This involves the response for making decisions and how they can
be implemented to achieve the outcomes.
Disclaimer: IPO will work only if the team applies it effectively during the
meeting.

The model will be effective if the convener can assign the specific roles to
the members of a meeting as given in figure 2.

Manages Captures Notices how Calls break

Energy Monitor
Time Keeper

Time discussions team when

Observer

Keeps track participates needed

Scribe

Records
of agendas minutes Monitors
how team
behaves

Figure 2: Roles of the members of a meeting

The interesting part of this model is that it starts with setting the goals. i.e. the
outputs and then the whole process begins to have the inputs to achieve those
outputs thereby making it a loop of activities.

This model is significant as it helps the organisation to achieve the targets

effectively.

7.8 MANAGING CONFLICTS IN MEETINGS

Diversity in participating members like qualities, affiliations, and viewpoints
in meetings are ideal to produce the best decisions. However, this particular
feature sows the seeds of discord. It is an important aspect of problem-
solving and making decisions. It's a natural by-product of trying to reach a
consensus on a topic or situation. Each participant will have a unique
perspective on the problem, as well as diverse values, priorities, and
preferences. During the conversation, these differences are brought to light.

Effective decision-making and problem-solving require conflict. You

implicitly acknowledge the benefit of diversity, the very same diversity that
guarantees conflict. To fully benefit from the collective judgment of all of the
group members, they must be willing to differ, pointing out mistakes, and
even argue.

Definition of Conflict

A variety of definitions exist for conflict. The best one is given by Hocker
and Wilmot: 109
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who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and interference from the
other party in achieving their goals”.

Positive and Negative Outcomes of Conflict

Conflicts in meetings have both positive and negative outcomes. Some

potential benefits of conflict are:

1) It can produce a better understanding of issues and people

Human beings have a tendency to assume that people see things and feel as
they do. When in the meeting, participants discover different opinions on the
issues, they become uncertain about their own position, seek actively to get
more information about the issue, are able to take the perspective of the other
members, and make an informed decision.

2) Conflicts can be motivating

Conflict in meetings actively involves people. They pay close attention to the
issue.

3) Conflicts can produce better decisions

Conflicts tell us that people disagree, then we explore why they disagree.
Eventually, the group finds flaws and tries to work upon them so that the
outcome satisfies everyone.

4) Conflicts can produce cohesiveness among group members

When the participants experience and resolve conflicts successfully, the

members develop ties that hold the group together.

Although the conflicts are beneficial, we all have seen how harmful they can
be.

● Conflicts can cause bad feelings

● People at times, when disagreeing with each other, lose their temper.
They might use hurtful language that may cause bad feelings and can
spoil relationships forever.

● Conflicts can lower group cohesiveness.

● Not all conflicts lead to group cohesiveness. If people feel that they are
not valued in the group, they may not like to contribute.

● Conflicts can be destructive

Major unresolved conflicts may lead to time waste without reaching the
decision. Therefore it is important to manage the conflict and make the
meetings productive.

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7.9 MEETING ETIQUETTES in Meetings

Meetings place you in front of employees and employers with whom you
may not work on a regular basis. As a result, how one acts in the meetings
could create a lasting impression. Barbara Pachter, a career coach and author
of the book “The Essentials of Business Etiquette” suggests following 10
meeting etiquette you should know:

1) Be on time

To avoid wasting the time of yourself and others, make sure you come on
time. It is beneficial to come prepared for the meeting ahead of time.
2) Make introductions

To know others and to let others know you, it is a good tradition to begin a
meeting by introducing each member to the team. It should always start by
introducing the person of the highest rank first.
3) Have a strong agenda

Strong agenda helps to keep the discussion on track. It is the facilitator‟s

responsibility to get the discussion back on track if it gets off track.
4) Sit appropriately

The way you sit in the meeting helps you get involved and heard.
5) Speak up

Meetings are called to hear your opinions on issues. Do not sit quietly. Add
your thoughts related to the topic being discussed and contribute
qualitatively.
6) Understand the unwritten speaking rules

Some rules are universal. You may disagree with people, but rude and
aggressive interjections may damage your reputation. Learn to interrupt
politely.
7) Do not take phone calls during the meeting

It‟s very bad manners to talk on the phone whilst others are discussing
something important. If the call is urgent, make an excuse and leave the
room.

8) Do not drink and eat during the meeting

It is ok to eat or drink during the meeting if it is served to everyone. Avoid

eating and drinking personal stuff as it may make noise or give off smells that
are disruptive.
9) Clean up after yourself

It is unprofessional to leave the place dirty after yourself.

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Ask your questions at the appropriate time. Keeping all the questions for the
end may make others uneasy as they might like to end the meeting on time.
These etiquettes if, adhered to, enhance the professional behaviour and makes
the meetings productive.

7.10 EFFECTIVE DECISION-MAKING IN

GROUP COMMUNICATION
Every organisation's growth is driven by the ability of management to make
effective decisions. The quality of decisions depends largely on the efficacy
of communication within the organisation. For decision making, meetings are
held at various levels in the organisation. Hence, communication plays an
important role in reaching an effective decision.

Small group communication refers to the act of communication among three

or more people for a common goal or purpose. They are used in different
settings such as work groups, social events or influence groups. Small group
communication is an essential part of group decision making and meetings
are a way in which group communication works. Therefore, it is important to
understand small group communication for effective decision-making. In
terms of business communication, small groups are limited to achieving a
specific objective. Small groups fulfil three different needs of an individual –
instrumental, interpersonal and identity needs.

Let us discuss the functional theory of small group communication to

understand how communication plays a role in the effective decision-making
process.

Functional theory of communication

The functional theory, also called the functional theory of group

communication, is a set of statements, beliefs, and claims that attempt to
explain how and why communication affects the quality of decisions made by
a group. It explains how communication influences group decision-making
and how communication should be structured to make better decisions. This
theory was first proposed by Dennis Gouran and Randy Hirokawa in 1983.
They state that three influences shaped the theory - John Dewey's work on
reflective thinking, Robert Bales' work on interaction process analysis, and
Irving Janis' work on watchful decision-making.

In 1910, John Dewey proposed a method for problem-solving in his book

„How We Think‟. In this method he suggested that reflective thinking is the
key to solving a problem and gave five steps which are as follows:

● Finding the difficulty or problem

● Where and what is the problem
● Proposing possible solutions
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implication
● Accepting or rejecting a solution by experimenting or observing them

The second influence was of Robert Bale in his work Interaction Process
Analysis (IPA) and he stated that small group communication is influenced
by the ability of group members to deal with functional problems. He
identified four functional problems which are–Adaption, Instrumental
control, Expression and Integration. Adaptation and instrumental control
relate to decision-making termed as task concerns. Whereas, expression and
integration relate to the management of relationships termed as socio-
emotional concerns. Bales suggested that a balance between these two is
necessary for making a better decision. In IPA, he highlighted 12 categories
out of which six were related to task functions (i.e. decision-making) and the
other six are related to socio-emotional concerns.

Bales' work highlighted the role of interpersonal behaviour and personality in

group communication. In 1970, Bale developed the Three Dimensional
Model of Interpersonal Personality in the book SYMLOG (System for the
Multiple Level Observation of Groups) which was considered to be an
extension of IPA. This model helps in determining the personality of group
members. In the present scenario, SYMLOG has been used as a tool to
determine the different behaviour and personality of individuals as
considered deemed fit for different organisational roles.

The third influence is Irving Janis‟s work on vigilant decision making. He

suggested that groups sometimes fail in making effective decisions because
of the pressure to reach a consensus on each team member during meetings.
According to his work, a vigilant group should follow the following steps to
reach a solution:

● Analyse all possible alternatives or solutions

● Analyse objectives to be achieved
● Examine all risks and benefits of alternatives
● Search all relevant information
● Unbiased processing of information
● Reassess alternatives concerning risks and benefits
● Planning implementation of selected alternatives along with contingency
plan

Each of these influences highlights the functional nature of the

communication. Hence, according to the functional theory, a group should
adopt the following practices to achieve the purpose of a group meeting and
make an effective decision:

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Communication ● Identify the type of solutions that the problem requires. The solutions
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are based on whether the group is seeking to address a fact,
speculation, value, or policy issue.
● Assess the qualities of an effective solution. Members of the group
should create criteria that the preferred alternative must meet.
● Members of the group should come up with a wide range of possible
alternatives for the problem.
● Members should critically evaluate all alternatives to determine what
makes an effective solution. This criterion implies that group
members have the necessary skills, knowledge, and objectivity.
● Choose the alternative that fulfils the criteria for an effective solution
while comparing all available alternatives.

In light of these practices, communication plays three different roles in group

communication – positive, disruptive and counteractive. Each of these roles
is defined as follows:

● Positive role: The group is able to complete the functional

requirements successfully.
● Disruptive role: It serves to create roadblocks that obstruct or
prevent the group from meeting any of the requirements for effective
decision-making.
● Counteractive role: It serves to nullify or neutralise a communicative
act that has had a disruptive effect

It is evident that communication is used in a different sense to resolve

conflicts and reach a consensus in group meetings. However, this theory was
criticised by various researchers on various issues. One such issue relates to a
lack of consideration for how individuals interact outside the group or create
sub-groups. Another criticism revolves around the fixed set of conditions for
functional communication. Further, the question of how a decision can be
judged as good or bad limited the theory.

In response to these criticisms, Gouran and Hirokawa revised the theory in

their book „Communication and Group Decision Making‟. They added the
relational dimension of groups in the process of decision-making. They
introduced three dimensions – Affiliative, Cognitive and Egocentric. The
affiliative dimension states that group members are unduly preoccupied with
relationships. The cognitive dimension states that information processing is
hampered. The egocentric dimension states that personal motivation
dominates group goals. These dimensions may limit the entire process of
decision-making to reach an effective decision. Therefore, as a response to
criticism and these dimensions, the functional theory was extended further.
The following practices were suggested, in addition to the initial five
mentioned above:

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 ● Make it apparent that group members want to make the best decision Communication
in Meetings
possible.
● Identify the resources that are essential to make such a decision.
● Identify the potential barriers to overcome.
● Specify the steps that must be taken to complete the task.
● Establish rules of interpersonal communication.
● Utilize appropriate solutions to overcome affiliative, cognitive, and
egocentric restrictions that hinder the successful completion of basic
task needs.
● Examine the group's decision-making process and, if necessary, revise
any solutions reached.

These theories give an idea of how groups perform in the meetings and based
on the performance of groups the decision is taken.

7.11 SUMMARY
Meetings have both advantages and disadvantages. To make effective use of
meetings, a number of things need to be reviewed. The first and most
important one is to identify the meeting‟s objective. Once it is clear, it is
important to consider pre-meeting arrangements. This involves: who should
be invited to the meeting, what should be the agenda, which additional
information should be shared with the participants, and what should be the
physical/ virtual arrangement. Overlooking any of these may impact the
effectiveness of the meeting.

The unit highlights that conflicts are inevitable in meetings and are also
essential for productive output. Handling the conflicts effectively will bring
positive results which can be achieved by following proper meeting etiquette.
The unit also discusses various theories for effective decision making.

7.12 KEYWORDS
Conflict: It is the interaction that occurs when the point of view and
behaviour of one person do not match with others.

Agenda: It is a list or outline of things to be considered or done.

Time Keeper: It is a person appointed to mark and announce the time

Scribe is a copier of manuscripts.

Energy monitor: It is a person who monitors the engagement levels of

attendees.

Moderator: S/he is one who presides over an assembly, meeting, or

discussion.

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Communication Meeting Environment : It includes both the time and places a meeting is
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held.

Norm: It is an unwritten, overloaded, or poorly run meeting.

7.13 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) From the list given below, identify meeting types. Carry out internet
research to learn about the need and purpose of the given meetings:

a) Internal project review meeting

b) Board of Directors meeting
c) Town Hall meeting
d) Media brief

2) Think about the project you worked on with others. Step back and reflect
on the meetings you had with the project team members. How did the
environment, topics, and participants contribute to the communication at
those meetings?

3) How can a conflict be positive in meetings?

4) Remember a meeting in which you handled conflict? Have you tried a

unique approach? Was that conflict turned out to be positive?

7.14 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

8 ways to add value to meetings: Making a strong contribution. (n.d.).
https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/8-ways-value-meetings.htm
Company meetings: 4 types of company meetings. (2021, February 11).
iEduNote.com. https://www.iedunote.com/company-meetings(n.d.).
Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/maryabbajay/2020/01/20/9-ways-to-
make-your-meetings-matter/?sh=18f139b53831
Gist, M. E., Locke, E. A., & Taylor, M. S. (1987). organisational behavior:
Group structure, process, and effectiveness. Journal of Management, 13(2),
237-257. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920638701300204
Hall, R. H. (1991). organisations: Structures, processes, and outcomes.
Pearson College Division.
How to run a meeting? (1976, March 1). Harvard Business Review.
https://hbr.org/1976/03/how-to-run-a-meeting
Isenberg, D. J. (1986). Group polarization: A critical review and meta-
analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(6), 1141-1151.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.6.1141
Make staff meetings more inclusive. (2015). Successful Fundraising, 23(12),
2-2. https://doi.org/10.1002/sfr.30249

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Meetings | Business communication: Communication, business writing, Communication
presentations, employment communication. (n.d.). Lumen Learning – Simple in Meetings
Book Production. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sac-
businesscommunication/chapter/15-3-meetings/
Mosvick, R. K., & Nelson, R. B. (1996). We've got to start meeting like this:
A guide to successful meeting management. Jist Works.
Pachter, B. (2013). The essentials of business etiquette: How to greet, eat,
and tweet your way to success. McGraw Hill Professional.
Wilmot, W. W., & Hocker, J. L. (2010). Interpersonal conflict (p. 384).
McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

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Communication
At Work UNIT 8 PRESENTATION SKILLS
Objectives

After reading this unit you should be able to:

● Understand the meaning of presentation;

● Understand the essentials of presentations;
● Prepare presentations;
● Analyses the function and types of visual aids;
● Comprehend the role of body language in presentations;
● Learn how to overcome the fear of public speaking.

Structure

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Meaning of Presentation

8.3 Types of Presentations

8.4 Planning the Presentation

8.5 Process of Presentation

8.6 Use of Visual Aids

8.7 Question and Answer Session

8.8 Glossophobia

8.9 Components of Effective Presentation

8.10 Summary

8.11 Keywords

8.12 Self–Assessment Questions

8.13 References and Further Readings

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Presentation skill is an art and it is an important mode of oral communication.
This requires more focus and attention while presenting an idea or a concept.
An important thing to note here is that presentations can be made to different
groups. If a student is giving a presentation then s/he has to present in front of
the faculty/experts. If it is a presentation in a business organisation then it can
be to a specified group such as to the clients etc. This requires specific skills
as per the requirements of the organisation. In this unit, we will be learning
different aspects of presentation with respect to business communication.
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 Presentation
8.2 MEANING OF PRESENTATION Skills

Presentations are a way of communicating ideas and information to a group.

The objective of communication is to make your message understood and
remembered. In order to achieve this, the presenter must be clear, coherent,
articulate and convincing. A presentation puts you on display before your
audience. Therefore, in order to be effective and impressive in your
presentation, you need to prepare before you actually deliver. Even experts in
communication need to plan and prepare their presentations in advance.

Most presentations either inform the audience about something or try to

persuade the audience about a product, service, an idea or a concept. Hence,
we often hear of sales presentations for existing or prospective clients, as well
as presentations on projects, reports, proposals and updates on various
business activities for business associates, seniors, colleagues and
subordinates.

However, these days presentations have also become an important part of the
recruitment process in business organisations. Perhaps this is because the job
market has become so competitive that job interviews are not enough for
organisations to gauge the skills of their applicants. Therefore, in many
organisations, the short-listed applicants are asked to make presentations
before the selection panel. Through presentations the interviewers get an
opportunity to look at the ability of the applicants to identify and organize
appropriate material on a specific topic as well as to support and illustrate
ideas. On the other hand, the candidates have a chance to show their public
speaking skills, their ability to communicate to an audience, to persuade and
convince and to display their confidence and leadership abilities.

Thus, in brief the purpose of a presentation is -

● To introduce a new product or service

● To present a new business plan
● To market a product or increase sales of a product
● To give a talk in a seminar/ or a conference
● To give information on any issue
● To analyze a report or project
● To display oneself in an interview

8.3 TYPES OF PRESENTATIONS

The basic purpose of a presentation is to inform, persuade or motivate. Based
on the purpose for which a presentation is being made. They can be divided
into the following categories.

1. Informative Presentation: As the name suggests, this type of

presentation gives information to the audience. This information can be
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organisation. It also includes giving information to the employees, the
media and the public.

2. Persuasive Presentation: This kind of presentation is generally about

selling something. It intends to convince the audience about the goodness
of a product or action. This kind of a presentation can also persuade the
organisational heads to accept proposals on any issue.

3. Motivational Presentation: They are designed to motivate or enthuse

people on an issue or about a programme. Generally, this kind of a
presentation is made to influence people to accept a new policy, initiative
or idea of the organisation.
The presentation can also be classified on the basis of mode of delivery.
There are generally four kinds of presentation delivery -

● Impromptu presentations
● Extempore presentations
● Scripted presentations
● Memorized presentations

The mode chosen for delivering a presentation depends on the audience

present and the situation in which one is giving a presentation. In a formal
situation, one generally resorts to Memorized or Scripted presentation.
Impromptu and Extempore presentations are made in informal settings.

For a presentation to be effective the presenter not only has to make her/his
presentation interesting and relevant, s/he also has to prepare himself/herself
well to make an effective presentation. Some of the things s/he needs to keep
in mind to make the presentation effective are as follows:

● Coping with fear or nervousness;

● Understanding the audience and connecting with them;

● Making the presentation relevant and interesting for the audience;

● Confidently handling the question answer session

8.4 PLANNING THE PRESENTATION

Planning a presentation requires a lot of preparation before it takes a final
shape. Depending on the focus of the presentation, you decide the strategy or
sequence of ideas. One of the most common and effective strategies used by
most people, is the STAR STRATEGY for planning a presentation.
According to this strategy the presentation needs to go through the five filters
of WHO, WHY, WHERE, WHEN, and WHAT before it takes a final shape.
These five filters help to polish and chisel the presentation before it is ready
for the audience. Now let us discuss these five filters in detail.

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 1. Target audience (Who): This is the first filter which helps the Presentation
speaker to understand his/her audience. For this, the following Skills

checklist can be followed to assess the target audience.

● Educational background

● Nature of job profile

● Basic attitudes

● Common language

● Number of people attending

If the speaker knows the basic background of the audience, then it

will help him/her to approach the audience in a more effective
manner.

2. Purpose (Why): This is the second filter which looks at the reason(s)
for making a presentation. The following questions need to be
answered when trying to focus on the ‘WHY’ aspect. These are:

● End result;

● Objectives/needs of the audience.

When the purpose is defined, the speaker may start the presentation
giving a general background of the subject or straightaway moving to
the specialised part of the subject. Usually the purpose of any
presentation is to:
● Presenting a new point of view;
● Additional information;
● Demonstration of a service, product or a system;
● Selling a concept/idea.

There can be many more new areas to define the purpose depending on
the situation. The crux here is that a clearly defined purpose helps in
making a presentation more effective.

1. Place (Where): The third filter is the place or location of the

presentation. This is important for the speaker as it will help him/her to
understand the ambience, seating arrangements, sound system etc. If the
speaker knows the ‘where’ of the presentation s/he will make
himself/herself comfortable before making the presentation.

2. Time (When): The next part is to know the time of the presentation.
This includes for how long the presentation will run. This will answer
the following queries:

● Time available;
● Time is taken to complete formalities;

● Time available for question and answer session.

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accordingly and make the presentation precise. This will also help
him/her to prepare for the presentation within that time period to retain
the interest of the audience.

3. Content (What): This is the most important part of the presentation as a

wrong choice of the subject matter may result in the presentation going
wrong even if the presentation has been prepared nicely. The speaker
should concentrate only on the most essential parts of the subject rather
than covering everything.

Therefore, while planning the presentation, the star-strategy should be

followed to make the presentation effective.

8.5 PROCESS OF PRESENTATION

Every presentation follows a classic pattern of Introduction, body and
conclusion. These three are essential components for making a presentation.
A presenter should carefully prepare each one of these in order to make an
effective presentation. Let us understand each one of these in-depth below:

Introduction
This part is the first step while preparing for a presentation. Introduction
should be such that it builds the inquisitiveness and the interest of the target
audience which will make an impact for the further course of presentation.
The following points should be kept in mind while preparing for the
introduction :
● Introduce yourself
● State your purpose
● Relate subject to the audience
● Give a brief outline

An introduction to the presentation needs to be imaginative and interesting to

capture the attention of the audience. A good introduction will motivate the
audience to sit through the entire presentation. You can follow the following
ways to make an impactful introduction:
● Rhetorical question
● Provocative quote
● Interesting anecdote
● Good joke
● The statement of the problem
● Description of the topic’s importance to the audience
● Piece of statistical information presented memorably
● Summary statement of the structure
● Definition of the purpose of the presentation
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Activity 1 Presentation
Skills
In any presentation the introduction is crucial. Certainly, some things are
essential in an introduction and others are useful. Here is a list of what could
be included in an introduction. Mark them according to how necessary they
are from a scale of 1 to 3 where 1 means essential, 2 means useful and 3
means not necessary.
● Subject / title of talk
● Introduction of oneself, job title, etc.
● Reference to questions and/or discussion
● Reference to the programme of the day
● Reference to how long you are going to speak for
● Reference to the visual aids you plan to use
● The scope of your talk: what is and is not included
● An outline of the structure of your talk
● A summary of the conclusions

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………...

The Body
This is the middle part of the presentation. In this part the main content of the
theme is developed which should be precise so that the attention of the target
audience is retained. This part should focus on the following points -
● Do not present more than four main points/ideas
● Support main ideas with facts
● Use signposting
● Use visuals

Conclusion
This is the last part of the presentation. This part summarises the whole
concept of the presentation and also gives the future scope on the topic
considered. This part consists of the following point:
● Reiterate/reinforce what you have said/summarize main points
● Do not present new ideas
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● Relate conclusion to the audience
● Invite questions

An effective way to conclude is to review the points and connect them to the
introduction. This also helps with the overall coherence of the talk. Restate
the most important point of the presentation and connect the conclusion with
the main idea. This helps the audience retain what you want them to
remember.

If the presentation was about a problem, the problem can be restated. Then
provide the solution in no more than two sentences. A timeline for
implementing the solution is even better. The audience must leave with
something valuable or beneficial for them.

Ending with a quotation or punch line usually leaves a great impact on the
audience and helps them to connect with the main theme through this exit
line. The ending should help you interact with the audience at an emotional
level. This is possible only when you do not read from your notes and move
from the reading stand toward the audience. It is important to have sustained
eye contact at this point just as it is in the beginning of the presentation.
Hence, the conclusion must be thought out carefully and presented
effectively.

8.6 USE OF VISUAL AIDS

Most presentations deal with statistics and other complex data which would
be confusing if it were described in words without any visual support. It is
here that visual aids come to our rescue. They help us to present figures, to
make comparisons and contrasts, to project future performances and to talk
about past, present and future trends, thus serving the dual purpose of
enabling the presenter to deal with this kind of information easily and making
it possible for listeners to understand these clearly. A variety of visual aids
like flowcharts, line graphs, bar graphs, pie charts, pictograms, maps, tables,
diagrams, photographs etc. can be used for this purpose. Visual aids also
make a presentation more interesting. Moreover, they help you to cut down
on the amount of talking one has to do.

However, you must ensure that your visuals are relevant, appropriate and
clear. Never overload them with information. Effective presenters introduce
and highlight visual information briefly and clearly, making sure they allow
their audience time to absorb the information. We must use visuals to
reinforce and clarify, and not to overwhelm the audience. There are many
multimedia presentation software which can be used while preparing a
presentation. We will discuss those in unit 13 on technology and
communication.

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 Presentation
Box 1: Checklist for using visual aids Skills
1. Prepare each visual carefully and separately.
2. Check whether the visual really depicts what you are saying.
3. Make sure the visuals are legible like font size and colour
4. Find effective headlines.
5. Keep design and content simple.
6. Use bullet points.
7. Reduce text to a minimum.
8. Always prepare the audience for visuals.
9. Present information clearly and logically

Activity 2
a. Give two examples of business areas where it is advisable for the
presenter to use visual aids to present information.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
b. Give two functions that visuals help us to perform easily and effectively.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
c. Give two do’s and don’ts for the use of visual aids.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
d. Mention two major benefits of using visual aids.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

8.7 QUESTION AND ANSWER SESSION

No presentation is complete and satisfactory until you have successfully
handled your question answer session. In a typical presentation the presenter
talks almost all the time. The only interactive part of a presentation is the
question answer or discussion at the end.
The question answer option puts you in a superior position compared to the
audience. This means that you are seen as an expert and must be well
prepared to be able to answer all queries from the audience. On the other 125
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equal terms with the audience. They can contribute as much, or more to the
discussion than you do.

There can be two policies on question answers. If you are confident and
knowledgeable about your topic, you may allow members of the audience to
ask you questions during the course of the presentation. But if you feel that
this would disturb the rhythm or flow of your talk or put you off, it is better
to invite your audience questions at the end of your presentation. Whatever
be your policy, this must be communicated to the listeners in the beginning of
your presentation.

Questions give you a chance to respond to the concerns of your audience and
to clarify any doubts or confusions. Look at them as an opportunity for you to
support your argument and reinforce your message. They also give you a
chance to learn more about your audience.

How can you best prepare yourself for the audience's questions? This issue
should be addressed by you when you make an analysis of your expected
audience as part of your preparation. This is the right time for you to predict
audience concerns and questions. The next logical step is to think about
answers for them.

Remember that good preparation is the key to handling questions to your

satisfaction. Do not confine your reading and preparation of the topic to what
you plan to include in your talk. Gather additional information. A
comprehensive and in depth understanding of your topic will come in handy
during the question answer session or discussion.

It is also essential that you be a good listener. Make sure you hear and
understand the full question before answering. Ask for clarification of
anything you don't understand. Do not preempt the questioner by answering
before the question is fully stated.
Also be straightforward. If you don't know the answer to a question, don't
guess. Admit you don't know; offer to get the answer and provide it to your
questioner.

Activity 3
1. Here are some tips on what makes a good presentation. Can you think of
a keyword / phrase that best describes each tip?

i. Take interest in what you are talking about and enjoy the experience.
Be energetic during your presentation.

ii. Plan beforehand on how you will begin the presentation, approach
the important points and how you will end.

iii. Speak for your audience and not yourself. Take every opportunity to
show how much common ground you share with them. Address their
goals, needs and concerns.

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 iv. Do not use commonplace or widely known information. Have Presentation
something new and relevant to say. Skills

v. Don’t put mundane tables or figures and long lines of text on the
slides. Experiment with visuals that catch the attention of your
audience.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

2. Here are some more clues on essentials of presentations. Complete them

by inserting the appropriate words:

i. A good presenter must have a sense of ……………………or the

ability to make people laugh.
ii. Check everything you need before you are due to speak – the room,
seating, visibility, acoustics and equipment. Leave nothing to
…………………….

iii. ………… the first minute of your presentation to the last detail.

iv. Try to ………………………. your opening words. This will help

you to sound confident and in …………………….

v. Stay connected with the audience. …………………… to their

reactions if you can.

vi. Keep your sentences short and simple. Be ….………………….

vii. Never talk ….…………………… to your audience. Treat them as

equals.

viii. Let your visuals ………………………... for themselves. Make

comments on them or analyze them. Never read them.

ix. Learn from other speakers but don’t try to copy them. Develop your
own ……………………

x. Treat questions as an opportunity to get your …………………

across better.

8.8 GLOSSOPHOBIA
Phobia is termed as fear. Glossophobia is a fear of speaking in public. This is
termed to be a deterrent while making a presentation. The ones who suffer
from glossophobia often suffer from fear and anxiety, especially while
speaking in front of a group of people. This makes them avoid public
speaking. In business communication, this type of phobia is disadvantageous.
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provide remedial solutions to the employees suffering from glossophobia. It
is a common type of phobia.

Overcoming Glossophobia
Most of us, even those who have reached the highest echelons of their
profession struggle with public-speaking anxiety. Nervousness or anxiety in
certain situations is normal, and public speaking is no exception. To
overcome glossophobia, we will discuss certain tips which may help a person
to become a good public speaker. These tips are as follows –

a. Get organized: Ahead of time, carefully plan out the information you
want to present, including any props, or audio-visual aids. The more
organized you are, the less nervous you will be. Always have an outline
on a small card to stay on track. If possible, visit the place where you
will be speaking and review the available equipment before your
presentation so there are no last-minute technical hiccups.

b. Knowledge of the topic. The better you know the content of your
presentation the less likely you will make a mistake or get off track. This
will also help you increase your confidence level

c. Practice: Practice your complete presentation several times. You may do

it in front of someone whom you are comfortable with and ask for
feedback or make a video of the presentation, watch it and see places
where it can be improved.

d. Challenge specific worries: When you are afraid of something, you may
overestimate the likelihood of bad things happening. List your specific
worries, then directly challenge them by identifying probable and
alternative solutions.

e. Visualize success: Imagine that your presentation is going well. Positive

thoughts will help decrease some of your anxiety.

f. Deep breathing: This can be very calming. Take two or more deep
breaths slowly before you get up to go to the podium.

g. Focus on presentation: People mainly pay attention to new information.

They may not notice your nervousness. If the audience does notice that
you are nervous, they are likely to be sympathetic and want your
presentation to be a success. Therefore, it is important to focus on the
presentation and not on the audience.

h. Do not fear a moment of silence: If you lose track of what you are
saying or start to feel nervous and your mind goes blank, it may seem
like you have been silent for an eternity. In reality, it is probably only a
few seconds. Even if it is longer, it is likely your audience would not
mind a pause to consider what you have been saying. Just take a few
slow, deep breaths and continue.

i. Recognize your success: After your presentation, give yourself a pat on

128 the back. It may not have been perfect, but chances are you are far more
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 critical of yourself than your audience is. See if any of your specific Presentation
worries actually occurred. Everyone makes mistakes. Look at any Skills

mistakes you made as an opportunity to improve your skills.

8.9 COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE

PRESENTATION
To make a presentation effective, one should try to capture the interest of
his/her audience right from the beginning by asking rhetorical questions,
telling an interesting story, quotation or joke, relating what you are saying to
the audience, using illustrations, eye-contact and body language. One must
not just read out the slides or his/her notes. In this section, we will discuss the
components of the effective presentation.

A. Making a Connect
In all the presentations connecting with the audience is the most crucial part.
Therefore, it is important to discuss this aspect.The first few minutes of the
presentation are very precious and crucial. If you fail to arrest the attention of
your audience in the beginning, you may lose it forever. You make your first
impression even before you have opened your mouth to speak. It has to do
with the way you look and carry yourself.

Your dress needs to be neat, smart and appropriate to the occasion. It is

mostly formal for presentations. The next thing to pay attention to would be
your gait and posture. Your body communicates different impressions to the
audience. People not only listen to you; they also watch you. Slouching tells
them you are indifferent or you do not care, even though you might care a
great deal. On the other hand, displaying good posture tells your audience
that you know what you are doing and you care deeply about it. Also, a good
posture helps you to speak more clearly and effectively. While you need to be
upright and look confident, you may need to guard against looking too stiff
and uncomfortable. The key is to look relaxed and comfortable and at ease
with your surroundings. Reaching the venue of your presentation well in time
could be immensely helpful in getting you comfortable with the place.

Eye contact is another crucial factor. It signals interest in others and helps
you to connect with the audience. The audience responds to you better when
you look them in the eyes. Do not keep your eyes away from the audience for
too long, even when you are attending to equipment or looking at your slides.

The expressions you wear on your face transmit a great deal. A smile is
contagious. When you smile at somebody, chances are that s/he will smile
back at you. A smile spreads happiness around you as it makes others smile
in response. It also transmits happiness, friendliness, warmth, liking and
positivity.

The voice is probably the most valuable tool you possess. It is the vehicle
that carries most of the content that you wish to pass on to the audience.
Hence the presenter needs to use his/ her voice to maximum advantage. You
must work on the speed at which you speak as well as the volume. The pitch
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too high, too soft, etc. Do not speak in a monotone as it drifts the attention of
the listener. Modulate your voice. Good speakers lower their voice to draw
the audience in, and raise it to make a point. Warmth of tone and the right
emotions to accompany your words can help you to connect with the
audience instantly.

Lastly, do not forget that the audience will forgive a lot if the speaker is
enthusiastic. If you are interested and enthused, you will pass this on to your
listeners. But do not confuse enthusiasm with loudness.

So now you know that presentations are not just about well researched and
painstakingly gathered material, well organized and structured but they are a
lot about how you combine the human element with the content to reach out
and connect.

Activity 4
State whether the following statements are True or False. Mark ‘doesn’t say’
for statements that the passage doesn’t deal with.

i. The speaker must reach the venue on time.

ii. You should be formally dressed for a presentation.
iii. People spend more time watching you than listening to you.
iv. You can feel relaxed by talking occasionally to the audience.
v. Use your smile sparingly during a presentation.
vi. Your voice is the means of transport for your words.
vii. Your friends can help you out by letting you know whether you are
making the desired impact.
viii. The content of the presentation is more important than the human
element.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

B. Language Focus
Language focus puts the emphasis on the structure of the language which is
being used in the presentation. One should carefully use the phrases while
talking about visuals and making comparisons.
For instance, while introducing a visual in the presentation one can use
following phrases -

130 ● First of all, let’s look at…

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● I’d like to show you… Presentation
Skills
● Have a look at this…
● This graph shows / represents…
● Here we can see…
● As you can see in this graph/table…

Whereas one can use, the following phrases while talking or explaining the
visual-

● On analyzing this graph…

● What is interesting in this graph…
● It is evident from this diagram…
● This visual clearly indicates…
● On taking a closer look…
● Here you see a comparison between…
● A close look at these two pie charts shows…
● In sharp contrast to …

Here are some useful phrases which one can use to conclude his/her
presentation or to give recommendations at the end of the presentation –

● I'd like to summarize/sum up…

● At this stage I would like to run through/over the main points...
● So, as we have seen today...
● On the basis of my arguments I propose that…
● As a result, we suggest that…
● My final comments concern…
● I would like to finish by reminding everyone that…
● I would now like to invite you to a discussion…

C. Body Language
Facial expression is a fundamental contributor to effective communication.
The scientific study of body language is called kinesics. Proper posture is
also important for good communication. Leaning backwards, swinging the
legs, resting the head backwards in a reclining chair or swiveling too
frequently or playfully — are all bad manners. Bend forward a little, keeping
the elbows at the side of the trunk of your body, to indicate that you are
listening attentively.

Silence is a powerful if intriguing medium of communication. It has a

dramatic impact. Silence can be interpreted in more than one way. Silence
can have a dramatic effect in presentations or speeches to draw the attention
of everyone — those who are chatting quietly, or even napping. However, if
it is not used appropriately, it is open to misinterpretation as lack of
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or inappropriate depending upon the situation

Here are some tips to make an effective presentation -

● Dress appropriately for the occasion

● Hold the attention of the audience by using visuals and audio clips to
break the monotony
● Be clear and concise
● Ideas and information should be sequenced well
● Use of humour in the presentation
● Familiarise yourself with the venue
● Be punctual
● Maintain eye contact with the audience
● Have positive body language – enthusiasm, confidence and sincerity

Activity 5
Assume you have to give an important presentation at your workplace.
Keeping this in mind, suggest a possible phrase for each of the prompts
below.

i. Greet your audience

ii. Introduce yourself
iii. Give the title of your talk
iv. Describe the structure of your talk
v. Explain that the audience can interrupt if they want
vi. Say something about the length of your talk
vii. Say a colleague will be showing a video later
……………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
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8.10 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt about the different aspects of presentations. They
are commonly used in workplaces for the purpose of communication in a
variety of situations that range from reporting about the progress of a
department or the progress of an individuals’ work to selling products and
services. Besides, they are often part of the recruitment process. The
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objective of most presentations is either to inform or persuade the listeners Presentation
about something. You have also learnt and practiced commonly used Skills

structures for presentations, the importance of an outline and how to write

outlines. The function of visuals and the extent to which they help deal more
effectively with content is also discussed. The essentials of presentations like
connecting with the audience, language focus etc. have been discussed. The
importance of suitable and impressive endings in presentations is emphasized
along with the question-answer session. Finally, the importance of body
language and ways of overcoming fear of public speaking are deliberated.

8.11 KEYWORDS
Presentation: A way of communicating ideas and information in a group.

Visual Aids: These are graphic representations of ideas or symbols.

Glossophobia: It is the fear of speaking in public.

8.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) What do you understand about presentation skills?

2) How is a presentation planned? Explain.

3) What is the role of visual aids in presentation?

4) Explain the concept of glossophobia.

8.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Budhale, P. (2021). The Golden Book of Business Presentation Skills: Quick
and Easy Tips to Make Powerful Presentations. India: Bloomsbury
Publishing.

Duarte, N. (2012). HBR Guide to Persuasive Presentations. United

States: Harvard Business Review Press.

Monipally, M. M. (2017). Business Communication: From Principles to

Practice. New Delhi: McGraw Hill Education.

Rao, N. & Das, R. P. (2009). Communication Skills (2nd ed.). Mumbai:

Himalaya Publishing House.

Theobald, T. (2019). Develop Your Presentation Skills: How to Inspire and

Inform with Clarity and Confidence. United Kingdom: Kogan Page.

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 Presentation
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BLOCK 3
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION AT WORK

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Communication
At Work BLOCK 3 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
AT WORK
This block has 3 units and all the units cover different aspects of written
communication which are important to organisations.

Unit 9 Basics of Written Business Communication: This unit deals with

basics of written communication which discusses the role of accuracy, clarity
and how effective a written communication can be done. It also discusses the
purpose of writing.

Unit 10 Short Business Correspondence: In this unit we will discuss the

need and importance of short business correspondence. We will also learn
different types of business letters like order letter, refusal letter, enquiry letter
etc. based on different situations.

Unit 11 Long Business Correspondence: This unit discusses the aspect of

business correspondence in more detail. Here you will learn how to develop
reports be it long or short reports. The unit also discusses the difference
between report and proposal.

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 Basics of Written
UNIT 9 BASICS OF WRITTEN BUSINESS Business
Communication
COMMUNICATION

Objectives

After studying this unit you should be able to:

● Understand the basics of writing;

● Develop a mind map;
● Learn the process of writing.

Structure

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Need for Written Communication
9.3 Features of Written Communication
9.4 Process of Writing
9.5 Summary
9.6 Keywords
9.7 Self-Assessment Questions
9.8 References and Further Readings

9.1 INTRODUCTION
No matter where we are or what we do, we engage with writing daily. We
text and write emails. We make lists when we must shop or plan a „to-do‟
profile of our daily activities. We write assignments and exams if we are
students. At the workplace we write reports, project proposals and other
documents. And yet, we do not call ourselves writers and believe that only
people who write for a living, are writers.

Writing is essentially a communication tool that is used to convey emotions

or exchange information. If you have used this tool to talk to your friends,
colleagues, and family, you are already a writer. However, in order to be a
good writer, you need to read good models of writing, have knowledge about
writing and above all, you need to practice constantly .

The problem is with how we approach writing. Across schools and colleges,
we tend to approach writing as an activity that has to be completed as a single
task. However, writing is not just one task. It is made up of many smaller
tasks, happening both consciously and unconsciously. When we do not value
and recognise the smaller tasks, which go into the writing of a piece, we may
end up feeling overwhelmed. Instead, if we follow a step-by-step process, it
makes the act of writing more systematic and ensures we have enough time to
think about and assess the quality of our own writing.
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asked to write an assignment, they are thinking of the final product that has to
be submitted, not the „process‟ through which one creates and develops the
piece of writing. As a result, many resort to copying an existing model or
template of writing rather than going on a creative journey to produce an
original piece of writing. This creates a dependence on the template or
formula that one has to follow, instead of learning to develop one‟s original
thoughts and arguments. Writing is essentially a creative exercise. Through
the act of writing, we aim to create, develop, and refine our thinking. The
process approach becomes a suitable model for this. Therefore, to become a
good writer, you may have to first ensure that you have your basics in place.
So, it is necessary to start with understanding the need and importance of
writing.

9.2 NEED FOR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

As human beings, we observe and process a vast amount of information that
we get from the world around us. We react to what we see, and these
reactions make us unique individuals. If we document these reactions and
observations regularly, we create records of our personal history. Writing is
thus an important tool for documentation. In recent times, however, writing
has expanded to become an important professional skill. Since we are
connected by online networks which demand constant communication, we
are expected to write concise and clear texts. All professional workplaces
now demand strong writing skills from their employees and it is an important
ingredient for upward mobility.

Beyond these obvious and practical functions, we write for the following
reasons:

● Write to experience: People who take photographs have often talked

about the importance of capturing the beauty of a moment. In a similar
way, writing can motivate or demotivate the employees of an
organisation. If you have a unique moment that is worth sharing in your
workplace then that can be done through the writing. Either way, writing
provides you with a medium to share your ideas and experiences.

● Write to think: As humans, we are constantly inundated with thoughts

about our daily lives, ambitions, and insecurities. To make careful
choices and decisions, we must express what we think. Writing gives us
an opportunity to articulate our complex thoughts.

● Write to create: Words have the power to carry inspiring messages.

There is a reason why we remember great novelists, thinkers and
scientists and find wisdom in what they say. To write well is to create a
piece of art that stands the test of time.
● Write to learn: Writing can help us remember what we read and study.
When we take notes, we learn to record and analyse information. This is
one of the important parts for the businesses.
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Activity 1 Basics of Written
Business
Communication
1) What kind of writing in your opinion is important for organisations?
Justify.

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

2) What kind of writing in your opinion should be avoided at the workplace

and why?

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

As you are probably aware, writing helps you develop many skills which are
helpful for your academic life as well as for your work life.Writing helps in
communicating one's ideas and thoughts.

● Writing helps you remember what you are reading, by helping you to
make coherent notes, analyse, synthesize and summarise information
from different sources.

● Writing as you read by taking notes, summarizing, responding to

assumptions/arguments in a text, makes you a better reader. This kind of
reflection enhances your understanding and helps you develop new
insights. It helps you become a critical thinker.

● Writing will also foster your personal development. When you write
about events in the organisation, it helps you understand the significance
of these events. In other words, you become a more reflective and
thinking person.

● At the workplace, you will need to write impressively to get jobs; while
in the job you will be expected to write effective and correctly worded
emails, memos, reports, proposals and so on. If your language is faulty or
your ideas are ill-organised, it will affect your career enhancement.

9.3 FEATURES OF WRITTEN

COMMUNICATION
Many people believe that people who are good at writing do not need to
spend a lot of time learning to write – they are born writers. Writing comes
naturally to them. However, this is not true. Writing research shows that all
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At Work their skills. So, learning to write is essential for developing writing skills. To
be an effective communicator one must adhere to the following
characteristics of writing:

● Extensive reading: Reading extensively will enable you to become a

better writer. In personal as well as professional life a reading habit helps
in developing better communication skills

● Constant writing: One of the best ways to become a good writer is by

constantly writing. Practice makes writing more profound and the words
that flow have more clarity.

● Word conscious/word seeker: Good vocabulary helps in placing the

appropriate words while writing which will help in transmitting the
message with more clarity. This is very much important in the business
world.

● Purpose of writing: It is very important to be aware of the purpose for

which you are writing and have knowledge of who your readers are. This
will make your writing more focused and precise. Whatever the writing
situation, most of us as writers have various purposes in mind.

● Target audience: Remember, most writing is meant to be read by others.

In the business world, the audience is quite specific and communication
to the employer or other stakeholders is made through e-mails, memos,
reports etc. or a job application.

● Understanding of the subject: The next step is to attempt to understand

your subject or topic. Few writers can have a complete understanding of
their subject or topic when they begin to write. Remember, „writing is
not something you do after thinking, but it is something which helps you
to think‟.

Activity 2
Can you recall your earliest experience of writing at your workplace? What
did you write?

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

9.4 PROCESS OF WRITING

Writing is a complex process which involves thinking and composing texts.
When we write, we have ideas and these ideas come to us as words or
phrases. These words or phrases are then logically placed in sentences which
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together to form a coherent text. Though the process of creating a text may Communication
vary from person to person and text type to text type, there are a few basic
steps that can help us demystify this process.

Writers, therefore, plan and then revise their plan, draft and then revise their
drafts, write and then rewrite. This is known as the process approach to
writing and it is important to follow such an approach. There are different
steps involved in the process of writing. These are explained in detail below:

Step 1: Understanding your reader - Who is it for?

Before one begins the process of writing, it is important to identify the reader.
Is the reader your boss? Or are you writing a project proposal for venture
capitalists? Either way, knowing the reader is the first step in the writing
process.

If we closely examine our writing activities, we will see that we write

differently based on who the reader is and what genre of writing we are
attempting. It can be a formal as well as informal form of communication.

Once you identify the reader, the next step is to develop a profile of the
reader. Are you writing for a digital audience? If yes, you may have to
consider keeping the length of your text short. Is your reader a potential
employer? If yes, you may have to use a formal tone when you write. Now
the question arises as to how one can create a reader‟s profile. Let us learn
how to create a reader‟s profile.

Creating a reader’s profile:

The following list of questions can help you create a reader‟s profile:

1) Who is my reader? Am I addressing one person or am I addressing a

diverse group of individuals?
2) Are they familiar with what I say? If not, then what should I tell them so
that they follow what I write? What do they already know?
3) Why should they be interested in what I say?
4) What is the best way to communicate?
5) Should I use a particular structure, tone, or style when I communicate?
What genre should I use?
6) What will they gain after reading?

Activity 3
Write a proposal where you want to improve the living conditions of a group
of people as part of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) activity of your
organisation. Who will be your reader and why? Discuss.

………………………………………………………………………………...
………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...
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At Work
Now that you know your audience, it is time to identify the purpose behind
your writing exercise. You need to do that to ensure the following:

● Your audience will understand what you are writing about and why it is
important to you and to them.

● You will understand why you, your superiors, and your organisation
needs to know about the subject.

● You will be able to identify and gather the information that is most
relevant to your readers and your goals.

Step 3: Starting the Writing Process

Sometimes, when we sit down to write, we may feel the need to discuss
everything under the sun about the topic that we chose. Or we may get stuck
and cannot write at all. In such situations, it is always good to just start
writing. Ideas, if you have noticed, gain coherence and clarity when you put
them down on paper. Free writing is therefore a good strategy to develop
your ideas. Once you have enough ideas on paper, you can then choose what
you want for the subject.

Step 4: Developing Ideas - How to research?

Conducting research is a crucial component of the writing process. Here are a
few tips that can help you with conducting your research:

● Internet Research
At the brainstorming stage, you will have several ideas in mind for your
proposed topic. It might be a good idea to capture them in your mind map
and this might make it easier to narrow the scope of your topic as you think
along. You can start by doing basic internet research. At this stage, you can
note down key points such as definitions, history, and recent developments so
that you have a fair understanding of the topic.

● Identifying credible sources

Now that you have an overview about your topic, it is important to identify
reliable information. You must find reliable sources to support the
information that you present in your writing. To find reliable sources, you
must check the following:
1) Who is the writer? Are they qualified to write about this topic?
2) Where is the information from? Is the website a reliable source?
3) Does the information agree with what other sources have also said?
4) Can the information be verified?

● Library research
A few decades back, libraries were the primary sources of information. While
the internet has helped us find information at record speed, it can also not
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have the right answers for some of our queries. In such contexts, you can visit Basics of Written
Business
a library and find credible vetted resources that can help you with your Communication
research.

● Organise and label your research

Research can thoroughly overwhelm you if you do not organise the
information that you have. When you collect information through internet or
library research, organise them into folders and label them correctly. If you
are reading articles on your browser, it would be good to bookmark the link
so that you can return to them whenever you need. There are also online tools
like Pocket that will help you save links online.

Step 5: Writing a plan

After the free writing that you do, it is important to write an outline. This may
be in points and remember these points will be changed if required. In fact,
your plan must be dynamic and flexible. You can also use mind maps to
understand your topic better. Let us discuss how to create mind maps.

● Mind maps
Sometimes, visualising what you have in mind can help you understand your
ideas better. Visual tools like mind maps can be used to capture your initial
ideas. Created around a single theme or concept, they can also be used to
understand relationships between different sub-themes or ideas, if any.

Creating a mind map

Mind maps can be created using the combination of colour coding, short text,
doodles, short phrases, division of knowledge or information etc. to make it
an effective and active tool of communication. Mind maps can be made with
the help of e-tools which are available on the internet. These can be used to
explain the ideas effectively.
Now let us look at a mind map of a business plan as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Mind-map of a business plan

143
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At Work
Other than mind maps, we can also consider asking questions about the
concept/theme. For example, if you wish to write to your boss about the
improvement and re-launch of a product that your company had designed,
you could ask yourself the following questions:
1) What is the product?
2) What were the customer complaints? And why?
3) What were the good points of the product? Why?
4) What are the improvements suggested by the research team?
5) How soon can the changes be made?
6) How should we advertise the improvements?
7) When should the launch be held?

If you answer the questions given above, it will help you understand the
process of re-launching the product better. This understanding can then help
you structure your writing. In a similar manner, you can ask yourself a set of
probing questions so that they provide you with enough ideas.

The questions given above are some examples that you could use when you
brainstorm. You could use them or use your own questions to help you with
your writing process.

Activity 4
Think of a business plan. Create a mind map of your brainstorming process
for a business plan.

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...
………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

Step 7: Structuring - How to Outline?

An outline prepares the skeletal structure of your writing. Since you have
brainstormed and researched on your topic, you have a vast amount of
information in hand. Therefore, it is good to create an outline that can help
you organise the information logically.

Typically, most business writings have a structure where the information is

broadly categorised into – Introduction, Body and Conclusion. Introduction,
as the name suggests, introduces the concept/theme to the reader and tells the
reader what to expect. It usually has an interesting hook that captures the
interest of the reader followed by a quick overview of the topic. The body is
the spine of your writing. It is in this section that you present your arguments,
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evidence, or ideas to the reader. Finally, the conclusion sums up the writing Basics of Written
Business
and gives the reader an understanding about your intent and purpose. Communication

Activity 5
You have been asked by your organisation to attend a conference on
“Improving the Carbon footprints at the Workplace”. Write a technical trip
report on the conference giving details of your own contribution to it. (250
words)

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

Step 8:Putting it on paper - How to write?

So far, we have discussed planning methods and strategies that could help
with the writing process. But how do we start writing? This is an interesting
question because preparations and plans do not translate to writing.

To write, we must sit at a desk and write to meet our deadline. This means
that we must push our brains to construct coherent sentences, paragraphs, and
texts when we write.

Many of us may feel anxious about writing. We commit to or are given

deadlines but fail to meet them due to procrastination or lack of prioritization.
We may also think that what we write is not good enough. In such contexts,
the following writing tips can be useful:

● Free writing: We may think that we need to churn good sentences as

soon as we start writing. This need for perfection can prevent us from
actual writing and make us feel anxious. In the first stage of writing, your
task is to put information on paper. Take the plunge and think freely.
Forget about errors and typos when you write. Your task at this stage is
to write and not edit.

● Concentrate: Our attention span has reduced considerably with the

internet. We are constantly distracted by text alerts and notifications that
we find it hard to focus. Writing demands focus and concentration. So,
cut out all distractions when you sit down to write. Let your mind only
be in contact with your writing.

● Make writing a habit: As people with responsibilities, we juggle

several tasks at the same time. Writing takes a backseat when we
prioritise other work which we find easier to do. To avoid this, it is good
to set aside a designated space and time for your writing. If you have
some free time in the morning or at night, consider blocking this time for
your writing.
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Written ● Time yourself: Set a timer for ten minutes and write without taking a
Communication
At Work break. At the end of ten minutes, take a 5-minute break. This will train
your mind to maintain constant contact with your writing and prevent
you from feeling overwhelmed with the writing process.

● Talk to someone: Writing often makes us feel insecure and lonely. The
fact that you have no one around to read what you write can prevent you
from actively working on your writing. To avoid this, speak to a
friend/family member/colleague who could give you feedback. These
insights could be incorporated into your writing.

Activity 6
Time yourself for fifteen minutes and write about an unusual experience at
the workplace. Remember to avoid distractions while you are at it.

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

Step 9: Reworking the Draft - How to Revise?

The act of writing is incomplete without the act of reading and revising. To
write is to also read and then rewrite what we write. Usually, what you write
in your first draft may be messy. It could be a tangled bunch of ideas and half
formed thoughts you communicated on paper at one go. This means that you
must return to your draft and „clean‟ the copy before it goes to the reader.
Revising is thus an opportunity to critically examine your writing. When you
revise, you can rethink and change what you write. You can reorganise for
clarity and remove incoherent ideas. Basically, good writing emerges from
multiple rounds of revision. So, finding time to revise and rewrite is a must.
Take some time away from your draft before you begin reworking on it. You
can take a few days or hours to distance yourself from your writing. When
you revisit your draft after the brief break, read it like an editor, although
revising is not editing.

Do remember that revising is not the same as editing. When you revise, you
can even change the whole draft and start afresh. Though editing is a part of
the revision process, it does not involve large scale changes to the draft. So,
when you sit to work on a writing project, do ensure that you have set enough
and more time for revisions.

Step 10: Integrating Feedback - How to collaborate?

Most people believe that writing is a personal project. While this may be true
to some extent, good writing emerges from collaboration and feedback. Even
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after the first round of revisions, you may still not know if your writing Basics of Written
Business
would work for a reader. To understand this, you could consider asking a Communication
friend or colleague to read your draft.

Constructive feedback can do wonders to your draft. It will improve the

reading experience of your draft and make you confident about your writing.
Here are a few steps that will help you to receive feedback:

● Find a trusted friend or peer who can give you constructive feedback.
Ensure that they are kind and objective in their comments.

● Share the draft and a detailed note outlining the goals of your writing,
with your friend. The note will help them understand the purpose of your
writing and help them communicate effective feedback.

● Keep an open mind. Feedback can be a mixed bag of tricks. It is possible

that your friend may not like some part of your writing. If they say so, be
polite and ask them why they did not find it up to the mark. Knowing
their reason can help you revise your draft.

Step 11:Polishing the Draft - How to Edit and Proofread?

Editing and proofreading are the final steps of the writing process. They
make our writing effective and error-free. Though editing and proofreading
are linked to each other, they are different in terms of their functions. Editing,
for example, can be a part of the revising process. Since we are re-reading the
draft, we may edit for clarity as we make revisions. proofreading, on the
other hand, only engages with error correction.

The following steps can help you with your editing process:

● Read your writing aloud: When you read aloud, you are the reader of
your writing. You give real-time feedback to your brain and that can help
with identifying problems faster.
● Find and fix common mistakes: There are several common mistakes
that we make when we write. These can include punctuation errors or
spelling mistakes. If you have noticed some of them in your previous
writing, you can check for them when you edit.

● Check and remove repetitions: Remove repetitive words, phrases, and

ideas when you read. Instead, use synonyms.

● Clarity: Look out for wordy, clichéd and empty sentences. See if you
can combine sentences for clarity.

● Use active voice: Sentences like „The new software can be mastered
easily in a couple of days‟ are awkward as compared to „You can easily
master the new software in a couple of days.‟ To avoid this, always give
importance to the subject.
● Ensure uniformity in the use of tenses: Check if you have switched
tenses or used the wrong tense.

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Written ● Check for subject-verb agreement errors: See if there are any errors in
Communication
At Work pronoun usage.

The following steps can help you with your proofreading process:

● Read one sentence at a time. Look closely from the beginning to the end.
When reading the sentence, look out for missing words, spelling
mistakes and punctuation errors. Reading sentences one by one can help
you spot errors faster since you are reading them in isolation.

● Read the paper aloud. When you read out, you will hear yourself speak
and spot errors faster. You can also hear how your sentences sound to a
listener/reader and make changes based on that.

● Consider proofreading in a different order other than top to bottom. If

you read the paper from bottom to top or in parts, you may catch typos
and other spelling mistakes.

● Common punctuation errors such as use of commas and apostrophes can

also be rectified during proofreading.

● Finally, to ensure that there are no mistakes, you can also consider
sharing your writing with a friend and asking them to proofread. Since
they are unfamiliar with the text, they can easily spot errors when they
read.

Activity 7
Spot the Mistakes: Read the text given below. There are 12 verbs that are
wrong. Rewrite the passage with the correct form of the verb in the space
provided.

Some jobs is very demanding but nevertheless, someone have to do them.

Recently, I saw an advertisement in the newspaper where ABC Company
were looking for a Chocolate Purchase Manager. The Company were offering
to pay ₹30,000 per year for the right candidate. The nature of the job are also
very interesting. The applicant are expected to travel to Africa to selects the
right cocoa to be used in the making of chocolate. The company are
expecting a lot of applications for the job. They is looking for someone who
work hard, enjoy travelling and who love chocolate.

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...
………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………...
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 Basics of Written
9.5 SUMMARY Business
Communication
In this unit, we have learned the importance of writing as an important mode
of communication. We looked at how writing helps us to organise our
thoughts and helps us communicate effectively. At the workplace, good,
clean, concise writing helps us in upward mobility in our careers. We also
saw how writing helps us in creating meaningful texts of all types. Finally, it
helps us to think and articulate our ideas and communicate them to the target
audience. This unit also discussed the basic steps involved in the process of
writing which is important in present times as written communication, be it
informal or formal, has become an integral part of the workplace.

9.6 KEYWORDS
Written Communication: It is the process of transmitting messages through
written words

Mind Maps: A visual tool to capture the ideas.

Feedback: Process of transmitting evaluative or corrective information about

an action.

Editing: Process of selecting and preparing a written, visual or audible

material to convey a message.

Proofreading: Process of identifying errors in the text.

9.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the need for written communication?

2) What are the characteristics of good written communication?

3) Explain different steps of the process of writing.

4) What is the role of feedback in written communication?

5) Why is written communication important for business organisations?

9.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

IGNOU. (2020). BEGS-183 Writing and Study Skills. New Delhi: IGNOU.
Available at https://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/67249

IGNOU. (2021). BEGE-145 Soft Skills New Delhi: IGNOU. Available at

https://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/77151

IGNOU. (2021). BEGG-173 Academic Writing and Composition. New Delhi:

IGNOU. Available at https://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/76123

Jensen, J. (2017) Write No Matter What: Advice for Academics. The

University of Chicago Press.

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Written Kiefer, K. (1994-2021). Editing and Proofreading Strategies. The WAC
Communication
At Work Clearinghouse. Colorado State University. Available at
https://wac.colostate.edu/resources/writing/guides/

King, S. (2014). On Writing. Canada: Leatherbound Bestsellers.

Lamott, A. (2007). Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and

Life. United States: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.

Lindblom, P. D. (1983). Elements of Writing. United States: Macmillan.

Strunk, W. (2020). The Elements of Style. (n.p.): Auroch Press Limited.

Zinsser, W. (2012). On Writing Well, 30th Anniversary Edition: An Informal

Guide to Writing Nonfiction. United States: Harper Perennial.

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 Short Business
UNIT 10 SHORT BUSINESS Correspondence

CORRESPONDENCE

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to;
● Understand the significance of business correspondence;
● Understand various types of business letters; and
● Develop the skills-set to write effective business letters.

Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Concept of Business Correspondence
10.3 Purpose of Business Correspondence
10.4 Types of Business Correspondence
10.5 Foreign Words and Phrases
10.6 Business Letter
10.7 Types of Business Letters
10.8 Personalised Stand Letters
10.9 Memorandum
10.10 Email Writing
10.11 Summary
10.12 Keywords
10.13 Self-Assessment Questions
10.14 References and Further Readings

Appendices
Appendix A - Specimen of a Refusal Letter
Appendix B - Specimen of an Acceptance Letter (Invitation to join
Professional/Civic Bodies)
Appendix C - Specimen of an Order Letter
Appendix D - Specimen of an Enquiry Letter
Appendix E - Specimen of a Collection Letter
Appendix F - Specimen layout of an Application Letter (Covering Letter)
Appendix G - Specimen of a Sales Letter
Appendix H - Specimen of a Personalized Stand Letter (Seasonal Greetings)
Appendix I - Specimen of a Personalized Stand Letter (Being promoted)
Appendix J - Specimen of a Personalized Stand Letter (Family Bereavement)
Appendix K - Specimen of a Personalized Letter of Complaints
Appendix L - Specimen of a Memorandum
Appendix M - Specimen layout of an Email
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Written
Communication
10.1 INTRODUCTION
At Work
Business correspondence plays a pivotal role as communication with all the
stakeholders is very important. All the stakeholders connected with the
business contribute at their respective levels.Timely, sequential and
systematic communication with these stakeholders results in enhancing the
productivity of the business and also helps in developing long lasting
relationships. Every business unit has to be clear in defining its terms and
conditions of operating their business and the same terms and conditions have
to be communicated precisely to all the stakeholders concerned. It bridges the
gap between all the parties involved in the business. Different types of
correspondence are being used in business and they are drafted as per the
situation. The business correspondence has to be clear, concise and accurate
as every business correspondence reflects the image of the writer or the
organisation which it represents. The business correspondence has to be free
from any bias and must be written with a decent business tone without
hurting the dignity of the reader. This unit discusses different types of
business correspondence.

10.2 CONCEPT OF BUSINESS

CORRESPONDENCE
Business correspondence is the lifeline of every business. Correspondence
whether it is verbal or written can have a huge impact on the bottom line
profitability and productivity of any organisation. Proper drafted emails,
structured approach in offline & online meetings, systematic webinars, well-
defined inter and intradepartmental communication all play an important role
in defining the success of an organisation. Proper business correspondence
has taken a prominent place in today‟s business world, as the success and
failure of an organisation are largely dependent on the quality of
communication taking place.

Business correspondence includes both written and oral communication.

Letters, emails, reports, memos are all formal and part of commercial and
business activity; so are interviews, meetings, conferences, presentations, and
negotiations. The challenge to improve business correspondence is
omnipresent, as each and every employee in any organisation is involved
with one or the other type of communication.

10.3 PURPOSE OF BUSINESS

CORRESPONDENCE
In business communication, the way one writes any form of business letters
makes a lot of difference. There are a number of letters of different forms
being written in any organisation. Therefore, it becomes important to
understand the purpose of business correspondence. The following points
give an idea about the purpose of business correspondence:

1) Maintaining proper relationships– The purpose of business

152 correspondence is governed by the fact that it facilitates effective and
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 proper communication which does not cost too much to the business as Short Business
Correspondence
well. It consolidates the business by filling away all the vacuum and
communication gaps in this case.

2) Organisational goodwill- An organisation‟s growth can increase due to

systematic business correspondence. The way an organisation addresses
a client, clients‟ queries, their feedback, complaints, and stakeholders‟
issues create the goodwill of any organisation slowly and gradually and
enhances its credibility.
3) Reduces employee turnover- Organisations in which employees are
satisfied and earnestly engaged and involved with their work have much
lower turnover rates. In order to retain the workforce, the organisations
have to ensure that relevant information should reach their employees
pertaining to their job roles and responsibilities. On the flip side, too
much irrelevant information often leads to disengagement, less
productivity, feeling monotonous, which results in lower employee
retention.
4) Increases productivity of employees- Today employees operate in a
world where there is information overload. Identifying the right source of
information, meticulously and scanning the right and appropriate
information is very cumbersome and takes lots of employees‟ productive
time. Moreover, an average employee spends 3 hours every day
searching for information needed. On the other hand, if the intra-
organisational correspondence is clear, this can help the employees have
clarity and accuracy about their work requirements and roles.
5) Improves customer satisfaction and retention- Proper business
correspondence can help any organisation with repetitive sales. It is said
that it is easy to lose a customer, but twice as tough to bring an
unsatisfied customer back to the organisation. Proper, clear, and
transparent business correspondence can help in portraying the right
image of the organisation in the eyes of its customer. Customers
appreciate professional and timely correspondence, along with regular
follow-ups thereby increasing the trust in the organisation which grows
with the passage of time.
We know that there are different types of business correspondence. Let
us now discuss these types in the following section.

10.4 TYPES OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE

There are different types of business correspondence and the frequency of use
of them varies from organisation to organisation. The correspondence types
which are used in almost all organisations are mentioned below:

1) Internal Correspondence
Internal correspondence may be a written communication between
departments, employees, micro-units, and various regional branches, zones,
and branches of one organisation. The internal correspondence may be formal
or informal. Usually, regular internal correspondence is less formal, like the
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Written manager issuing some instructions to his/her team. Email is often the most
Communication
At Work common tool while sending internal correspondence.

Other internal correspondences include appraisal letters, letters of dismissal,

letters of appreciation, formal requests, etc. Typically, such communication is
usually printed on a piece of paper, which the sender authenticates and signs
and the recipients receive it physically.

2) External correspondence
External correspondence may occur amongst two organisations or between
one organisation and its customers. External correspondence is mainly made
to, sponsors, government offices, vendors, prospective clients,
suppliers, financial firms, accounting and law firms, creditors,
donors, business affiliates etc.

3) Sales correspondence
Sales correspondence may consist of a purchase order, marketing letters,
promotional offer letters, sales reports, new scheme letters, discount-offer
letters, invoices, letters of order confirmation, collection letters. Every sales
correspondence has to be meticulously drafted. Promotional offer letters need
to be authentic, should not contain any hidden information and must not
mislead the customers.

4) Personalized correspondence
This type of correspondence is customized and tailor-made. Suitable
examples include appreciation notes, „Thank-you‟ letters expressing
gratitude, letters of condolence and sympathy, letters of congratulations and
good wishes, letters of seasonal greetings.

Personal correspondence letters might not have an ardent formal tone of the
conversation. They can be sent through email, but a physically drafted letter
is appreciated as it has personal warmth and touch.

5) Circulars
Circulars refer to notices which are sent to many people in an organisation.
They might be new announcements, new advancements, or new office
policies having new instructions or even new office protocols. The circulars
are focused to reach many readers and are usually kept in a generic tone as
they cater to numerous people who receive them.

6) Routine correspondence
This type of correspondence is related to routine issues. Common types of
routine correspondence include invitations, replies, letters of appointment,
inquiries and acknowledgments.

These were the basic types of correspondence. Delving deeper let us now
discuss the various types of business letters.

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 Short Business
10.5 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES Correspondence

Words and phrases form an important part of any communication. In business

correspondence also words and phrases play an important role. These words
and phrases are mostly of Latin or French origin. They are being given here
so that if you come across them, you do not face any difficulty in
understanding their meaning.
1) ad hoc - for a particular purpose
2) ad valorem - according to value
3) bonafide - genuine (e.g., only bona fide members
will be allowed to attend the meeting.)
4) de facto - actual, real
5) en bloc - as a whole
6) en masse - all together
7) en route - on the way
8) errata - list of errors
9) ex officio - rank or position (by virtue of one's
office)
10) ex parte - one-sided
11) fait accompli - an established fact
12) impasse - deadlock
13) in camera - in secret
14) inter alia - among other things
15) in Toto - wholly or entirely
16) ipso facto - virtually
17) laissez faire - free (the principle of non-interference)
18) locus standi - the right to interfere
19) malafide - in bad faith; treacherously
20) modus operandi - way of doing a thing
21) notabene - take notice (N.B.)
22) nouveau riches - persons who have become lately rich
23) par excellence - eminently
24) per capita - per head
25) per diem - per day
26) prima facie - on the face of it
27) pro-rata - in proportion to
28) sine die - indefinitely
29) status quo - the existing condition
30) subjudice - under consideration of a judicial body
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Written 31) ultra vires - beyond one's powers
Communication
At Work 32) verbatim - word for word
33) versus - against
34) via media - a middle course
35) vide - indicates reference to some passage or
book, etc.
36) vis-à-vis - in relation to something or someone

10.6 BUSINESS LETTER

The art of letter writing dates back to olden times, and in present times also
letters are indeed an important source of communicating the messages.
Business letters are usually written for persuading potential customers to buy
some product, answering the queries, replying to customers' feedback, asking
or giving quotations, collecting dues, and maintaining relationships with
stakeholders. In order to write a good business letter, few requisites should
always be kept in mind such as the knowledge of the language, proper
punctuation, purpose, and intent of the letter, concise style of writing, and
maintaining authenticity. The writer should be very clear about the
procedures, policy, protocols, rules, and regulations of the organisation as
letters not only represent the person who sends it but also represents the
image and goodwill of the organisation. A properly drafted business letter
can become an impactful mouthpiece of an organisation. For a business letter
to be fresh, sprightly, and readable, there is no better way to begin than by a
thorough „house cleaning‟. Begin by throwing out all surplus words. Read
over every sentence of your letter and ask yourself: „Is this word really
necessary? Will the meaning change if I remove this word?‟ Remember! In a
business letter, every word must earn its place and there is absolutely no
place for parasite words in a crisp piece of writing. There are different types
of business letters and they are used as per the requirement. Let us discuss
some common forms of business letters.

10.7 TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTERS

As we have learnt that business letters should have clarity and should relay
the right message. It is therefore important to learn how these letters are
framed and for what purpose. We will discuss some common types of
business letters which are used by almost all the organisations.

REFUSAL LETTER
If they are not to offend, letters of refusal must be both tactful and friendly.
They should leave the recipient with the impression that the invitation was
not only welcome but is turned down for a genuine reason. There are some
do‟s and don‟ts for a refusal letter. These are:
Do’s while drafting a refusal letter
1) Express gratitude for the reader;

156 2) Use soft and mellow words;

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3) Mention the authentic reasons for refusal; Short Business
Correspondence
4) Give importance to the sender‟s efforts;
5) Close the letter on a futuristic note.

Note: Refer to Appendix A for the “Specimen Of a Refusal Letter”.

ACCEPTANCE LETTER
Letters accepting an invitation to an organisation's annual banquet, to lunch
or dinner at someone‟s place, or to any other event requiring prior
preparation, should be sent within two days of receiving the invitation.

While conveying pleasure at being invited and anticipation of the event, their
degree of formality or informality readers should take their cue from the
invitation itself. Obviously, a chatty note inviting you to lunch at a friend‟s
club will be answered in an informal way, while an invitation to the
Organisation‟s Annual banquet will require a more formal reply.

It is a good plan to reiterate the time, place, and date of the meeting just to
make sure there will be no misunderstanding.

Note: Refer to Appendix B for the “Specimen of an invitation to join

professional or civic Body”

ORDER LETTER
Letters related to the ordering of goods and services are most prominent to an
organisation's business. Orders are usually routine letters, and their
effectiveness totally depends on the accuracy of the details they hold. Replies
to orders are treated as opportunities to build up goodwill and relationships
with new customers, uncertain customers, regained customers as well as
long-standing loyal customers.

The Order letter must have the following details:

1) They should be clear and transparent as there should be no hidden cost;
2) All the financial details must be clearly mentioned;
3) The exact quantities of goods ordered should be accurate;
4) Order letter should be sent on time;
5) Order letter should be concise;
6) They are an important tool for establishing long-term relationships.

Note: Refer to Appendix C for “Specimen of an Order Letter”

ENQUIRY LETTER
The most common letters in business are buyers‟ enquiries about goods and
services. Today, a good deal of information about goods and prices is
conveyed by telephone, mobile, social media platforms and emails; but
everyone may not have these facilities and prefer to use letters so that they
have a document and record for reference. In most of the cases, the formal
order letter is used for documentation purposes.
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Written Note: Refer to Appendix D for “Specimen of an Enquiry letter”.
Communication
At Work
COLLECTION LETTER
Usually, collection letters are written to customers who have bought things,
availed of services on credit and their bills are still unpaid or outstanding.
There are some debtors who might pay the amount immediately while
receiving a text message, letter or email but others may not. The collection
letters have to be mild in tone as the tone of the overall communication
should not hurt the customers‟ sentiments and the customers are to be
retained at the same time.

Note: Refer to Appendix E for “Specimen layout of a Collection Letter”.

APPLICATION LETTER

A letter of application, also known as a cover letter is a document along with

candidates resume which provides additional information about his/her skill-
sets, expertise, and relevant work experience.

A letter of application holds detailed information mentioning the reasons as

to why a candidate is qualified for the profile s/he has applied for. A well-
drafted application letter explains the reasons for your interest in the
organisation where you have applied.

A good application letter should reveal to the employer the position/job

profile the candidate has applied for, why the employer should select him/her
as a potential candidate etc.

Every detail of the covering letter needs careful attention; parts of the layout
must be arranged neatly and framed accurately; names, designations,
addresses, dates, and so on, must be absolutely correct. Even a small error
can send a wrong message to the prospective employer about the applicant‟s
carelessness. An employer is interested in the applicant‟s personal qualities
like diligence, inquisitiveness, teamwork, adaptability, and motivation to
achieve. The candidate must present to the employer why s/he fits in the
organisation.

If a job is attractive, there will be many applicants with similar qualifications

competing to make the first impression. An impressive covering letter with
an individual style will always be preferred and has a better chance than a
routine letter which is no different from a hundred others that state the same
required qualifications. A successful covering letter must position a
personality that an employer would like to meet.

It is important that if you are a prospective candidate and applying for a

position you should follow the following:
● use your own style;
● be concise;
● letter should not be of more than one page;
● use simple language without jargons and complex sentences.
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Note: Refer to Appendix F for “Specimen Layout of an Application Short Business
Correspondence
Letter (Covering Letter)”.

SALES PROMOTION LETTER

Sales letters are commonly used for giving information about
products/services and persuading prospective customers to buy the products.
The sales letter should always be customized to suit the needs and interests of
selected groups or individual buyers. The sales letter is the most highly
individualized form of advertising and publicity. It addresses an individual or
a group personally and attempts to change them into an interested, potential
buyer. It is somewhat like a written sales presentation and follows the
persuasion steps towards convincing.

The sales letter closely follows the following four stages of the selling
process:

a) Attract attention

b) Create interest and desire

c) Win confidence

d) Motivation and action

a) Attracting the attention

There are many ways of attracting attention. The opening sentence must
arouse curiosity and encourage the reader to read further.

You can use the following lines to grab the attention

a) Proverbs and quotations from well-known writers are interesting for their
pointed style which can focus attention at once. For example.“No pain,
no gain” is an old proverb. But today‟s technology has taken the pain out
of most things (to sell any gadget).

You cannot buy everything in the world, but you can buy the best of
some things.

b) A conditional sentence can be exciting provided the suggested condition

is a possibility within the reach of the reader. A conditional phrase can
be used to begin a statement, or a question, or a command. For example,
if you have intelligent children, they will ask questions that adults never
dream of.

c) Questions have the power to arouse thoughts; they set the mind thinking
to find an answer like Would you like to take your family for a grand
vacation this summer, wouldn‟t you?

b) Creating interest and desire

You need an understanding of human desires and feelings, good knowledge
of the product, and a clear mental picture of the prospective customer in order
to develop an effective chain of interest, desire, confidence, and willingness
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Written to buy. There are two things that really stimulate people; the hope of gain and
Communication
At Work the fear of loss, the fear of loss is the stronger of the two, hope of gain and
fear of loss are basic to common human desires. Whatever product/service
you wish to sell; you have to position it so that its benefits satisfy one or
more of the following universal desires.
● To be wealthy
● To look good
● To be healthy
● To be popular
● To have security

c) Win confidence and creating conviction

While you present your product and try to make readers accept what you say,
they go through different emotions. The initial interest and desire for a
product/service give place to strong doubts and uncertainty of different kinds
and on different accounts.

The first doubt may be aimed outward at the seller and /or at the product. The
reader may think of such questions like -Is the seller to be believed? Does the
organisation support its product and stand by the buyers? Is the product really
good? Durable?Satisfactory?Trouble-free? What about the after-sales
service? What If I find the product unsatisfactory? etc.

The reader is likely to think, “Yes, s/he thinks s/he can fix my problem. They
all say that!”. Therefore, it is important that you present your credentials, that
is, the reason why you can be trusted and the proof that your claims are true.
Evidence or proof of worth can be of two types: (1) Facts and (2) Opinions.

Facts include:
● Figure of sales
● Medals, prizes, and certifications
● Mention accreditation by certifying bodies such as ISO 9000
certifications etc.
● Samples, demonstrations, and trial offers

Opinions of satisfied users add social proof. There may still be doubts in the
readers‟ minds, even though they may secretly hope that the stated benefits
are true. To build up credibility, present testimonials from satisfied
customers. Letters of appreciation received from satisfied users are the best
testimonials. You may get such letters from customers to whom you send
after-sales letters.

d) Inducing action
The most important function of the sales letter is to get action from the
reader. The entire structure of the letter should be designed in such a way that
the reader takes the step towards the product. At times an extra incentive is
needed to make people take action. When people think that there is a limited
160
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supply of something that they want, they usually rush to get some of it. You Short Business
Correspondence
can create a sense of shortage by limiting the offer in some way, such as by
stating that the quantity is in limited supply, or by making your offer valid for
only a limited time. For example, “This offer is valid only until (state the last
date) after which the product or service will return to its original price”.

Note: Refer to Appendix G for “Specimen of a Sales Letter”

Activity 1
a) You are an entrepreneur who has started his/her business in the industrial
paints segment. Identify those companies which manufacture industrial
paints.

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

b) Identify the types of clients to whom these industrial paints are supplied.

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

c) Draft an effective sales letter to those companies who are in regular need
of the industrial paints. Ensure that your sales letter should cover
important details like types of industrial paints, USP of your
organisation, pricing details and element of persuasion.

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

10.8 PERSONALISED STAND LETTERS

It is true that in business, relations are maintained formally and
professionally. However, there are certain situations where customized tailor-
made correspondence has to be done with all the stakeholders to maintain
long-term relations. Personalized stand letters can include letters of
condolence and sympathy, thank you letters, congratulations and good wishes PAGE161\*
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Written letters, letters of season‟s greetings, letters of welcome etc. The specimens of
Communication
At Work different types of application letters are given in the appendices part.

Note: Refer to Appendix H for “Specimen letters of Seasonal Greetings”

(Personalised Stand Letters)

Note: Refer to Appendix I for “Specimen letters of Being Promoted”

(Personalised Stand Letters)

Note: Refer to Appendix J for “Specimen letters of Family

Bereavement” (Personalised Stand Letters)

Personalised Letters of Complaints

In any business, there will be some mistakes and mishaps; you may not get
the goods and services as you had expected and ordered. If things go wrong
with your order, you have to inform the supplier about the problem and see
that the faults are corrected and adjustments are made.

Note: Refer to Appendix K for “Specimen of Personalised Letter of

Complaints”.

10.9 MEMORANDUM
A memorandum (memo) signifies a “reminder” or a note as well. It is
generally used for communication within an organisation only. It may contain
any prime announcement, policies or new procedures or rules to be adopted
within an organisation. Furthermore, it is typically written as common
communication within an organisation. It can be used to update a team on
activities, the latest developments for a given project, or to inform a selected
cluster inside an organisation of a happening, action, or observance. A
memo‟s purpose is typically to inform; however, it sometimes includes a part
of persuasion or a decision to action. Every organisation has informal and
formal communication channels and networks. The unofficial, informal
communication network inside an organisation is typically known as the
grapevine, and it is typically characterized by rumour, gossip, and
insinuation. In a grapevine, one person might hear some information and go
around the organisation passing the information to other people. If an
organisation needs workers in action, they will additionally issue a note.
While memos do not usually embrace a decision to action that desires
personal deployment, they typically represent the business or organisation‟s
interests.

The sole objective of using a business memo is to convey a message, which

must be concise and efficient. The formatting of the memo should frame the
document as easy to read and navigate and as comprehensible as possible.

The unique formatting details, such as colours and font, vary from
organisation to organisation and usually depend upon the guidelines framed
by the management of the organisation. Memos should clarify the following
information in the header, normally at the top of the document.

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● Date: mention the date on which the memo is sent to its targeted Short Business
Correspondence
audience;
● To: The name and/or designation of the individual(s) or team(s) to whom
the memo is primarily written for;
● Cc (Optional): The name or title of anyone else who will receive a copy,
if applicable;
● From: Name of the issuer of memo accompanied by the handwritten
initials and possibly the job title;
● Subject: A phrase that sums up the memo‟s content effectively.

Note: Refer to Appendix L for “Specimen layout of Memorandum”

Activity 2
You are a Human Resource Manager in an IT Firm. You have been
frequently receiving resignation letters from all the departments of the
organisation. You have found that employees are leaving the organisation
without any prior notice. Organize a meeting with all the departmental heads
and explore the reasons for high attrition rates in the organisation. Draft a
memo in this context to all the employees of the organisation and apprise
them with new details of exit policy.

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

10.10 EMAIL WRITING

A well-drafted email can make the difference between a successful
organisation or an unsuccessful one. A properly drafted email can turn a
prospective customer into a potential client.
Email communication can vary depending on various factors including the
nature of industry, organisation, the profile it operates in. The language of an
email differs when we are addressing a superior or a peer or if we are writing
to one or several recipients or if we are writing across countries, cultures and
organisations as well.

The features of a well drafted email writing are mentioned below.

1) Include a comprehensible subject line

● The subject line should be composed just like a headline of a
newspaper. The newspaper‟s headlines are designed to attract readers
to read the articles, one should write subject lines in such a way that
you arouse the recipient‟s curiosity and s/he will be very inclined to
read the mail rather than resisting it.
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 Block Heading
Written ● Do add a descriptive prefix before the actual subject line, such as in
Communication
At Work the: “Need response urgently:”, or use “FYI” (for your information)
and “FYA” (for your action).

2) Always use an appropriate Salutation

Salutations are many times debated. Few argue that you should always use a
formal greeting. This solely depends on the recipient and the rapport you
have with them. If you are writing to a close colleague or your team, an
informal „Hi‟ will likely be an apt salutation.

If the emails have been sent to somebody in the past and if there is a chain of
trail mails going on, then it is fine to write an email without any formal
greeting again and again. A formal salutation or introduction must be added
with casual acquaintances.

1) Short-hands/forms should be used with only well-known

acquaintances
Everyone wishes to save time in the organisations. People prefer shortcuts
and short-hands. Writing in short-hands to an internal team of the
organisation, or to one‟s own team, can still be accepted. On the other hand,
handwriting in shorthand to clients may lead to casualness. If you are writing
an email to someone with whom you have professional relations, then short
forms should be avoided.

2) Be aware of using humour or colloquialism across different cultures

Cross-culture emails or emails to different groups have to be written with

proper knowledge and awareness. One should be aware that funny sayings or
colloquial words may be completely misunderstood by your business
colleagues in overseas offices. Wrong messages degrade the image of the
organisation and employees as well.

3) Consider the purpose of your email

Always state the core purpose of your email. Open-ended emails can be
confusing. Be very clear about what you expect from your emails. Are you
expecting immediate action or the mail is just for mere information? The
purpose and course of action must be clearly mentioned.

4) Think before you smile

Emojis have crept into formal and informal communication nowadays. With
the increase of email and text communication, it is impossible to see facial
expressions, so people add smiley faces to pass their messages impressively
to others. It depends on the norm in your organisation and sector, but be
mindful of when and to whom you are sending emojis.

5) Do not hit reply all or CC for everyone

One should be very clear and accurate about the recipients of the email.
Target your emails to only those people with whom the emails are related.
Unnecessary emails being sent to unconcerned people create confusion and
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also kill the productive time of other people. At the same time, unnecessary Short Business
Correspondence
emails are also considered highly unprofessional.

6) Reply in a timely fashion

A timely reply to an email usually within 24 hours shows your concern and
consideration. This especially holds very true when you have been invited to
attend any meeting, or where you need to reply to any deadlines regarding a
project or any other situation which needs to be addressed timely.

7) Always spell check

Remember! Your words are your reflection. In professional parlance, having

spelling mistakes ruins one‟s image as well as the image of the organisation
where one works. Sending emails with spelling mistakes and grammatical
errors can be disgusting for colleagues. They could infer that you are too
languid to use the spell check before you click send. Take the time to re-read
your emails, make sure your emails are sensible enough before you hit the
send button.

8) It is all about context

At the end, the crux is the context. Emails not only carry the image of an
individual who writes it, but also the image of the organisation as a whole. To
whom the email is being targeted? How acquainted are you with the recipient
of the email? Do you know the recipient is close to, who are your employees
writing? How well do they know the recipient? Do they know them quite
well or simply virtually? How will the email be comprehended? What is the
goal of the email? The HR team can play a pivotal role here by making every
employee well acquainted with the tone of the organisation. In this case,
certain training programs can be conducted.

Note: Refer to Appendix M for “Specimen Layout of an Email”

10.11 SUMMARY
Business correspondence plays a very important role and is very important
and crucial for every organisation for maintaining long-term relations with all
its stakeholders. Proper and timely business correspondences do impact the
image of the organisation and vice-versa. Business correspondence should
always be clear, concise, and accurate so that the message is sent exactly the
way it has been planned and conceived. There are various types of business
correspondence that are used based on different situations. We learnt
different types of business letters like Order letter, Refusal letter, Enquiry
letter, Quotation letter, Acceptance letter, letter for different kinds of
situations, Personalized stand letters, enquiries, customers‟ complaints,
collection letters – Sales promotion letters, Application letters, and memos.
These letters are common to almost all the business organisations. While
writing the letters it is important to customize them as per the needs, likes,
and dislikes of the reader as well. In a nutshell, business correspondence
should be courteous, concise and complete.

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Written
Communication
10.12 KEYWORDS
At Work
Internal Correspondence: Internal correspondence may be a formal or
informal written communication between departments, employees, micro-
units, and various regional branches, zones, and branches of one organisation.

External Correspondence: External correspondence may occur amongst

two organisations or between one organisation and its customers.

Sales Correspondence: Sales correspondence may consist of a purchase

order, marketing letters, promotional offer letters, sales reports, new scheme
letters, discount-offer letters, invoices, letters of order confirmation,
collection letters.

Order letter: Orders are usually routine letters, and their effectiveness totally
depends on the accuracy of the details they hold.

Memorandum: A memorandum (memo) signifies a “reminder” or a note as

well. It is generally used for communication within an organisation only.

10.13 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) As an agent for a chain of hotels at hill stations and holiday resorts, draft
a sales letter to be sent to high-income group persons, offering special
off-season packages.

2) Wanted young, dynamic, and result-oriented marketing personnel (Boys

and Girls) for a reputed computer software organisation. Must be a
graduate with good communication skills. Work experience will be
preferred. Qualified candidates will get attractive compensation plus a
traveling allowance. Send applications and CV along with a passport size
photograph before 25th Sept 2021. To Scifi Consultants, 8/C, High
Tower, Nariman Point, Mumbai-400008. Draft a covering letter for
applying for the vacancy.

3) Tropical Dry fruits Organisation, fruits exporting agents, placed an order

with Sun power products, for 5000 kg of Almonds to be sent to a
customer in China. On receiving the consignment, they find that some
boxes of almonds are damaged. Draft the complaint letter to the supplier.

4) A business associate has invited you to attend his organisation‟s dinner

meeting, at which a well-known Tax consultant will be speaking. Write a
reply, regretting your inability to attend.

5) You have been invited to speak at a meeting of the Mumbai management

association‟s quarterly meeting, on the management of non-profit
organisations. Draft a reply accepting the invitation.

6) As a team leader in Pinnacle industry, an IT firm, you caught one of your

team members tempering with crucial data of the organisation. Write an
email to the HR manager reporting this incident and asking what further
course of action should be taken in this case?

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 Short Business
10.14 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS Correspondence

11 reasons why business communication is critical to your company's

success. (2020, June 9). Retrieved October, 2021, from
https://blog.smarp.com/11-reasons-why-business-communication-is-crucial-
for-companys-success
Brent, D. (1985). Indirect Structure and Reader Response. The Journal of
Business Communication (1973), 22(2), 5–
8. https://doi.org/10.1177/002194368502200201
Campbell, K. S., Naidoo, J. S., & Smith, J. (2021). When Your Boss Says,
“You Need to Sound More Professional”: Writing Style and Writer
Attributions. International Journal of Business
Communication. https://doi.org/10.1177/23294884211025735
Cerny, E. (1986). Listening for Effect. American Salesman, 31, 26-29.
Delivering Bad News By E-Mail Is More Accurate, Less Painful, Study
Suggests. (1999, June 25). Science Daily. Retrieved October, 2021, from
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/06/990625074027.htm
Fatima, S. (2017). Business English and Business Correspondence: How to
Structure an English Business Letter. International Journal of Science and
Research,6(11), 1348-1351.
Gimenez, J. C. (2000). Business E-mail Communication: Some Emerging
Tendencies in Register. English for Specific Purposes, 19, 237-251.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0889-4906(98)00030-1
Hamelink, C. J. (1986). Information, Trade and Dependence. Indian Journal
of Communication, 1(2), 36-39.
Kaul, A. (2009). Effective Business Communication. New Delhi: Edi Phi
Learning
Koneru, A. (2008). Professional Communication. New Delhi:TataMc-Graw
Hill Publications
Korlahalli, R. P. (1996). Essentials of Business Communication. Seventh
Edition. New Delhi: Sultan Chand & Sons
Lynton, L. (1988). The Fine Art of Writing a Sales Letter. Sales and
Marketing Management, 51-55.
Rai, U. (2008).Business Communication (10th ed.). New Delhi: Himalaya
Publishing House
Rao, N. & Das, R. P. (2009). Communication Skills (2nd ed.). Mumbai:
Himalaya Publishing House
Scot, O. (2004). Contemporary Business Communication. New Delhi:
Biztantra.
Sharma, R. C. & Mohan, K. (2002). Business Correspondence and Report
Writing. Third Edition. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill Publishing Organisation
Limited
Sinha, K. K. (2012). Business Communication. Fifth Edition. New Delhi:
Taxmann's Publishers
Yingying, J. I. N. (2020). Research on Language Characteristics of Business
Letter Writing. Studies in Literature and Language, 20(3), 128-137.
PAGE167\*
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 Block Heading
Written Appendix A: Specimen of a Refusal Letter
Communication
At Work
Mr A Banerjee
XX, Andheri East
Mumbai-400007
02 October 2021

Ms. M. Agrawal
YY/1, Vile Parle,
Mumbai-400004

Dear Ms. Agarwal,

Thank you for your letter giving me details of the Annual Advertising
Association conference in Mumbai next month.

Obviously, it would have been both a duty and a pleasure for me to attend,
but it looks like I will be unable to accept your kind invitation this time
because of an important personal engagement in Delhi.

Let me assure you that nothing short of an extremely important commitment

would keep me away from the conference. It really is most unfortunate that
my Delhi trip coincides with the ad conference, but I am afraid that there is
absolutely nothing I can do about it.

Do please, therefore, excuse me this time. The programme sounds interesting

indeed, and I shall look forward to hearing all about it from my more
fortunate colleagues. Please accept my very best wishes for its success.

Sincerely,

A. Banerjee

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Appendix B: Specimen of an invitation to join professional or civic Short Business
Correspondence
bodies

P Benjamin
XX, Andheri East,
Mumbai-400007
02 October 2021

Ms. M. Mehta
YY/1, Vile Parle,
Mumbai-400004

Dear Ms. Mehta,

I greatly appreciate your cordial invitation to become a member of the

Writers‟ Association, Bangalore, and gladly accept the same.

Realizing how many writers of distinction from every corner of the globe are
its members, I am aware of the honour extended to me and am eager to be a
part of the association.

Yours sincerely,

P Benjamin

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 Block Heading
Written Appendix C: Specimen of an Order Letter
Communication
At Work
P. Narsimhan
Z Adhesives limited,
Scheme No.XXX, Industrial Estate
Bangalore-560005
02 October 2021

Mr.P.C Patel
P R Industries limited
YYY,Apex line Business Park
Ahmedabad-380004

Dear Mr. Patel,

Samples accepted and order Placement

We have tested your samples of adhesive paste and found that Sample
No.212BH is suitable for our requirements. We are glad to place an order for
200 large tins of this paste. Please deliver the tins to our factory outlet in
Bangalore. Our cheque for Rs 50000/- as advance payment and our GST
declaration form is enclosed.

The material supplied must be of the same quality as of sample, we reserve

the right to return the material if it does not match with our expectations or
the material is of some other quality

Yours sincerely,

P. Narasimhan

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Appendix D: Specimen of an Enquiry letter Short Business
Correspondence
P.Nandwal
Scheme No.XXX, Sky Luxuria
Ahmedabad-380007
02 October 2021

Mr. D. Sethi
Oriental Tiles limited
YY/7, Alpha Industrial area.
Ahmedabad-380004

Dear Mr.Sethi.

Enquiry about colour paints

During the recent trade fair in Ahmedabad, I saw some samples of your new
color paint collection. I would like to make use of them for the interiors I am
designing for a new hotel. Please give me the following information:

1) In what sizes, color combinations can you supply the paints?

2) Are the colours likely to be affected by rising temperatures?
3) Are there any special precautions we should keep in mind while using
the paints?

I shall be very grateful if you could send me the answers to my concerns

mentioned above by Saturday the 16th, October 2021.

Yours sincerely,

P. Nandwal

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 Block Heading
Written Appendix E: Specimen of a Collection Letter
Communication
At Work
A.Tiwari
M Car services Limited
Plot No.XX, Palasiya
Indore-452009
02 October 2021

Mr. A. Sinha
YYD/H schemen74-c
Indore-452010

Dear Ms.Sinha,

This is a quick reminder to let you know that your amount with us is past
due. The amount of Rs.3800/- for services rendered on September 9, 2021,
was due as per invoice number INV/2334/G. Please pay the amount by
October 31, 2020, to avoid late payment penalties.

If you have already sent payment for this invoice, please disregard this letter
and accept our thanks for the payment. We appreciate doing business with
you and look forward to doing so in the future.

Sincerely,

A.Tiwari

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Appendix F:Specimen Layout of an Application Letter (Covering Letter) Short Business
Correspondence
Your address
City and pin code
State
Date
Name/Title
Division /Organisation
Address
City and Pin code
State

Salutation
In the first paragraph, mention the specific position you are applying for.
How did you learn about the organisation as well ?

Draw attention to anything in your track record that makes you a suitable, apt
candidate for the position. Elaborate on specific accomplishments given in
your CV. Do indicate how your relevant work experience and education,
training is congruent to the position you are applying for. One must also
indicate one‟s motivation for a career in the specific industry/organisation
you are applying for.

Say what you will do next; for example, make a telephone call to make sure
that the employer is interested in setting up an interview. Or, if you prefer to
be conventional, say that you will show samples of your work/answer
questions at an interview.

Complimentary close

Signature
(Your name typed/neatly written)

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 Block Heading
Written Appendix G: Specimen of a Sales Letter
Communication
At Work
A. Krishna,
XX, Savvy Street,
Mumbai-4000005
02 October 2021

Ms. M Sinha
XX F/H scheme No 100
Indore-452010

Dear Ms.Sinha,

Don‟t lose this letter, or you will lose your free gift!

At the Golden Bow store we are having our Annual Festival Sale, and we
want you to be there for outstanding savings on everything in the store and a
free gift everyone will love.

Beginning 5th October 2021 and ending 31st October 2021, Golden Bow
store will have huge discounts, on items like:

50 % off on all Ready-made garments or 45% off on all footwear or 30% off
on all Glassware. And not only will you save, but if you bring this letter
during the Annual Festival Sale, we will also give you a travel Set of L
Beauty products, absolutely free.

Mark your calendar now for the annual Festival sale starting 5th October
2021. So do join us and don‟t forget to bring this letter, because our supplies
of Travel sets of L Beauty Products are limited.

Sincerely,
A. Krishna

Golden Bow store

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Appendix H: Specimen Letter of Season’s Greetings Short Business
Correspondence
P. Nandwal
Scheme No.XX, Sky Luxuria
Ahmedabad-380007
22December 2021

Mr. G Fernandes
A IT Organisation
YY/7, Apex Industrial Area
Ahmedabad-380004

Dear Mr.Fernandes,

I am writing to you quite simply to wish you and your family a Merry
Christmas and a happy and Prosperous New Year.

We frequently have occasions to write to our customers during the course of

the year and our letters are usually concerned with a sale, an account, or some
specific business matter between us. At this time of the year, however, we are
writing just to thank our customers for the business they have given us and to
wish them a happy holiday season

All my buyers and their staff join me in sending you this greeting.

Sincerely yours.

P.Nandwal

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 Block Heading
Written Appendix I: Specimen letter on Being Promoted
Communication
At Work
P. Mathew
Scheme No.XXX, Sky Matters Area
Ahmedabad-380007
02 October 2021

Mr. S. Mehta
PS Sales Corporation
YY, Industrial Estate
Ahmedabad-380004

Dear Mr Mehta,

I have just learned about your promotion to sales manager in place of

Mr.Agnihotri who has been transferred, and would like to congratulate you
most sincerely.

No one has worked harder than you over the past several years and I, for one,
am delighted to see your efforts rewarded.

Unquestionably, under your enthusiastic leadership, your sales team will rise
to still greater heights and achieve even more outstanding sales records.

Sincerely,

P.Mathew

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Appendix J: Specimen Letter on Family Bereavement Short Business
Correspondence
P.Srinivasan
Scheme No.XXX, Sky Matters Area
Ahmedabad-380007
02 October 2021

Mr. R. Malhotra
RM Motors Corporation
Zenith Industrial Estate
Ahmedabad-380004

Dear Mr. Raman,

It came as a great shock to all of us at H Motors to hear the sudden tragic

demise of your brother.

His Loss is a great one indeed, to you personally, to RM Motors, and H

Motors, and to the community in general. All of us remember very vividly
his tireless efforts to put RM Motors on the industrial map and the unstinting
generosity with which he worked, not merely for himself and his
organisation, but for the business community as a whole.

His work lives on and I am sure that his memory will remain for many years
to come. You have our deepest sympathy for this premature loss.

Yours faithfully,

P.Srinivasan

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 Block Heading
Written Appendix K: Specimen of Personalized letter of Complaints
Communication
At Work
P. Naidu
Scheme No.XXX, Sky Matters Area
Ahmedabad-380007
02 October 2021

Mr. P. Parikh
IP Paints Organisation
Flex Industrial Estate.
Ahmedabad-380004

Dear Mr. Parikh,

We had placed an order with you on 8th September 2021 for 50 oil paints to
be delivered by the 20th of September. Unfortunately, we have not yet
received them. As we do not have any information from you about the delay,
perhaps something has gone wrong somewhere.

Will you please find out the causes of the delay and let us know when we
may expect delivery?

Yours sincerely

P. Naidu

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Appendix L: Specimen of Memorandum Short Business
Correspondence
DATE: November 21, 2021

TO: All employees

FROM: Mr.Johnson, VP, Marketing Division

SUBJECT: Shifting of working place

I am writing to inform you that, over the next few days, the working area of
Block One will be under construction as it is being re-modelled. As our
organisation is growing, we feel it necessary to provide a better and spacious
work ambience to our teammates.

Till 30th November 2021, the workforce of Block I would be temporarily

shifted to Block II and after that, they can resume working in Block I.

All the seating arrangements for the workforce of Block I has been planned,
and the seating plan has been displayed on the notice board.

Thank you for your cooperation.

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 Block Heading
Written Appendix M: Specimen layout of an Email
Communication
At Work
Your professional email address From: tpp989@gmail.com

Recipient‟s email address To: too.skills@gmail.com

Subject line Subject: (mention the subject line)

Greeting Phrase Dear/Ms./Mr

Opening Line (opening lines as per the mail)

Body paragraphs (essence of the email)

(The length of the body paragraph is very subjective. It may vary from one
line to many lines as per the gravity of the email)

Closing line (mention the closing lines of your

email)

Sign-off

Signature (Full name, Job Title, Organisation Name, contact details)

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 Long Business
UNIT 11 LONG BUSINESS Correspondence

CORRESPONDENCE

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
● Understand how to draft business reports;
● Understand how to draft effective business proposals;
● Differentiate between a business report and a business proposal.

Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Concept of a report
11.3 Types of Business Reports
11.4 Characteristics of a good report
11.5 Preparing the report
11.6 Organisation of a report
11.7 Components of Letter-text combination form of reports
11.8 Research Report
11.9 Technical Reports
11.10 Business proposal
11.11 Components of a business proposal
11.12 Persuasive proposal
11.13 Difference between business report & business proposal
11.14 Summary
11.15 Keywords
11.16 Self-Assessment Questions
11.17 References and further readings

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Every business operates in dynamic market conditions and the market forces
are very versatile and these things impact the functioning of the business.This
is the reason why every organisation frequently takes an effort to understand
the market forces. At the same time, every organisation is affected by internal
forces like less productivity of the employees or high attrition rates. All these
forces have to be analyzed and then they have to be effectively presented in
the form of reports. The business reports address all the internal and external
causes which the business may be facing. The reports have specific formats
and specific styles of presentation so that it is easy for all the readers to
comprehend. The business reports are very substantial as they do impact the
decision making of the organisations. Every organisation needs to expand its
181
 Block Heading
Written business and the information about new products and services have to be
Communication
At Work communicated to all the customers and business proposals have become
important tools of connection with the customers. All the nuances of business
reports and business proposals have been covered in this unit.

11.2 CONCEPT OF A REPORT

Report is a formal document which scientifically describes any new
phenomenon, new observation and insights and presents them in a logical
manner in order to deduce important information out of it.

Different types of reports are prepared all over the year in every organisation.
The frequency of reports may differ as per the nature and needs and systems
of an organisation. Some reports may be prepared daily, some reports may be
presented weekly or even once in a month, twice in a year etc. For example, a
territory sales officer has to prepare a monthly sales target report and send it
to his/her regional sales manager mentioning the sales volume of each and
every product of his/her organisation in his/her territory or region. Thus, s/he
also mentions the sales of the products which could achieve the target and
also the product which could not achieve the target with reasons as well.

A publication firm, interested in introducing into the market a new series of

books, can ask for a report on the latest preferences about the readers. The
Board of Directors of the firm would definitely like to get a report on the
lower productivity of an organisation and the future plans and vision.

Importance of reports
Decisions cannot be taken randomly in any organisation. Every decision has
small term and long term consequences and involves cost. Thus reports play a
crucial role in orienting the decision making in an organisation. The findings
of the report create a logical base so that the right decisions can be taken at
the right time. The decisions can be taken at an area level, state level or at
country level and even at the international level as the reports act as
substantial benchmarks in the decision-making process.

11.3 TYPES OF BUSINESS REPORTS

On the basis of legal formalities and official protocols which have to be
adhered to, we can classify reports into two types.
1) Informal reports
2) Formal reports

1) Informal reports- An informal report may not be specifically prepared

as per the rules and permanent obligations and protocols of the
organisation. These reports do not have a fixed format and these reports
are usually shorter in length as compared to formal reports. Trip reports,
email, conference reports, memos are usually some examples of these
reports.

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2) Formal reports- A report that is prepared as per the set protocols, Long Business
Correspondence
formats and as per the rules and regulations of the organisation are
generally the formal reports.Formal reports can be statutory or non-
statutory. A report prepared and presented as per the rules and
regulations as per the requirement of any law comes under the purview
of statutory report. The Executive Director‟s report at the annual general
meeting, annual return reports, and auditor‟s report are some of the
examples of statutory reports. Non-Statutory reports are prepared to
assist the top management of the organisation and facilitate them in the
decision-making process but these reports do not fall under any law. For
example, report of any committee to the top management, report of any
individual executive, officer, manager to the organisation etc.

On the basis of the frequency of the issue, a report can be periodic or special.

● Periodic or Routine reports are drafted as per specific frequencies of

time. They may be drafted hourly, daily, weekly, monthly or once in a
year.For example, an HR manager may send a monthly report to the
management about the job attrition rate of the organisation. S/he will
report the new recruits as well as those employees who have left the
organisation mentioning the reasons. S/he will also assess the attrition
rate whether it is decreasing or increasing.

● Special reports are drafted on special requests or needs of the

organisation. They target very specific and focused areas, for example,
the decline in the sales of X dolls in Japan. The report investigated the
reasons behind the drop in the sales. Some reasons like the physical
attributes of the doll did not match with Japanese women per se. X dolls
portray physical attributes more of American girls like tall height, sharp
features and broad eyes. Japanese girls did not identify with the structure
of the doll as their physical attributes are different from those of
American girls. As per the facts revealed by the report, the physical
attributes of the doll were modified resembling that of Japanese girls.
The modified doll was then re-launched in the Japanese market.

11.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD REPORT

Each report should have some features which make it a good or bad report.
The characteristics are listed and explained below:

1) Precision- Precision means to be laser focused and only present those

facts in the report which are relevant. This means the writer has to be
very clear about the purpose of the report. The findings in the report
should pinpoint the exact issue or the purpose of the report. Precision
provides a type of cohesiveness to the report.

2) Accuracy of facts- The reliability of the report lies in its accuracy. Any
fake information can ruin the decision-making process of the
organisation. Genuine, authentic reports are vital as many a time
financial decisions are also based upon the findings of the reports.

183
 Block Heading
Written 3) Relevance- During the course of report preparation, the researcher
Communication
At Work comes across information which may not be relevant as per the subject of
the report. Some writers are very tempted to mention all the report
findings, even the irrelevant ones, as they feel that it would make a
detailed report. Mentioning irrelevant findings confuse the readers and
also result in loss of their precious time. The report must include relevant
and useful matters only.

4) Reader-orientation- The report should be made in alignment with the

taste, preferences of the readers. The purpose of the report will be
incomplete if the readers are not able to connect to the report.

5) Objectivity of Recommendations- Prejudiced thought process, biased

approach and preoccupied thoughts will tarnish the sanctity of the report.
The recommendations should be free from all these things and should
maintain an unbiased tone.

6) Simple and comprehensible language- Clarity, simplicity, and

readability are key characteristics of a report. It is a kind of scientific
document which is pragmatic in nature.

7) Clarity- Ambiguous reports are of no use. The tone of the report must be
clear and comprehensible. The reports should not have long paragraphs
but should have well-articulated short paragraphs with titles which will
make the report more comprehensible to the readers.

8) Brevity- A report should be brief and crisp but it should not compromise
in its expression. If the report is addressing any in-depth analysis of
something then the proper expression has to be respected. One must
always do an analysis of the content which can be included or removed
from the report. Brevity has to be respected for effective reporting.

9) Grammatical accuracy- Grammatical competence is one of the basic

requisites of a good report. Grammatical errors not only degrade the
image of the writer but also degrade the image of the organisation. A
complete check-up on the sentence composition, proper use of articles,
punctuations should be there.

We can say that a good report should be:

● precise and brief
● accurate (factually and grammatically)
● relevant
● reader-oriented
● objective
● clear and unambiguous

11.5 PREPARING THE REPORT

Let us now explore the logical flow in which the report preparation should be
approached. The methodical way while preparing the report saves time and
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efforts and focuses the attention of the writer in the right way. The following Long Business
Correspondence
steps can be beneficial while preparing a report:
1) Identify the sources of information;
2) Take notes;
3) Meticulous analysis of the data;
4) Prepare an outline; and
5) Draft the report.
1) Identifying the sources of information- Content is distributed in
journals, magazines, reports and in many other sources. Due to the
scarcity of time the researcher cannot go through all the sources of
information. S/he has to apply his/her mind and filter out the irrelevant
sources of information. S/he has to pick those sources that can give
accurate, speedy and relevant information. For example, if an
organisation is frequently receiving complaints about its poor services
from the customers, the ideal way to collect the data here could be
identifying those customers and having face-to-face conversations or
interviews with them. On the other hand, if the need of the report is to
study the audience at a large scale then the source of collecting the data
has to be different. For example, if a bank needs to study the emotional
quotient of all of its employees in a country like India, then in this case
questionnaire will be a good source of collecting the information. The
questionnaire will be thus distributed to few employees (as per the
sample size) to different branches of banks located in North, South or
Eastern or western India so as to gather maximum information.
2) Taking notes- In the course of report making, the writer has to keep on
taking notes so that any type of vital information should not be missed.
Taking notes actually helps the writer to visualize which type of content
is relevant or which type of content has to be rejected. Taking notes also
helps in giving a methodical approach to report writing. In addition to it,
proper details are not missed as this may be very important for decision
making in the future.
3) Analyzing the Data- This is a crucial part of the report writing process.
Right tools of analysis have to be used. Today with the help of various
statistical tools the data can be logically analyzed but the writer of the
report should have the awareness and understanding to choose the right
tools for analysis and interpret it correctly.
4) Making an outline- Once the blueprint of the report has taken shape in
the writer's mind, the writer can systematically infer the flow and tone in
which the report work has to be drafted. S/he can logically deduce the
priority of the information to be presented first or last,the flow of the
parts-subparts of the report etc.
5) Writing the report- The rough draft should be revised and polished by
and again. The writer should also be careful that the language of the
report is simple, free from grammatical errors, and should contain
relevant facts with authentic data.
185
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Written
Communication
11.6 ORGANISATION OF A REPORT
At Work
There are three ways in which a report can be organized. These are:
1) Letter form;
2) Memorandum form;
3) Letter-text combination form.

1) Letter form- In the letter form of report writing, the title, date, address,
salutation, the body, complimentary close, and signature are all
mentioned. The body of the letter can be further divided into the
following parts

a). Introduction- What is the purpose of the report? Why is the report
needed? What is the problem area in hand? The answers to all these
questions should be covered in the introduction part.
b). Findings- The next few paragraphs present the findings of the
investigation.
c). Recommendations- This is the most vital part of the report as it
gives a bird‟s eye view about the suggestions and recommendations
which are to be incorporated in the near future. This part can orient
the readers of the report to take important decisions as well as the
section of the report gives new pieces of information and insights
and directly addresses the nature of the problem.

2) Memorandum form- the simplest way to draft a report is the

memorandum style of writing. The date is mentioned at the top. It is
followed by the name of the person to whom the report is addressed, the
name of the writer, and the subject of the report. A format of the
memorandum form is given below.

Memorandum
Date
To:
From:
Subject:
Report content

Large business houses have different types of printed forms to send reports.
This simplifies the procedure and ensures a uniform style.

3) Letter-text combination form- Long reports are usually written in the

letter-text combination form. A complete report in this form includes
three major parts and these are:

I) Introductory parts;
II) Body of the report;

III) Addenda
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 It is not essential that a report contains all these parts. Long reports Long Business
Correspondence
containing most of these parts are generally submitted in book form.

11.7 COMPONENTS OF LETTER-TEXT

COMBINATION FORM OF REPORTS
Let us now discuss different components of the letter-text combination form
of reports.

The complete outline of such a report is as follows:

1) Introductory parts
● Letter of transmittal or letter of presentation
● Title page
● Table of contents
● List of illustrations
● Abstract and/or summary.

II) Body of the report

● Introduction
● Discussion or description:
● Conclusion
● Recommendations.

III) Addenda
● List of References
● Bibliography
● Glossary
● Appendices
● Index

I. INTRODUCTORY PARTS

Letter of transmittal or letter of presentation

A letter of transmittal is a formal letter written to transmit the report from the
writer to the reader. It includes details like (1) providing a permanent record
of transfer; (ii) highlighting the date on which the report was submitted; (iii)
mentioning the name and position of the writer of the report; (iv) stating
when and by whom the report was authorized.

A letter of presentation is slightly different from a letter of transmittal. In

addition to giving the information contained in the letter of transmittal, it
usually states the purpose and scope of the report and refers to the writer's
sources of information, and highlights special features.

187
 Block Heading
Written Title page- The title page gives the title or heading of the report, the
Communication
At Work person(s) to whom it is submitted, the date of submission, and the name of
the writer(s).

Table of contents- In the case of long reports, it is advisable to give the table
of contents in the beginning. The benefit of giving the table of contents is that
it helps in locating the desired content which the reader wishes to read. The
table of contents gives the title and the page number of each chapter.

List of illustrations- The illustrations are usually given after the table of
contents. The list gives the number, title of the illustrations being mentioned
in the report.

Abstract and/or summary- In the case of long reports, it is advisable to give

an abstract or summary of the report for a quick reference. An abstract is also
called a synopsis. An abstract tells about the exact nature of the report, the
finding of the report in short. There are no hard and fast rules regarding the
ideal length of the abstract.

II. BODY OF THE REPORT

Introduction- The introduction is the first part of the body of the report. It
includes the following items of information:
1) Authorization for the report;
2) Theoretical and technical background;
3) Scope of study, with a clear description of the limitations;
4) Methods of collecting data and mention of primary and secondary
sources of data;
5) Definitions of special terms; if needed.

Discussion or description- This is the main part of the report. It presents in a

very logical way the various aspects of the issue under headings and sub-
headings. It may include excerpts from other published reports along with
charts, graphs, statistical tables.

Conclusion and recommendations- On the basis of the facts and data

presented under the heading 'findings', the writer infers definite conclusions.
This is the most important part of the report as here the crux of the report is
mentioned. The recommendations mentioned here are of key importance
because they will help the management in channelizing their future course of
action.

III. ADDENDA
List of references- The works cited in the text are either credited in footnotes
on the page on which they are cited or mentioned together in the list of
references. Some writers also mention the references in the footnotes if the
number of search references is not too much. On the other hand, if the
number of the references is more than they should be presented at the end.

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Bibliography- It includes the work reviewed by the writer and is given in the Long Business
Correspondence
bibliography.

Glossary- Glossary section includes the meanings of all the technical terms
being used in the report. It is not easy for everybody to understand the
meaning of all the technical, financial terminologies mentioned in the report.
If the report is made for seasoned professionals; glossary section may be
skipped as they are already acquainted with the meanings of the technical
terms.

Appendices- Statistical data, charts, and diagrams that are not included in the
main body of the report for maintaining the smooth, uninterrupted flow of the
report. They are put at the end in the form of appendices.

Index- In case of lengthy reports, an index of the contents of the report may
be included.

Signature- A report must be dated and signed by the person(s) who has
(have) made it. Somebody has to take the accountability of signing the report.
As for signing, the report makes you responsible for the authenticity of the
content which has been mentioned in the report.

Activity 1
You are the marketing head of a mobile manufacturing Organisation named
as X. Your organisation is receiving strong competition from Y Mobile.
Organize a meeting with the sales head, R&D Head and conduct a market
survey with the distributors of X mobile to understand the perception of
people regarding X mobiles. After taking all these inputs, draft a business
report to the managing director of the X mobiles.

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

11.8 RESEARCH REPORT

Research is the systematic investigation into study of a natural phenomenon
or materials or sources or existing conditions of the society in order to
identify facts or to get additional information and derive new conclusions.
Research reports are prepared by the researchers or statisticians after
analyzing the information gathered by conducting organized research,
typically in the form of surveys or qualitative methods.

The key components of a research report are as follow:

A) Preliminary Section

1) Title Page
189
 Block Heading
Written The title page is one of the most important pages of the research report. The
Communication
At Work following mentioned information should be incorporated on the title page:
1) Name(s) of the author(s)
2) Name and position of the mentor
3) Name of the programme in which the research was completed
4) Department in which the research was conducted
5) Contact information of both author(s) and mentor(s)

2) Acknowledgments (if any)

This section is devoted to expressing gratitude to all the persons, mentors
even the institutions that have made this research possible.

3) Table of Contents
The chapters, sections, figures, sub-sections must be properly listed and
organized in a systematic way. The table of content helps the readers to
identify the content and its relevant position.

4) List of Tables (if any)

The details of the list of tables being used in the research should be
mentioned separately as it will help the reader to locate any table to which
s/he might wish to refer.

5) List of Figures (if any)

The details of the list of tables being used in the research should be
mentioned separately as it will help the reader to locate any table to which
s/he might wish to refer to.

6) Abstract
The abstract of any research contains a summary of the details mentioned in
the report.

B) Main Body
The main body includes the following components:

1) Introduction –This includes the details about the topic with problem
statement and theoretical background of the topic.

2) Review of Related Literature- A literature review is a summary of all

the previous research which has been done on a given topic. A literature
review creates a "platform" for the reader, giving him a holistic
understanding of the research work done in his/her field and helps the
researcher to channelize his/her efforts in the right direction.

3) Research Methodology- Both qualitative and quantitative research is

applied to find answers to research questions. The chapter is set to satisfy
the research objectives.

190 It should talk about the following points

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 ● Details of the Research, Long Business
Correspondence
● Design and tools to be used
● Sources of Data collection
● Sampling study
● Statistical Tools being used

4) Analysis of Data- Data Analysis is the logical process of applying

various statistical techniques and tools to condense the data,
recapitulation of data, describe the data, and finally evaluate it
systematically.

5) Summary and Conclusions- The following details must be incorporated

in the summary and conclusion section of the research report:

● Restatement of the Problem- This section refers to the summary and

conclusion part.

● Major Findings- After the application of various statistical tools and

techniques the observations and results will pinpoint some major
results i.e. the findings. The major findings will provide revealing
information useful for the research and all the readers.

● Conclusions- The essence of the report is discussed in this part of the

research report.

● Recommendations- As research is an ongoing process, certain

advancements and new changes will surely take place in the times to
come. The researcher should mention those areas in which further
studies can be conducted.

● Limitations of the study- Every research will have some limitations

and it is quite a normal thing. One should always acknowledge the
limitations in a research report with transparency.
● Reference Section- It comprises of the following sub-sections

● Endnotes
● Bibliography or Literature Cited
● Appendix

The research report is normally used for the summer projects and academic
studies. However, it is seen that the business houses too have started using
the research reports in their research and development section.

11.9 TECHNICAL REPORTS

A technical report is a formal report in nature. These reports are drafted to
convey technical information in an easy way which is easy to comprehend.
Presenting the technical report is a challenging task as technical
terminologies being used in the report is not everyone‟s cup of tea. The
ability to simplify the language and the art of presenting a difficult concept
easily are the two skills required by a report writer. In a technical report,
191
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Written there are various elements and parts and all of them have to be connected and
Communication
At Work presented methodically to make the report impressive.

The tools that facilitate writing a technical description can be definition and
classification. The following points would facilitate in designing a good
definition.

i) Use simple words which are self-explanatory;

ii) Ensuring that the definition be comprehensive to the reader;

iii) Avoid using abstract words as they may create confusion;

iv) The definition should be holistic in nature.

Classification in technical reports can be done in the following ways.

● Specify the type of classification. Classification can be based on

parameters like utility, nature, size etc.

● Classification can be subjective in nature i.e. based on one‟s own

comfort or by keeping the readers of the report in mind.

After the definition and classification, the next step involved is a technical
description of machines/mechanisms and processes in the report.

Machines and Mechanisms

A machine is a complex collection of various parts and sub-parts. Each and
every part is connected with each other and works in a synchronization.
These parts of the machine have to be explained clearly and accurately and
this is the first step in any technical report writing.

Describing Processes
Can you visualize a process without any machine or device? It is next to
impossible. While describing a machine the main focus is on the parts and
objects but on the other hand when we describe a process the entire focus is
on the work or operation it performs. Therefore, it is quite necessary to
describe each step in a process very clearly and accurately and also to show
how the various steps combined together in a logical sequence lead to an end
result.

11.10 BUSINESS PROPOSAL

A business proposal is a formal document used in business. A business
proposal is normally sent to a prospective client where the buyer explains
about the products, services being offered by them, USP of their product or
service, and why they should be considered above their competitors. Business
proposals are carefully drafted as they target prospective clients. There are
different types of business proposals and they are made as per the
requirement.
Let us now discuss different types of business proposals.

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Types of Business Proposals Long Business
Correspondence
A business proposal can be classified into solicited or unsolicited. In a
solicited proposal, a prospective client might be interested in availing the
services or buying a product so the clients put up a request to the seller for a
proposal. The seller after receiving the request can have a conversation with
the client; the seller then tries to understand the preferences of the clients and
drafts the proposals accordingly.

With an unsolicited business proposal, things are different. Here the seller
approaches a client aspiring him/her to sell the product or services. Here the
client does not approach the seller but the seller tries to generate the need of
the product by drafting a lucrative proposal.

A solicited proposal is an easy game, as your prospective client has already

made up his/her mind to buy a product or a service. Your prospective client
may have identified other sellers as well. The prospective client may be in the
process of evaluating the other sellers in this process.

11.11 COMPONENTS OF A BUSINESS PROPOSAL

A good business proposal involves key components. These components are
discussed as follows:

Title page
The business proposal should have the following details on the title page. It
should have one's' name, the name of the organisation, the name of the
prospective client to whom the proposal is to be submitted and the date of
submitting the proposal.

Table of contents
If the proposal is lengthy and has too many details, it is advisable to mention
the details in the table of contents. The details will actually help the client to
identify the various sections of the proposals and s/he may specifically refer
to any section as per his/her preference.

Executive summary
In a proposal, one should always include a well-drafted, articulated executive
summary. A good executive summary is the one that positions the
organisation, or the product, or the service very promisingly in the mind of
the customer. It leaves an impression about the USP and the need for the
product.
Statement of problem, issue, or job at hand
The customization of the proposal which directly understands the needs of
the client is a very important point of any proposal. If the proposal is
pertaining to the development of a website, the seller should understand the
exact purpose of the website such as whether it is to enhance the sales or to
create brand awareness or to have more visitors on the website etc.
Understanding the customer‟s requirements and addressing those issues is a
winning strategy of each proposal. 193
 Block Heading
Written Approach and methodology
Communication
At Work
This section is one of the most vital sections of the proposal. The reason is
that in this section the seller directly addresses the clients‟ requirements or
the client‟s problem at hand.

One should not get into too many details here as at times the technical
terminology used may confuse the clients. The objective of this section is to
give the client a very clear view of the plan and how s/he is going to benefit.

Qualifications
This is the section where one can convince the client.One can mention any
relevant education, industry-specific training, or certifications, or any unique
skill set acquired or developed in due course of time, experience and
expertise.This section will brief the prospective customer about the expertise
and the reason for giving a chance.

Schedule and benchmarks

Right from the beginning be very clear to adhere to the expectations of the
clients. What is the time duration required to complete the work, deliver the
product or services are few questions which must be clearly discussed with
the clients? One should never overpromise and under-deliver here. The
proposer and the prospective client should come to common terms with these
points as proper completion of a project or delivery of a product on time
deeply impacts business operations. One must never set unrealistic
expectations with the clients. In case of products or services, certain quality
benchmarks are very important. Any compromise on quality will not be
appreciated. Once the deadlines, schedules, and benchmarks are decided, they
have to be adhered to.

Cost, payment and any legal matters

While drafting this section the most important point to be considered is
transparency in the cost. The cost of the product, details of partial payments
(if any) schedules of payment in installments etc. should be clearly
mentioned in the proposal. There should be no hidden cost in the proposal
and transparency should be maintained here. In case of any conflicts, legal
matters such as permits, licensing etc. should be clearly mentioned.

Benefits
This part addresses all the benefits which the client will have from the
moment the services of the buyer are taken. Features like all-time support,
free service details, cost-cutting advantages with giving reference of the other
clients must be written here.

11.12 PERSUASIVE PROPOSALS

The persuasive proposals as the name suggests try to persuade the client to
take the services. While making persuasive proposals the following points
should be considered:
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1) Answer the question, “WHY?” Long Business
Correspondence
Every client searches for the answer to one question in the proposal. The
question is “What is in it for me”? The client has to be told why the seller is
the best in the market.

Every proposal should answer these „why?‟ questions:

● Why should the client choose your business?
● Why should the client not choose any other competitor?
● Why is your product/service the right choice for the client?
● Why should they trust you?
● What makes you an expert in the product/services?
● Why should the client spend his/her money on your product/service?

2) Complete understanding of the client

The seller should have a meticulous understanding of the needs, likes and
dislikes, tastes, and preferences of the client. This will help the seller to
provide tailor-made, customized solutions to the clients. Thus after
understanding the client‟s requirements the seller should directly address the
clients‟ requirements or the client‟s problem at hand.

3) Use the 'Problem, Agitate, Solution' technique

It is important that the client‟s problem is understood thoroughly. The next
step is to agitate the problem, tell the client the disadvantages of the problem,
the cost factor involved, the risk associated with it, and how crucial it is to
opt for a solution. Then provide a doable solution which.

4) Provide social testimonies

The proposer should always illustrate the experiences of those clients who
were facing the same problem and how their business has been reformed after
the services of the buyer were availed. The testimonies of the clients and how

they have got the benefits that can be expressed in the proposal. The details
of the clients who got the benefits, the details of their organisations and their
pictures can be drafted in the proposal.

5) Design should be persuasive

The way one format and designs may give the proposal a cutting edge over
the competitors. The design should be colourful, legible, aesthetically
pleasing, and have a professional look which can play a very vital role.

Here are four basic rules to follow when designing the proposal:
● Do not overburden every page with text;
● Use whitespace and lively images to let the design stand out;
● Make balanced and apt use of colour;
● Use legible and nice typography.
195
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Written Activity 2
Communication
At Work
You are working as the Creative Head of an Interior Design organisation in
Delhi. Lots of new hotel chains are coming up in South Delhi. Identify a few
hotel chains in South Delhi and try to understand their interior designing
requirements. Draft effective proposals about your firm and services offered
to these hoteliers.

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

11.13 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BUSINESS

REPORT AND BUSINESS PROPOSAL
There is a difference between the business proposal and the business report.
The differences based on certain parameters are presented in table 1.

Table 1: Difference between Business Proposal and Business Report

Parameters Business Report Business Proposal

Exploring the reasons behind

any business issue/problem.
Such as
To generate sales and target
a). Reasons for high turnover prospective clients.
b). SWOT analysis of the
business.
c). Exploring reasons for low
sales.
Data collection methods, Products or services,
details of research layout, Benefits, organisation
Key Data analysis of scientific information, pricing
elements report, Findings & information, pricing structure
observations,
Recommendations.
Approach to offer solutions,
To address a business issue,
products, services to address
Purpose exploring new insights and
the needs and requirements of
information.
prospective clients.
Document
Internal External
type
Vast as it addresses business
Scope Limited
196 problems in hand.
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 Long Business
Only sent to stakeholders Sent to the target group such Correspondence
Shared with
concerned with it. as clients.
Future as the focus is Present to enhance the sales
addressing and exploring
Plans for volume.
specific reasons for any
business concern
Factual and insightful
A value proposition and call
Offers description of the business
to action.
issue in hand.
Holds a long-term objective Time-sensitive document as
with a scope to incorporate the objective is to convert the
Time-bound
new changes in the existing business proposal in a timely
business issue. sale.

11.14 SUMMARY
The manager, secretaries, accountants, chief executive, and experts are often
required to submit reports on various issues such as low sales volume, the
feasibility of any premises, the establishment of a new branch, the scope of
diversification, imports and exports issues, any conflict or financial issues,
etc. They need to be meticulous and investigate the issue at hand properly so
that the right solution to the problem at hand can be recorded. Thus reports
are being frequently used in all organisations as a form of business
communication. A good report has to be result-oriented, precise, with
accurate facts, relevant giving concrete recommendations. Business proposals
are very important sales tools as they present the products or even the chain
of products in front of the customers. A business proposal should be sound
lucrative and must address the likes, preferences, and tastes of the customers.
Business proposals should be designed to mention the USP of the product
and should also mention how a product is relevant and congruent with the
customer‟s needs.

11.15 KEYWORDS
Informal reports: An informal report may not be specifically prepared as
per the rules and permanent obligations and protocols of the organisation.

Formal reports: A report that is prepared as per the set protocols, formats
and as per the rules and regulations of the organisation.

Periodic or Routine reports: They are drafted as per specific frequencies of

time.

Business proposal: A business proposal is normally sent to a prospective

client where the buyer explains about the products, services being offered by
them, USP of their product or service and why they should be considered
above their competitors.

Unsolicited business proposal: The seller tries to generate the need of the
product by drafting a lucrative proposal. 197
 Block Heading
Written Solicited proposal: A solicited proposal is an easy game, as your prospective
Communication
At Work client has already made up his/her mind to buy a product or a service.

11.16 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) What is a report? What are the characteristics of a good report?
2) What do you mean by a business proposal? What are the components of
a business proposal?
3) Prepare a report for submission to the Board of Directors regarding the
market potential of electronic equipment.

11.17 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Conger, J. A. (1998). The necessary art of persuasion. Harvard Business
Review, 76, 84-97.
Debs, M. B. (1991). Recent research on collaborative writing in
industry. Technical communication, 476-484.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (1992). Report writing–six simple rules for better
business documents. Admap, June, 39-42.
Kaul, A. (2009). Effective Business Communication. New Delhi: Edi Phi
Learning
Koneru, A. (2008). Professional Communication. New Delhi:TataMc-Graw
Hill Publications
Korlahalli, R. P. (1996). Essentials of Business Communication. Seventh
Edition. New Delhi: Sultan Chand & Sons
McIsaac, C. M. P. (1987). Improving Student Summaries Through
Sequencing. The Bulletin of the Association for Business
Communication, 50(3), 17-20.
Rai, U. (2008). Business Communication (10th ed.). New Delhi: Himalaya
Publishing House
Rao, N. & Das, R. P. (2009). Communication Skills (2nd ed.). Mumbai:
Himalaya Publishing House
Resnik, D. B. (2000). Statistics, ethics, and research: An agenda for education
and reform. Accountability in research, 8(1-2), 163-188.
Scot, O. (2004). Contemporary Business Communication. New Delhi:
Biztantra.
Sharma, R. C. & Mohan, K. (2002). Business Correspondence and Report
Writing. Third Edition. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill Publishing Organisation
Limited
Vesper, J. F., & Vesper, K. H. (1993). Writing a Business Plan: The Total
Term Assignment1. The Bulletin of the Association for Business
Communication, 56(2), 29-32.
Wrightson, K. (1995). Tips for Better Writing. The Rotarian (July), USA.

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 Long Business
Correspondence

BLOCK 4
COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATION

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Communication BLOCK 4 COMMUNICATION IN
At Work
ORGANISATION

This is the last block of the course. This block has 4 units and it focusses on
the role of communications in organisations.

Unit 12 Communication for Employment: In this unit we will discuss

communication for employment which includes resume building, CV
development, difference between the two etc. It also describes the role of
interviews as part of communication.

Unit13 Technology and Communication: This unit as the name suggests

discusses the relationship of technology and communication. Here you will
learn the use of different modes of technology being used for communication.
This unit also explains how one can manage their social media profiles as
effective communication strategy.

Unit 14 Cross Cultural Communication: As the name suggests this unit

focusses on the role of culture in communication which is one of the major
factors in the communication process in organisations. Here, you will learn
the concept of cross culture, its types, barriers and how to overcome these
barriers.

Unit 15 Ethics in Communication: This is the last unit of the course and it
deals with a very important and sensitive concept i.e. ethics in
communication. It explains the role of values in communication and how can
these be used for resolving issues in the organisation.

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 Communication
UNIT 12 COMMUNICATION FOR for Employment

EMPLOYMENT

Objectives
After studying this unit, a candidate should be able to:
● Prepare an effective resume;
● Draft curriculum-vitae and portfolio for interview;
● Develop a holistic understanding of the interview process;
● Understand the concept of group discussion.

Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Resume
12.3 Video Resume
12.4 Curriculum-Vitae
12.5 Interview Portfolio
12.6 Interview
12.7 Types of Interviews
12.8 Process of an Interview
12.9 Group Discussion
12.10 Types of Group discussions
12.11 Offer Letter
12.12 Summary
12.13 Keywords
12.14 Self-Assessment Questions
12.15 References and Further Readings

12.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit also discusses the need and importance of a resume and CV. The
CV of every candidate must be effective as it creates the first impression.
Apart from interviews, the group discussions also at times act as an important
tool to analyze the personality traits of the candidates. Every interview is a
selling process. The interviewer is a buyer in this process and the interviewee
is a seller. The interviewer is a buyer as s/he analyses the interviewee’s
performance, strengths, and weaknesses and then s/he finally checks whether
the candidate can be an asset to the organisation's needs or not. The
interviewee is the seller as s/he convinces the interviewer that s/he is the best
suitable candidate for the organisation. There are some specific do’s and
don’ts of the interview process as covered in this unit. These points will
guide and empower candidates to be more effective in the interview. Proper
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communication skills and behavioural traits of the candidates as well. This
unit covers all the nuances about the interview process, GD process and CV.

12.2 RESUME
Resume is a must when applying for a new job, looking for a promotion or
looking for better opportunities. A resume is an important form of
communication at the workplace. They communicate about an individuals’
personality traits and are a major contact between the organisation and the
one who is seeking a job or promotion. When a resume is drafted following
points should be kept in mind as this is what the organisations look for:
● Does the candidate possess requisite qualifications for a job?
● Does the candidate have some experience which can be considered
above the qualifications?
● Is the candidate good in whatever s/he does?

After concentrating on the above points while preparing a resume, it is

important that the following features should be taken into consideration:
● Facts
● Groups/Categories
● Tabular presentations

Facts: Resume should be based on actual facts rather than manipulating

them. Only the facts like educational/academic qualifications, work
experience etc. should be mentioned which can later be substantiated by the
hirer.

Groups/Categories: Resume should always be categorised and presented

under various heads like educational qualification, work experience, extra-
curricular activities etc.

Tabulation: Resume should always be presented in a tabular form having

headings and sub-headings. This includes all the categories which a candidate
may wish to incorporate.
A resume can be in different formats and it is upto the candidate to select the
best suitable format. The following checklist should necessarily be present in
the resume:
● Present address
● Professional email
● Important achievements
● Proper categorisation
● Free of errors
● Critical information to be listed at the beginning
● Up-to-date information
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● Clean and clear Communication
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● Appealing

Apart from these, it is important that the candidate checks with the
organisation for the applicable resume style so as to suit their needs. It is,
therefore, important that a resume should be prepared in such a manner that it
should be able to communicate the exact set of information which the
candidate wishes to divulge.

Activity 1
Prepare a resume based on the checklist given in section 12.2.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

12.3 VIDEO RESUME

A video resume is a short video made by a candidate for the purpose of
employment. These types of videos are uploaded or emailed to the
recruitment manager. Thus the video resume may be later viewed and
analysed by the interviewer. In the video, the candidate shares detailed
information about their candidature, skill sets, and relevant experience which
can make them the best-suited candidate for the organisation they are
applying for. Usually, the video is used as a supplement with a paper resume.
This type of video resume can also be prepared by professionals where they
give candidates enough inputs about the various dos and don’ts of the content
to be included or removed from the video. This type of video resume helps
the recruiters as they can assess the communication skills, presentation skills,
and overall personality of the candidate which otherwise is not possible with
a paper resume.

Significance of a video resume

Video resumes are gaining importance slowly and gradually. Still, many
recruitment managers prefer to call for the traditional resume as compared to
a video resume. Video resumes are preferably used for job roles related to
communication, visual or creative fields. For instance, a video resume is very
significant for any performance-based job profile like TV anchoring, or those
jobs pertaining to stage, training, and teaching. On the other hand, if a
candidate’s role is not very visual, then a video resume may not be the right
tool to portray a candidate’s candidature.

The candidate should take utmost care while creating their video resume
because once anything is online, it cannot be controlled. An unprofessional
video resume can act as a hindrance and block a candidate’s chances of
getting the calls for the interviews. Now the question arises as to how can one
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resume can be created.

Effective Video Resume

The following checklist should be followed while preparing a video resume
to make it more effective:
● Eliminating background distractions
● Use of professional language
● Use proper voice modulation
● Prepare a script
● Script should be based on the requirement of the interviewer
● Precise and short
● Share with mentor and friends for review
● Edit, re-edit before posting

Activity 2
Create a video resume highlighting your skills and experience keeping in
mind that this video resume is asked for the profile of Assistant Sales
manager in a Bank.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

12.4 CURRICULUM-VITAE
It is important to note that there is a marked difference between a resume and
a curriculum vitae (CV). Usually, a resume summarises the credentials of the
candidate whereas a CV is a kind of academic/professional diary which
includes all the details of the qualifications, work experience,
accomplishments, publications and additional information. In this section, we
will discuss curriculum-vitae and how to draft it.

A curriculum vitae, often abbreviated as CV and is a vital document that is

made by applicants to highlight their skills, academic knowledge, and
professional endeavours. The checklist for a good CV is as follows:
● Specific fonts to be used
● Candidate’s name must appear on the top right corner of the CV. (Paste
photo only if asked)
● Proper spacing and grouping
● Use a formal e-mail-Id;
● A specific career objective;

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● Additional information like hobbies, interests etc.
● References

The CV should be precise and should portray the proper information.

12.5 INTERVIEW PORTFOLIO

A systematic, well-designed, well-articulated portfolio can surely give a
candidate an edge above his/her competitors and can impress the recruitment
manager. A portfolio is a detailed view of the candidate’s qualifications,
skill-sets and also provides a sample of his/her work as well. So, in a
nutshell, a portfolio is a collection of a candidate's entire skill set, experience
and achievements. A candidate can also present his/her portfolio as a website,
PowerPoint presentation, or a few chosen printed documents. For example,
people who work in creative jobs such as writers and designers may present
their samples of articles, blogs, or designs that they have made. Even a bank
manager may design a portfolio that includes well-developed financial
reports, annual reports which they have prepared.
Significance of an interview portfolio
A portfolio can hugely benefit any candidate as it is the presentation of every
skill which a candidate possesses. The significance of the portfolio is as
follows:
● A portfolio portrays creative skills
A portfolio gives a chance to highlight a candidate’s creative instinct.
For example, some candidates design their own portfolio website that
highlights their creative branding acumen. A candidate’s portfolio should
be his/her advertising and branding tool. It must be a reflection of the
candidate’s personality.
● Shows inclination towards the job
Recruiters want those people who are passionate and enthusiastic about
their jobs. The moment a recruiter comes across a well-designed
portfolio, it compels him/her to think about the level of sincerity and
seriousness of the candidate. A well-articulated portfolio shows
tremendous interest and focuses on the job.
● Portfolio makes the candidate feel more confident and prepared
A portfolio helps a candidate to effectively present and better describe
his/her project details, skills and experience. During the midst of the
interview, if questions are asked about the projects or any technical skills
which the candidate possesses, the portfolio can be quickly accessed.
● Showcases actual examples of skills and work
The recall value of the portfolio is high in the mind of the recruiter. A
recruiter can also be presented with the actual, tangible proof of the
candidate's work and this gives the candidate a strong edge above the
other candidates.
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Well-designed portfolio may include various things like samples of the
candidate's work, works in progress, certifications, awards along with the
candidate's professional experiences and qualifications. In addition to it, there
should be a systematic flow of a portfolio. It should consist of the following:
● Commence with candidate’s introduction
● Highlight professional background
● Opt STAR formula
● Include candidate’s achievements
● Define candidate’s goals
● Conclude with prominent points
● Choose the most effective medium to design candidate’s portfolio
● Keep evolving candidate’s portfolio
● Make it easy to comprehend

Now let us discuss these components in detail.

Start with an introduction

The opening lines of the candidate's portfolio should be eye-catching. In one
or two sentences, the candidate must highlight his/her USP and the unique
skill sets possessed by him/her. Do mention extra qualifications that ensure a
candidate's possibility for the ideal candidate for the job.

Highlight professional background

After the introduction, highlight the candidate's professional background. A
visual timeline of education, work experience (if any) is recommended. One
must also highlight specific achievements and contributions at each stage.
Specific contributions will position the candidate as a productive candidate
and also reflects his/her zeal for contribution.

Opt STAR formula

Hiring managers often check the credibility of the candidates by asking them
situational-based questions. The best way to handle the situational based
questions is STAR format. The advantage of this format is that it brings a
methodical approach in the candidate's expression. The full form of STAR
formula is as follows:
● Situation: Recall the situation the candidate was in.
● Task: Describe the task the candidate had to do.
● Action: Outline the action the candidate took.
● Result: Describe the results the candidate achieved.

For instance if a candidate is applying for the position of a team leader in any
bank, then the candidate must highlight certain experiences where s/he

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problems with the help of STAR format.

Include achievements
Awards and achievements act as a candidate's third-party references which
show that candidate’s work has been appreciated by others as well.

Define goals
This section of the candidate's portfolio should reflect the candidate's
professional goals for the next few years. This section must be explored to
stress how much a candidate is willing to get this job and how this job suits
the candidate's overall career goal and career map. A strategic way to do this
is by exploring and locating any challenges the company might be facing or
witnessing and how a candidate plans to handle them in case the s/he is
offered the position.

Conclude with prominent points

Candidate can conclude his/her portfolio with a crisp statement that presents
important details about his/her candidature.

Choose the most effective medium to design portfolio

There can be a variety of ways in which a portfolio may be designed. The
most important question is what suits the candidate and what can be the most
effective way for the candidate. For example, a web developer may create a
website to design his/her portfolio where s/he can portray his/her technical
and creative acumen. The key is to identify what suits the candidate.

Keep working on the portfolio

With the career escalation, the skills and qualifications also evolve
simultaneously. The upgraded versions of candidate’s skills, qualifications
must be regularly updated in the portfolio. Candidate’s portfolio should
communicate the message that his/her skills are being updated and upgraded
and s/he is not stagnant rather is growing professionally.

Make it easy to comprehend

Use good language and the structure of the sentences should be apt with no
grammatical errors.

12.6 INTERVIEW
Interview refers to a formal, in-depth conversation between two or more
persons, wherein the exchange of information takes place, with a view of
checking a candidate’s acceptability for the job. Interviews are considered to
be the most practical way to understand the personality traits of the
interviewee. There are various ways in which the interviewer can assess the
candidate. S/he may ask technical or subject-based questions to check the
technical acumen of the candidate, certain HR-based questions can be asked
to check the behavioural skills of the candidates.The time range of an
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Organisation
hour or even more. Sometimes the candidate is selected in just 5minutes and
sometimes a candidate may even get rejected after an hour-long interview. It
all depends on how clearly and confidently the candidate creates the right
impression in the mind of the interviewer.

12.7 TYPES OF INTERVIEWS

There are many types of interviews that serve different scenarios. Knowing
what to expect can help a candidate to meet his/her goals. In this section, we
will discuss some common forms of interviews.

1. Screening or Telephonic interview- Calling a candidate at the office

premises, organising the interviews and engaging the workforce to
coordinate these interviews has its own cost. Sometimes, the
organisations opt for initial screening of the candidates through
telephonic interviews so that certain good and promising candidates can
be identified. In these types of interviews, a preliminary check about the
candidate’s confidence, communication, and clarity of thoughts is
assessed. Suitable candidates are then called for the other round of the
interview.

2. Personal interview- This is the most common type of interview and

usually takes place in person at the organisation’s headquarters. The
duration of the personal interviews may vary from 5 minutes to 60
minutes.

3. Behaviour-based interview- This interview method goes much deeper

than the usual interview method. It requires thorough preparation of
concrete examples that demonstrate candidates’ attributes in key areas
such as teamwork, problem-solving abilities, creativity, flexibility and
organisational strength.

4. Task-based interviews or Tests- These types of interviews are designed

to be creative and analytical in solving problems across various tasks or
assignments. It may include a short test to assess a candidate's technical
knowledge and skills.

5. Stress interview- This interview method is rare and the interviewer

prompts to see a candidate’s reaction. The point is to highlight a
candidate’s weaknesses and see how they react under pressure. Tactics
can range from constant interruptions and weird silences to challenging
questions which can push the candidate over the edge.

6. Management-based interview- In these interviews, certain

management-based situations can be given to the candidates and the
managerial skills can be assessed. At times certain case studies or live
situations in a team can be put in front of the candidate and then he may
be asked to analyze the situation accordingly.
7. Focused interviews- For certain specialized jobs, the analytical
approach of the candidate may be assessed. Certain situations of a live-
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for Employment
are very focused as they specifically check the aptitude of the candidate
by putting them across the daily challenges which they would face in
their day-to-day work.

8. Exit interviews- In present times, most of the organisations go for exit

interviews. These are done when an employee exits from the
organisation for one or the other reason. The organisations conduct such
interviews to get the feedback about the organisations functioning which
will help them assess their situation.

12.8 PROCESS OF AN INTERVIEW

The process of an interview is a multi-stage process and takes place to hire
new employees. There are certain steps involved in the interview process.
These are:
● Job description
● Advertising the job
● Screening
● Scheduling interview
● Preliminary interview
● Personal interview
● Follow-up
● Hiring

Interview in itself is not the only step in the whole process. It starts with
designing the job description which gives the details of the qualifications,
attributes, and skills expected etc. After finalizing the job description, the job
is posted and the applications are invited. These applications are then
screened and then interviews are scheduled. Applications are then screened
and shortlisted. The shortlisted candidates are called for the preliminary
rounds of interviews. Further shortlisting is done and then the final round of
interviews is conducted. After this stage, the best candidate is hired.

12.9 GROUP DISCUSSION

Group discussion (GD) is not only about 'talking'- not even about 'talking
sense' but it is more than talking sense. It also includes practising a
candidate's intellectual capacities to thoroughly consider the subject, pay
attention to the perspectives of the other individuals, incorporating their
perspectives with the candidate’s own, and assisting the GD with showing up
a consistently intelligent answer for the issue being talked about.

Debating and public talking are one-to-numerous correspondence

circumstances though a GD is a many-to-numerous circumstance. To put it
simply, in a GD, it is the perspective of the whole gathering that matters the
most, unlike that of a debate or public speaking.
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gathering and not to any one person. During the assigned time, every
individual from the group will take part and each member needs to pay
attention to the perspectives of other individuals in the group. It is a
conversation and the speaker will be 'intruded' by other individuals from the
gathering while s/he is talking. Likewise, every member attempts to "grab"
the opportunity to talk or make sincere attempts to drive the discussion.

Need for a group discussion

A GD estimates certain properties of the applicants that are generally hard to
recognize and tedious to evaluate. Various individuals who can impart their
thoughts well and examine successfully with others in a coordinated
circumstance become silent in a GD. A GD distinguishes individuals who
have such abilities and individuals who don't. Then, at that point, there are
certain individuals who will make excellent audience members in a
coordinated circumstance yet with regards to being individuals from a
gathering, their listening abilities simply evaporate and all they appear to be
keen on is their voice being heard by the group. In any GD, the individuals
ought to have the tolerance and ability to pay attention to the perspectives of
different individuals from the gathering. A GD is in this manner utilized
viably by selectors to survey whether the applicant has those skills required
by the organisation or not.

12.10 TYPES OF GROUP DISCUSSIONS

Group discussions can be divided into three broad categories based on the
topic/issue given for discussion:

1. Topic-based group discussions

2. Case-based group discussions (also called Case Studies), and
3. Article-based group discussions
Now let us understand each type of discussion below.
1. Topic-based group discussion
In a topic-based group discussion the topics that are given in group
discussions can be classified into;

● Information based topics

● Non-knowledge-based topics
These classifications are explained below -
● Information-based topics
Information-based topics expect candidates to be well-read. Information-
based subjects fall into various classifications dependent on the kind of
information required.
● Non-Knowledge-based topics
Non-information-based points are those that do not need any information
base in a particular area for a candidate to have the option to discuss
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in discussing such subjects. Candidate’s common information and
presence of mind will help him/her in taking on these types of topics.

Non-information-based points themselves can be classified into two

areas – substantial subjects and theoretical or conceptual themes.

a. Substantial topics
While there is a great deal of conversation conceivable on these subjects,
the focal point of conversation is extremely clear, independent of who
talks about these themes.

b. Conceptual themes
Conceptual themes are those with regard to which the actual
understanding can fluctuate from one individual to another. Discussions
on these themes can be exceptionally shapeless. In these GDs, a
candidate has to think out of the box and needs to come up with multiple
interpretations.

2. Case-based group discussions

In such discussions, a hypothetical situation or a situation from real life
is given which is then floated to the group. The group is then asked to
discuss the situation and try to interpret and analyse the situation. This
type of GD is used to assess the analytical ability of the candidate.

3. Article-based group discussions

These GDs cover a wide range of areas, like current affairs, politics,
economics, and technology, etc. The participants are given 4-5 minutes
to read the article and are then asked to hold a regular group discussion
of around 10-15 minutes on the article.
Group discussions are important as they help the recruiters to assess the
problem solving and analytical abilities of the candidates.

12.11 OFFER LETTER

An offer letter is a part of formal business communication. It is usually
written by any organisation which promises to offer a job, placement,
internship, part-time job to any selected candidate. The offer letters are
usually written by the HR department of an organisation. The offer letter as
the name suggests offers the complete information of the job, the profile
being offered. It consists of the terms and conditions of the employment i.e.
the salary package being offered, tenure of bond (if any), details of incentives
based upon the performance, joining date, entry and exit policy of the
organisation, medical insurance, earned and casual leaves etc.

A professionally written offer letter must be transparent which means that the
terms and conditions of the employment should be clearly written without
any hidden information. The terms and conditions should be easily
understood by the reader as well. The offer letter is of significance because in
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Organisation
malicious act then at that time the terms and conditions in the offer letter can
act as an important point of reference.

12.12 SUMMARY
In this competitive world, every candidate wishes to secure a lucrative
employment offer. Some of the ideal characteristics which every recruiter
would like to see in any candidate are clarity of thoughts, proactive approach,
emotional balance and sound academic knowledge with good communication
skills. Every candidate should prepare an effective CV/resume or a portfolio
which can help the candidate to market himself effectively. The interview is
the first step that every candidate comes across. The interview is a meticulous
discussion that takes place between an interviewer and an interviewee. Every
interview is a selling process where the candidate is a seller and tries to
present himself/herself effectively so that the recruiter can offer him/her a
good job opportunity. Interviews have certain rules and regulations which
every candidate must keep in mind. Apart from interviews, group discussions
also assess various personality traits in a candidate such as group behaviour
skills, leadership skills, patience, communication skills and ability to
convince etc.

12.13 KEYWORDS
Group Discussion: A GD is a platform where few people analyse and
discuss a topic in order to develop a holistic understanding of the topic and
develop insights about the topic in order to reach a sensible conclusion.
Video-Resume: A video resume is a short video made by a candidate for the
purpose of employment.
Interview Portfolio: A portfolio is a detailed view of the candidate’s
qualifications, skill-sets and also provides a sample of his/her work.
Interview: Interview refers to a formal, in-depth conversation between two
or more persons, wherein the exchange of information takes place, with a
view of checking a candidate’s acceptability for the job.
Offer Letter: An offer letter is a part of formal business communication and
is usually written by any organisation which promises to offer a job,
placement, internship, part-time job to any selected candidate.

12.14 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) What are the various points to be considered while creating an effective
Video-Resume?
2) Do candidates agree with the statement that “An effective portfolio gives
candidates an edge over others in an interview”? Why?
3) What is an interview?
4) What are the various types of an interview?
5) Explain the interview process?
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12.15 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS for Employment

Blackburn-Brockman, E., & Belanger, K. (2001). One page or two?: A

national study of CPA recruiters' preferences for resume length. The Journal
of Business Communication (1973), 38(1), 29-45.
Boyce, C., & Neale, P. (2006). Conducting in-depth interviews: A guide for
designing and conducting in-depth interviews for evaluation input.
Henningsen, D. D., & Henningsen, M. L. M. (2020). Nuanced aggression in
group decision making. International Journal of Business
Communication, 57(1), 145-158.
Koneru, A. (2008). Professional Communication. New Delhi: Tata Mc-Graw
Hill Publications
Korlahalli, R. P. (1996). Essentials of Business Communication. Seventh
Edition. New Delhi: Sultan Chand & Sons
Krizan, A. C., Harcourt, J.,& Merrier, P. (1996). Business
Communication. United Kingdom: South-Western Educational Pub.
Little, R. (1989). Keep Candidate’s Resume Short. USA Today, July 28,1989,
p.B1
Offer letter format. (2020, July 07). Retrieved October 21, 2021, from
https://www.indiafilings.com/learn/offer-letter-format/
Pibal, D. C. (1985). Criteria for effective resumes as perceived by personnel
directors. Personnel Administrator, 30(5), 119-123.
Preston, P. (1979). Communication for Managers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall Inc
Rai, U. (2008). Business Communication (10th ed.). New Delhi: Himalaya
Publishing House
Rao, N. & Das, R. P. (2009). Communication Skills (2nd ed.). Mumbai:
Himalaya Publishing House
Scot, O. (2004). Contemporary Business Communication. New Delhi:
Biztantra.
Sharma, R. C. & Mohan, K. (2002). Business Correspondence and Report
Writing. Third Edition. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill Publishing Organisation
Limited
Turbak, G. (1995). Watch candidate’s Body language. The Rotarian
(April),USA
Ugbah, S. D., & Majors, R. E. (1992). Influential communication factors in
employment interviews. The Journal of Business Communication
(1973), 29(2), 145-159.
Ulrich, L., & Trumbo, D. (1965). The selection interview since
1949. Psychological bulletin, 63(2), 100.
Vardman, G.T. (1968). Managerial Control Through Communication. New
York: John Wiley & Sons.
What is interview? definition and types. (2020, January 02). Retrieved
October, 2021, from https://businessjargons.com/interview.html
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Organisation UNIT 13 TECHNOLOGY AND
COMMUNICATION

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
● Understand the concept of technology in communication;
● explore the effective tools of technology in communication;
● explore other multimedia tools in presentations; and
● learn the management of Social Media management.

Structure
Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Internet and Intranet
13.3 Multimedia Presentations
13.4 Information & Communication Technology
13.5 Virtual meetings
13.6 Teleconferencing
13.7 Video Conference
13.8 Messaging tools
13.9 Rich Media and Lean Media
13.10 Social media management
13.11 Summary
13.12 Keywords
13.13 Self-Assessment Questions
13.14 References and Further Readings

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Information technology has changed the way of every business operation
from designing the product to managing the logistics and supply chain.
Today Information technology is impacting the business very rapidly. Instant
flow of information and messages has become the lifeline of effective and
timely decision-making. Many presentation software are available which
have transformed the way of presentations too. Today it is easier to be
connected to all the stakeholders of the business with the help of Information,
Communication and Technology (ICT). Various application tools help in
saving time and money and have become effective tools of communication.
The use of social media profiles too has increased to highlight the presence in
the market. In this unit we will study all these aspects and learn how ICT has
penetrated our daily as well as professional lives.
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 Technology and
13.2 INTERNET AND INTRANET Communication

Internet is an open field and there is no central administration to it.TCP/IP

protocol is the prime operating agent for the internet used by the connected
networks which may also involve other protocols like HTTP, FTP, and
SMTP. Apart from these, there are other protocols which have been used
since the genesis of the internet such as Telnet, FTP (File Transfer Protocol),
Internet Relay Chat, Gopher, Usenet News, WWW (World Wide Web). E-
mails are the most important development when we talk about the internet.
Internet has the following features:
● It is a global system
● It is a public network
● The information is accessible
● It has large number of users
● It is less secure
● It is not regulated
● It has high traffic.

Intranet
As we know that intranet is a private computer network but in order to
operate it has to use internet protocols, network connectivity to access,
communicate and share vital information within the virtual boundaries of an
organisation. Intranet uses the same client-server model running on the
TCP/IP protocol which is identical to an internet. The features of intranet are:
● It is a private network
● Only the users have access
● It is a more secured network
● It has limited users
● The traffic is limited

Table 1 presents the comparison between internet and intranet.

Table 1: Comparison of Internet and Intranet

BASIS FOR
INTERNET INTRANET
COMPARISON

Meaning Connects various network Vital part of Internet which is

of computers together privately owned by a
particular organisation

Accessibility Easily accessible by Only employees, members of

anyone the organisation can access
with their login details.

Safety Prone to cyber attacks Safer, as it functions within

the organisation.
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No of Users Unlimited as everyone can Limited as organisational
access it anytime members can only access.

Visitors Traffic High Low

Network Type Public networks Private network as it is

limited to the organisation

Information Unlimited Organisational information

Provided only

13.3 MULTIMEDIA PRESENTATIONS

Presentation is an important part of organisations. Proper, systematic, lively
presentations can leave deep, long-lasting impacts in the minds of clients,
team and all the stakeholders directly or indirectly involved in a business.
Power-point presentations are no doubt effective but Multimedia software
have surely developed an edge over these in due course of time. The simple
reason is multimedia presentations are equipped with different tools and
features which can leave the audience totally fascinated. New cutting edge
features like stock photos, audio narration, background music, custom
transitions, animations, animated icons, sound effects etc. are available in
multimedia presentations.

For corporates, time is the most important resource. Organisations wish to

establish strong impacts right away in the first meeting or first conversation
with their stakeholders. Organisations use multimedia presentations in trade
show displays; demonstrate the functioning of their products with the help of
the presentation software.

Recall value in the customers’ mind, long-lasting impacts, a customer turning

up into a potential customer are the points in the priority list of the
organisations. To achieve all these targets, creative presentations have to be
equipped with various tools. Following is the list of commonly used tools
included in multimedia presentations:
● Text
● Images
● Video
● Sound
● GIFs
● Animation
● Charts
● Transitions
● Narration
● Sound FX
Now, let us explore the five most effective multimedia presentation
applications which can be used in making the presentations more lively and
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effective although many multimedia applications are available in the virtual Technology and
Communication
world. The features of frequently used multimedia presentations software are
given below:

1) Focusky (https://focusky.com/): Focusky is an open source

presentation software that is highly recommended for multimedia
presentations for organisations. This tool helps in creating beautiful
animated presentations and can make the communication highly
effective. With the help of Focusky effective presentations can be
designed for educational purposes, business presentations in meetings,
technology, fashion, and other sectors as well. Animated presentations
leave a deeper impact on the audience and help in longer retention.

2) Adobe Premiere (https://www.adobe.com/in/products/premiere.html):

Adobe Premiere is an effective presentation software for fabricating deep
impact video presentations. Today, video editing software is being
explored by the creative teams in an organisation. Any type of media can
be edited in its native format and a professional presentation can be made
which can be used for film, TV, and web.

3) Reveal.js (https://revealjs.com/) : If someone is looking for multi-touch

presentations then Reveal.js is the answer which is one of the most
popular open source. This tool helps in developing, deploying and
measuring interactive digital experience. The pre-built sample tools
make it viable to develop animated presentations including images,
videos, documents, 3D models, and maps.

4) Libre Office (https://www.libreoffice.org/): This Windows based

platform is one of the favorite choices for commercial settings and
educational purposes.

5) Video presentation software: This is the presentation software which

can help you develop scintillating high-definition, whiteboard-style
animation video presentations without the knowledge of design or
technical acumen.

Activity 1
Use and explore presentation software other than Power-Point and design a
presentation on “Barriers of Communication”.

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13.4 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
The term "Information and Communication Technology" (ICT) refers to all
of the technologies and services involved in computing, data protocol
management, telecommunications, and the internet. ICT aims to provide
newer and more innovative ways for people to interact, network, gain
access to information, excel, and learn all at the same time. Information and
communication technology (ICT) now has a significant economic impact.
The technology sector holds a significant portion of economic activity around
the globe, as economies, employment, and personnel have become more
automated and the world has become a global village.

Importance of Information and Communication Technology

a) ICT and e-commerce

The ICT infrastructure that formerly drove simple credit or debit card
transactions and centralized record-keeping for commercial organisations
continue to expand in retail and other customer-facing environments, and
e-commerce now merges with the shopping experience itself.
Consumers can now shop for goods and services online from the
convenience of their own homes. Using database technology and
shopper-friendly websites or applications, today's consumers may shop
for goods and services online from the comfort of their own homes or on
their mobile phones. And cutting edge technologies like augmented
reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and artificial intelligence (AI) are
allowing potential consumers to have quick, interactive access to product
information and even try them out.
b) ICT and a New Business
Ecommerce and the expansion of ICT have brought considerable
changes to how commercial organisations function behind the scenes, in
addition to new routes for purchasing and new means of showing and
promoting goods. Mobile devices and real time communications,
combined with developments in data analytics and artificial intelligence,
enable retail sales people to work more efficiently.
c) Manufacturing Innovations
ICT is a useful support mechanism in the manufacturing sector, capable
of making design and production more robust, effective, and efficient
through the use of computer-based precision engineering, virtualized
systems, and computer simulation. Despite ongoing concerns about the
potential impact of trade volatility, tariffs, and the global economic
slowdown the industry remains optimistic.
d) New Methods of Manufacturing
ICT is a useful support mechanism in the manufacturing sector, capable
of making design and production more robust, effective, and efficient
through the use of computer-based precision engineering, virtualized
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e) Customer feedback loops Technology and
Communication
Customer feedback loops and data analytics are both powered by
information and communication technology. Both of these factors enable
manufacturers to strengthen their relationships with customers while also
adding value to the products they create through customization.
f) Reduction in network latency
As the Fourth Industrial Revolution or Industry 4.0 progresses, new
communications technologies such as 5G will reduce network latency,
increase bandwidth and increase manufacturers' capacity for real-time
and near-real-time response.
With 5G integration and Internet of Things (IoT) technology,
manufacturers will be able to increase their use of sensors, cloud
platforms, centralised tracking, quality inspection and other related
systems. Finally, advances in information and communication
technology are spawning a new breed of "industrial wearables." Smart
glasses and biometric sensors that can connect individual workers to
remote databases or industrial resources, as well as robotics, are
examples of tools and equipment.
g) ICT and advancements in health care systems
Information and communication technology (ICT) has developed a
variety of applications in the health care sector. These applications have
tremendously affected domains of patient care, public health, operating
costs, and the traditional bureaucracy linked with the medical profession
and life sciences. Electronic health records (EHRs) allow healthcare
workers to enter patient data into a centralized, digitized system that is
accessible to relevant stakeholders such as medical personnel,
pharmacies, and insurers. Systems can be configured with alerts and
integrated with user authentication and security policies to allow patients
access to their health information.
h) Education's ubiquity and universal accessibility
ICT facilitates electronic learning, also known as eLearning, by
combining database technology with communications and interactive
programming techniques. Individuals and organisations can participate in
vocational or special interest training courses that combine formal
instruction, quizzes, practical exercises, research, and interactive
multimedia elements, all in the learner's own time and at their own pace,
using e-learning platforms such as Coursera and Lectora.
Information and communication technology (ICT) in schools and
colleges provides students with engaging, interactive, and self paced
learning methods that increase their independence and involvement in
the learning process while also increasing their levels of digital literacy.
i) ICT and Environmental Impact
With sustainability and environmental stewardship high on the priority
list for individual consumers, governments, and organisations,
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argument.
On the one hand, while ICT is estimated to contribute 2% to 5% of
global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, these technologies also help to
reduce emissions.
Aside from the physical benefits of less reliance on paper-based
documentation, ICT aids in monitoring climate change, mitigating and
adapting to its effects, and easing the transition to a green and circular
economy.

13.5 VIRTUAL MEETINGS

A virtual meeting is when people in different departments/divisions/sections
interface simultaneously utilizing innovation to achieve a common objective.
Virtual meetings in general are easy to execute, and do not require as much
planning time as an offline meeting does. Virtual meetings can run
successfully if planned well in advance. In present times where the pandemic
situation has made things complex, virtual meetings have gained importance
because they can be conducted from the remote corners and at the same time
they are cost and time effective.

Significance of virtual meetings

a) Interaction with colleagues at distance- Virtual meetings provide a
unique platform to connect with those team mates who are based
distantly or at various workplaces. Without the choice of virtual
meetings, it would be extremely difficult to discuss adequately with
them. They help in constant discussion and critical thinking of certain
issues which an e-mail cannot.

b) Meetings with clients or customers- Virtual meetings have now

become a ‘new normal’ when there is a need to discuss the matters of
importance with clients or address customers.

c) Saves cost and time- It is an effective way to save cost and time of the
organisations.

Platform for Virtual Meetings

In a business setup meetings are organized throughout the year. Every
meeting has a different agenda, different participants, and different setups.
Some participants will attend the meeting; some may like to see the
recordings of the meetings later. Therefore, the organiser of the meeting has
to look into various options before choosing the right platform for virtual
meetings. Organizing a virtual meeting is not complicated but there are some
key parameters to be kept in mind while choosing the right virtual meeting
platform. They are as follows:

a) Option to record the meetings

This is a helpful device if some welcomed participant is not able to join
the gathering due to any reasons or some participants need to have the
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 option to review the recording later to note down some important facts Technology and
Communication
and figures discussed in the meeting. Even at times, higher management
may like to see a few glimpses of the meetings for one or the other
reason. In such cases the recording feature of the meetings can play an
important role.
b) Chat options
Most of the meeting platforms permit participants to type observations
and queries in the chat box. This is a useful instrument for a large
number of participants like workshops, conferences etc. where questions
cannot be taken up individually. The questions in the chat box can be
answered by the professionals thus the individual queries, questions can
be addressed quite well.
c) Sync the meeting information with calendar
Search for an internet meeting application that will synchronize meeting
schedules with your day-to-day activities schedule. This is a prominent
tool and will ensure that participants do not miss any meetings. This
feature will also help in planning the time effectively as the managers
can always prioritize their other tasks quite productively.
d) Feature to customize meeting rooms
Some internet meeting applications do permit customizing "meeting
rooms" aligned with the organisation's needs. This can be valuable in
case there is a meeting with a forthcoming customer(s) where
organisations’ strengths are to be highlighted.
e) Presence of engagement features
Internet meeting tools can consolidate tests, games, and applications to
be executed for the meetings. These extra provisions are a colossal
resource with regards to keeping the participants fully involved and
engaged during the meeting.
f) Option to modify records
It tends to be amazingly helpful to discover a meeting device that permits
you to modify reports with the group and team up progressively.

Ways to make a virtual meeting productive

Once the right platform is chosen, it is then important to try and make the
meetings as productive as possible. This requires proper planning with
agenda items in place beforehand. How can we make the virtual meetings
productive? The following is the list of some do’s which will help in making
the virtual meetings productive:

● Define the objective of the meeting

Build up the objective of the virtual meeting. It can be the complex
issues which need to be tackled on an immediate basis or monitoring the
group or to discuss some complex data information etc. Whatever it may
be, it has to be itemized and placed as agenda items for the forthcoming
meetings.
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Organisation
While virtual meetings contrast from offline meetings in the way that
number of individuals are involved in the discussion, it is therefore
important to assign the task of moderator/convener of the meeting who
can facilitate the discussion in the right direction without wasting time in
unnecessary discussion.
● Maintaining virtual gathering decorum
Since the meeting is virtual, the participants tend to be casual and may
eat or drink or perform activities which may not be professional.
Therefore, it is important that in a professional set-up standard norms be
circulated to maintain decorum.
● Select the options for choosing the appropriate questions
The moderator should be assigned the task to select appropriate
questions to be taken up in the meeting.
● Establish connect with the audience on one-on-one basis
Try to save a couple of minutes towards the start or end of the virtual
meeting to connect with the participants. This act reassures everybody
that they are being given importance which helps in establishing long-
term associations with the stakeholders.
● Keeping virtual participants on task
A meeting plan is practically pointless, if the participants do not adhere
to it. To keep participants on task and engaged, a proper planning is
important like assigning tasks to the participants. It can be taking notes,
jotting down the relevant questions etc.

Advantages of virtual meetings

Virtual meetings have many benefits over offline meetings. These are:
● Harmless to the ecosystem
● Low cost
● Association with remote participants
Virtual meetings therefore are one of the constructive ways when we talk
about the relationship of technology with communication.

13.6 TELECONFERENCING
Today remote work locations have become very common due to expansion of
the businesses and organisations. This has given rise to teleconferencing
where each and every team member who is even remotely located can be
reached and can be connected. Organisations have realized the importance of
communication as proper messages, information; facts and figures have to be
communicated to all the employees, customers, and clients.
The way to connect two or more people using telecommunication services
who may be evenly spread out in different locations so that any meeting or
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communication channel can be established with them. Today's technology Technology and
Communication
has equipped us with a variety of teleconferencing features that foster fast
communication and allow users to collaborate, coordinate, and cooperate
from remote locations.

Benefits of Teleconferencing
There are multiple benefits of teleconferencing that every business can reap.
Profit maximization and reducing cost have to be balanced simultaneously
thus relying upon teleconferencing certainly helps businesses in certain ways.

They include:
● Saving time
● Saving money
● Increased productivity
● Scope for face-to-face conversations with a video teleconference
● Fastening up the decision-making process
● Fosters collaboration and develop professional work culture

How to Set Up a Teleconference Call

Setting up a teleconference call with your team members or colleagues is
quite easy, you just need to go through the following steps.

● Select a conference provider, which typically involves selecting a

specific teleconferencing software provider.
● Then you have to create a user account.
● The information of the teleconferencing call should be texted or emailed
to team-members and to a guest who wishes to attend the call. The
details usually include a phone number or web access code, time and
date.

Teleconference Étiquettes
Clients, business partners, stakeholders expect certain professional etiquette
during business parlance. Some of the key etiquette during teleconference are
as follows:
● Respect the time element i.e. be on time
● Eliminate all the distractions and background noise which may disturb
the decorum of the meeting
● Do professionally introduce yourself after joining the call.
● Wear proper business attire as your clothes speak a lot about your
personality
● Do not eat anything during the teleconference
● Do not override others’ points. Be a patient listener as well.

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13.7 VIDEO CONFERENCE
Apart from teleconferencing services, various organisations and business
units often use video teleconferences to organize webinars, meetings, and
various online events. Video teleconferencing is an advanced tool of
communication. It is an audio plus visual experience that empowers the users
to communicate with each other and see each other in real-time. Video
teleconferences options are very lucrative for the business as it gives the
freedom to the users to have face to face live conversations. Thus the various
expenses like the cost of transportation, travelling, and various operational
expenses are all curtailed.

Audio Conferencing
Audio conferencing is a typical telephone conference call that has been
practiced for a long time now. During an audio conference, the attendees
have to generally make a call on a specific number, dial in the code, and join
a telephone call. An audio conference is a good tool to organize meetings,
announcements regarding any new rule, changes in the policy, information
about new products, etc. The only drawback of audio conferencing is it does
not offer visuals.

Video conference equipment

Apart from having a strong internet connection, the team members who
might be located remotely or far away should possess some basic equipment
for a smooth, noise free participation in a video conference. The list of
general paraphernalia needed for a video teleconference session is as follows:
● A desktop, tab or a laptop
● A separate webcam, in case of no in-built front camera in computer
● A microphone
● A high-quality headset to remove the background noise
● Any authentic and good quality video conferencing software

13.8 MESSAGING TOOLS

Instant messaging tools are real-time online conversation tools that aid in
connecting two or more people. They provide the best platform not only for
messaging but also facilitate smooth exchange of text, audio, files and
content and video communication. A customer-driven approach is vital in
every business and it has been observed for a couple of instances that
messaging tools play a prominent role in supporting the smooth flow of
information between all the stakeholders of the business. Instant messaging
tools can help a business in various ways. Some of them are as follows:
● Connecting with customers and clients;
● Effective in generating new leads in business;
● Aid in providing quick live chat solutions and suggestions to the clients
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Features of messaging tools for external communication Technology and
Communication
There are various messaging tools which are used for external business
communication. Some are free of cost and some are specifically designed to
communicate within the organisations. These applications offer following
services depending on the requirements of the business house. Some of them
are listed below:
● Texting, group chats, file sharing, voice and video calls;
● Setting up promotional messages to attract new clients;
● Enhancing customer support through live chat solutions;
● Messenger services allows the businesses to explore the power of instant
messaging;
● New users can be directly brought in the conversation in messenger
through scanned codes;
● Many messenger apps have ad auction features which can fetch a
considerable revenue for ad campaigns;
● Some messaging apps have unique features like bots, secret chats, super-
groups, and facilities to send files up to 1.5 GB.

Features of messaging tools for internal communication

There are many messaging tools which provide a more secure platform for
real-time, internal team communication. Many apps offer free premium plans
or free-trial periods so the best option can be chosen. These apps help in
building a strong team.
● Offer an internal team chat along with flexible business solution features
like dynamic productivity tools aligned with robust security, and strong
administrative control.
● Voice and video calls, screen sharing, whiteboard solutions for smooth
communication and collaboration within the teams.
● Broadcast messages which help in targeting and placing the product.
● Facility of unlimited file transfer.
● Customised chat spaces.
● Accessibility of all servers at one interface.
● Push-to talk option on the channel which can promptly start
communication with others once the push button is pressed.
● Capacity to alter sent messages.

This shows that messaging tools are important for both internal as well as
external communications.

Activity 2
Think of the messaging app you use the most. List out the characteristics of
the with respect to business communication.

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13.10 LEAN MEDIA AND RICH MEDIA

Media plays an important role in communication. It can be rich or lean. The
Media richness theory was developed by Richard L. Daft and Robert H.
Lengel in the 1980’s which describes a communication model whereby the
communication media is characterized by its ability to carry and reproduce
information sent over the available communication channels. Media richness
theory defines different communication on the basis of its ability to carry
information, ranging from low (or lean) to high (rich).
LEAN MEDIA (information) has very less visual information with a low
interaction rate. Examples of lean media include letters, reports, memos.
Email is considered a lean media, as the facial, vocal, and body-language
queues are not present. Figure 1 shows how various media tools are
positioned. The written media is the leanest and face-to-face interaction is
positioned as very high on the richness of media.

Figure 1: Information Richness Continuum

Source: Daft, R. L., Lengel, R. H., & Trevino, L. (2007)

RICH MEDIA: Market research has shown that focusing on intended

interest clients is an important component of the progress of an organisation.
In the changing technology-based marketing scene, it has become important
for the organisations to captivate buyers to draw their attention with unique
content. Rich media helps in this part in the form of advertisements. It helps
the organisations showcasing their products through unconventional and
innovative ideas.

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Due to various reasons, rich media is an effective tool for promotion. The Technology and
Communication
advantages of rich media are as follows:

● Long association: Interesting and innovative ways of creating and

designing the messages have a strong tendency to keep the attention of
the target audience.

● Track-capacity: The innovation behind rich media permits advertisers

to follow the different degrees of commitment and association, including
significant measurements like the quantity of developments.

● Increased interaction rate: Engaging the attention of the customers can

make them stay a bit longer with the advertisement. Interactivity can
drastically increase brand goodwill and brand awareness thereby
influencing the purchase decisions. In rich media techniques potential
customers can be strategically directed to interact with the online tools
which can make them more engaged.

● Rich Media ads can be measured: A successful organisation is the one

that can understand the behavior and moves of its customers. Rich media
ads can check and keep an eye on even the smallest browsing patterns of
their clients which can empower them with a lot of information about
their target customers.

● Higher performance levels: rich media ads have an upper edge over
standard ads with high conversion rates. It has been observed that
consumers are more inclined to take action after going through a rich
media ad as compared to traditional ads.

● Enhanced Brand awareness: As rich media ads are very creative and
innovative, their brand recall value is very high. Due to these innovative,
impactful rich media strategies, the brand awareness of the brand is
bound to stay for a longer time in the minds of the customers.
● User experience: Rich media ads do not compel the users to drop or
switch to another site.

Therefore, lean media and rich media have their own relevance in business
communication.

13.10 SOCIAL MEDIA MANAGEMENT

Social media management is a well organized process of carefully analyzing
social media audiences and developing a methodical strategy as per the
requirement. Social media management includes designing of social media
pages and content, monitoring the flow of online conversations and their
impact, offering community service, and measuring, and reporting on social
media performance. Nowadays. Social media management has become very
important as it plays an integral role for any business. Different brands are
exploring the social media platforms for new product launches, connecting to
their target audiences, increasing brand awareness, and affecting the
positioning of the products as per the needs of the customers. The scope of
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who are solely dedicated to design and increase the visibility of the brands
and products on social media platforms. Understanding the taste, preferences,
likes and dislikes of the customers can all be effectively measured and
monitored with the help of social media platforms. The advantages of Social
media platforms are as follows.
● Consistent connectivity with customers
● Effective management of multiple social pages
● Effective management of customized customer relationships
● Presenting reports to stakeholders
● Streamlining strong team collaboration

Managing Social Media Profile

The way social media profiles are created, they can have a tremendous
impact on an individual or a business. Effective social media profiles can
attract a good number of visitors to the created page. Let us explore the ways
which we should keep in mind while creating an effective social media
profile.
● Avoid creating a personal profile for business purpose
● Publishing mishaps with page roles are to be avoided.
● Include a recognizable profile picture
● Select a captivating cover photo
● Include a call-to-action (CTA) button
● Fill the 'About' section with basic information and add organisation
milestones
● Decide the perfect timing and recurrence for the posts
● Use focussed messaging tools

13.11 SUMMARY
Proper internet and intranet connectivity have bridged various
communication channels all over the world. Presentation of products and
services using various online presentation tools have gained considerable
importance in the past few years. Proper presentations positioning the
products and services helps create impact in the minds of the customers.
Proper presentations have a very strong recall value. There are many
presentation software which impact the business in the long run. Today,
faster modes of communication like video calls, video conferencing and
instant messaging tools are transferring the messages in seconds all over the
globe. The transfer of information at speed aids in the decision-making
process and faster delivery of goods and services. Such tools have helped in
saving time and cost of organisations globally. In this unit we have covered
all these aspects to have a better understanding of the relationship between
technology and communication.
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 Technology and
13.12 KEY-WORDS Communication

Internet: Internet is an open field and there is no central administration to it.

Intranet: Intranet is a private computer network but in order to operate it has

to use internet protocols, network connectivity to access, communicate and
share vital information within the virtual boundaries of an organisation.

Information and communication technology: The term "Information and

Communication Technology" (ICT) refers to all of the technologies and
services involved in computing, data protocol management,
telecommunications, and the internet.

Virtual meetings: A virtual meeting is when people in different areas

interface simultaneously utilizing innovation to achieve a common objective.

Teleconferencing: The way to connect two or more people using

telecommunication services who may be evenly spread out in different
locations so that any meeting or communication channel can be established
with them.
Messaging tools: Instant messaging tools are real-time online conversation
tools that aid in connecting two or more people.

Social Media Management: Social Media management is a well organized

process of meticulously analyzing social media audiences and developing an
apt strategy.

13.13 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Explain the difference between internet and intranet?
2) What do you mean by ICT? Explain the Importance of Information and
Communication Technology?
3) Give an overview of various multimedia presentation software?
4) What are virtual meetings? How does it benefit an organisation?
5) What are the various points to be kept in mind for executing an effective
virtual meeting?
6) What is teleconferencing? Explain its advantages? What are the various
teleconferencing etiquette?
7) What is social media management?

13.14 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Boove, C. L. & Thill, J. V. (1995). Business Communication Today. New
York: McGraw-Hill INC.
Cortese, A. (2004). Here Comes the Intranet. Business Week, 2004, 76-82
Daft, R. L., Lengel, R. H., & Trevino, L. (1987). Message equivocality,
media selection, and manager performance: Implications for information
systems. MIS Quarterly, 11(3), 354-366.
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Organisation selection, and manager performance: Implications for information
systems. MIS Quarterly, 11(3), 354-366.
Difference between internet and intranet (with comparison chart and
similarities). (2019, December 24). Retrieved October, 2021, from
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Implementation of Communication Technology in Organizations. The
Journal of Business Communication (1973), 34(1), 121–129.
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Ishii, K., Lyons. M. M. & Carr, S. A. (2019). Revisiting media richness
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Pazos, P., Chung, J. M., & Micari, M. (2013). Instant Messaging as a Task-
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 Cross-Cultural
UNIT 14 CROSS-CULTURAL Communication

COMMUNICATION

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
● Understand culture and its constituents;
● Interpret the differences between different cultures;
● Synthesize strategies for handling cross-cultural communication.

Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Characteristics of Culture
14.3 Theories of Culture
14.4 Cross-Cultural Communication
14.5 Hofstede‟s cultural dimension model
14.6 Hall‟s Cultural Model
14.7 Cross-cultural Communication Barriers
14.8 Overcoming Cross-cultural Communication Barriers
14.9 Lean Media, Rich Media and Social Media
14.10 Summary
14.11 Keywords
14.12 Self-Assessment Questions
14.13 References and Further Readings

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Culture has a complicated manifestation, especially with the world consisting
of nationalities exhibiting cultures that lie on extremes of the continuum of
measuring culture. In the present era, when global business activities are
indispensable, working with colleagues and/or clients from different cultures
is common place. Irrespective of the industry that you belong to, ability to
effectively communicate is the core for modulating businesses. Organisations
are located in a world that is interconnected in all manners. The changing
norms of operations, workplaces have spread to accommodate remote teams
operating in different parts of the globe catering to a culturally diverse
customer base and handling supplier bases from wide-ranging locations.
Hence, command on cross-cultural communication offers an edge to
organisational supremacy. The most interesting aspect of culture is that even
though it has a complex constitution, there is an evident pattern that can be
discovered and interpreted.

“Cultura '' the Latin word meaning care of body, predominantly mind, is the
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while being a member of a particular society. Culture is something we
experience by aligning to the people who have been a part of the culture. The
most common definitions of culture include music, art and theatre as the
integral parts. Culture could exist in various macro and micro systems and
hence national culture, regional culture, corporate culture, food culture,
traditional culture are common terminologies used to reflect the accepted and
expected behavioural patterns of people belonging to a society. A macro
culture could be constituted of multiple sub-cultures, like Indian culture is a
blend of diverse cultural backgrounds. It can be applied to any human
collectively or category wise. Culture has a significant impact on our
attitudes and actions, not only on how we behave but how we expect others to
behave.

For simplicity, the unit will use an operational definition which defines
Culture as“inherent core values of a society promulgated through social
interaction and teachings.”

14.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

There are certain characteristics of culture which define it. These are:
● Acquired
● Collective
● Value system
● Stability
● Differentiator
● Contextual
● Common yet different
Now, let us discuss each of these characteristics one by one for better
understanding.
Acquired
Culture is what we acquire from the individuals already experiencing the
culture. These could be family members, teachers, school mates or colleagues
in an organisation. They are groomed on the basic rules of language, body
language, gestures, expressions as well as usage of slangs. Once acquired and
imbibed, it becomes so much part of us or we are a part of it that we tend to
use it only for differentiating between right or wrong or for being
judgemental. Observation is an operative tool in acquiring cultural skills. It is
rightly suggested that when you join a new organisation or shift to a new
housing society or visit a new country, observe how people are doing things.
This helps you grasp the prevailing culture there and you can attune yourself
faster. This also gives a certain kind of exposure which makes you more
broad minded.
Collective
Culture is not a thing that can be separated from people. It is something that
thrives within people. It is a common way in which most people think and
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have drastically different cultures depending upon the collective
understanding of the people in that particular culture. There is no right or
wrong culture, it becomes what is best accepted by people constituting that
culture. This may be something which may or may not be acceptable to
people belonging to another culture.

Value System
Culture contributes to our value system. We tend to adhere to the core values
postulated by our culture. This in turn tunes us to trust a particular set of
values. Thus a group belonging to similar culture holds preeminent values.
Individuals respect others who follow the core values as disseminated in the
culture, for example, value towards saving versus spending; value of family
oriented behaviour, etc.

Stability
The core values of culture fundamentally remain the same and stable over
long periods of time. Any deviation from the core values may be
reprimanded. Being a primer for our value system, being something that does
not have a form in itself, is largely only shared and has only referential rules.
Culture is something which if changes with time takes a long time to be
imbibed. It requires considerable efforts to change the existing culture
especially when we are doing so towards the betterment of the society. The
minor changes in culture do not show a significant change in our core values.
The changes in culture take time to be noticed and acknowledged and cultural
consciousness is built over a period of time.

Differentiator
Culture operates as a collective set of mindful minds that is a distinguisher
between members of one group from those of the other group. It is true that
within the group the individuals would have varying characteristics, yet
collectively the culture they belong to will significantly vary from other
cultures.

Contextual
The manifestation of culture occurs through social actions which in turn
experience varying contexts. Even though the context does not change
culture, the interpretation or sometimes misinterpretation of culture happens
during one of these fluctuating contexts. Since culture is complex and
dynamic, there seems to be no method to accurately measure or assess it.
There is no precise definition and no form that culture takes. It is represented
by people belonging to the culture and interpreted by people belonging to the
same or different culture. Thus the only thing evident is the consequences of
culture.

Common yet different

There could be some aspects of culture that could be common between
certain cultures and yet there could be demarcated differences. Certain
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versa. This possibly could be due to the reigns through which the country has
passed. Certain clusters of countries may project cultures similar to each
other. While interpreting cultures in context of communication process, an
understanding of the history of the country can assist in making the correct
interpretations.

14.3 THEORIES OF CULTURE

Culture is based on how it is perceived. There are commonly three theoretical
perspectives in the context of which culture is viewed viz. functionalism,
conflict theory and symbolic interactionism. Let us discuss these theories in
detail.

Functionalist View
Functionalism refers to the perspective of viewing culture as a mode of
smoothening the function of the society. Society is a system with its parts
working in tandem with each other to create a whole system. Culture offers a
bonding to this system. It creates a synergy amongst members of the society
and offers a guide for making appropriate choices. Culture also facilitates in
classifying the importance laid on various material and non-material aspects
of the society. Culture inculcates what is deemed as essential and important
for the society, for example, education in the USA.

Conflict View
This view suggests that society is constituted of individuals who can be
classified on the basis of gender, class, race, age, etc. and hence there is an
inequality that is created. According to this view, culture creates a
demarcation, sometimes a discrimination for some people because of their
value system. Culture, in this case operates as a norm, formal or informal,
which benefits some people and hurts others. Hence, cultural diversity
derived due to this delineation could be based on several fronts for instance
racism, gender bias etc. Business culture varies from country to country, for
example, business culture in the USA propels profit seeking as the primary
objective of business. On the contrary, Korean and Japanese cultures seek
consumer confidence and market share as the primary business objectives.
People belonging to these cultures exercise the same sentiment while making
decisions and running action plans. Thus, this view of culture promotes
conflict of interest between individuals depending on which strata of society
they represent.

Symbolic View
The proponents of the symbolic view assume culture to be based on the
interpretation that people lay on the conversations they initiate. Thus this
view emphasises face-to-face or one-to-one conversations more while
deducing culture. It is suggested that culture evolves with conversations and
thus is highly malleable and dynamic. It is interpreted as per the symbolism
aligned with it. The people represent objects, individuals and environment
during their conversations and culture develops as a product of the same.
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Therefore, people belonging to different countries, regions or organisations Cross-Cultural
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will have different cultures because of the various ways in which they use
words or symbols. For example, a season in which a large number of people
get infected with viral infections is considered to be a bad season from the
viewpoint of the medical fraternity due to more load on hospitals and
healthcare workers. However, it might be considered as a good season from
the viewpoint of the pharmaceutical industry due to the rise in sale of
medicines. The most important factor about this view is that there is nothing
like the „right‟ view.

14.4 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Definition of cross-cultural communication
It is the study of understanding the differences and similarities of different
cultural groups so as to effectively participate within an organisation. In other
words, it refers to the adaptations done by the people from different cultural
backgrounds to make the communication effective. It is very important to
understand the influence of cultural factors in a workplace in the present
competitive environment. The better the cross-cultural communication
abilities, the better is the work environment as it will avoid the
communication gaps and make the environment congenial.

Need for Cross-Cultural Communication

Why is it necessary to understand the concept of cross-cultural
communication?

It is important for the organisations to understand the communication patterns

of employees and the stakeholders to be successful in any business. The
ability to adapt, irrespective of cultural values, makes a lot of difference.
While communicating with the individuals or groups from varied cultural
backgrounds, the transmission of knowledge and the behaviour play an
important role. It is therefore important to comprehend how culture affects
communication in turn affecting organisational operations.

Elements of cross-cultural communication

Many organisations which go through the process of mergers and
acquisitions across the globe face the communication gap due to cultural
differences. Culture is deeply ingrained in the system. Culture is something
which creates a sense of security. The way we portray ourselves to the way
we do business, everything has a connection. It therefore becomes pertinent
to understand the basic element of cross-cultural communication. These are:
● Awareness
● Preparation
● Language
● Humour
● Openness
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Organisation
Every organisation has its own way of working. It is important that there is a
common culture in the organisation which helps the employees of the
organisation from different backgrounds to communicate effectively. This
requires awareness about the different cultures and patience to understand the
way the employee can be motivated.

Preparation
You need to be prepared at least in terms of greetings when you meet
international colleagues. It is not necessary that you should know each and
everything about their cultures but the fact that you at least tried to
communicate in their own culture shows the concern. Hugs, taps on the
shoulder, and nods are common in some countries but may be considered as
harassment in other countries.

Language
Language is one of the most important parts of communication. Each country
has its own language for the purpose of communication. India is such a vast
country with diverse languages across the country. You can roughly place
them in a geographical region and a social/cultural grouping as soon as
anyone talks. To avoid misunderstandings, it is very important to understand
the language, be it verbal or non-verbal. It is not necessary that if you speak
the same language, the problem of communication is solved. Like in India, if
you are speaking in Hindi, it may have certain colloquial words too which the
other person who may also be speaking Hindi may not comprehend to.

Humour
A saying goes that jokes do not translate the true meaning. It can be true at
certain occasions where a humour in good sense can be taken seriously and
may result in conflict. Therefore, it is important that in cross-cultural
communication unnecessary humour should be used with extreme caution
especially at the workplace.

Openness
Apprehensive behaviour is common but there is no need to be shy about it. It
is not a sign of weakness, instead it shows that you are cautious not to pass
comments which may turn out to be inappropriate. However, it is important
to be open while giving comments and the feedback regarding the same may
be requested. This will help you and your colleagues to connect with each
other.

The understanding of five elements of cross-cultural communication helps in

building a strong and competitive organisation. Organisations that are
culturally competent have policies, strategies, and systems in place to
promote and encourage effective cross-cultural interactions in all aspects of
human relations, including recruitment, hiring, and retention.

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MODEL
Geert Hofstede and Edward T. Hall are the two of the most prominent
contributors who have given some unique perspectives on culture in their
theories. We will now discuss these theories in the following sections.

Culture has been deeply explained by Edward Hall, an anthropologist and

author of books like „The Silent Language‟, „The Hidden Dimension‟,
„Beyond Culture‟, „Understanding Cultural Differences‟, etc. where he
suggests that culture is a form of communication, governed by hidden rules,
that involves both speech and actions. He termed culture as a vast unexplored
region of human behaviour that exists outside the range of people‟s conscious
awareness. Hofstede defines culture as “the collective programming of the
mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from
others” (Hofstede, 2013).Based on research conducted in more than 50
countries, Hofstede identified a total of six dimensions which could be used
to distinguish one culture from another. These are as follows:

1) Power Distance Index: This index defines the degree of inequality that
is accepted and actually exists within people of a particular culture.
Cultures showing high scores have an unequal distribution of power
across hierarchies. In countries like Malaysia, Mexico, Philippines, etc.
having high power distance index (PDI) scores, all actions have to be
initiated from top. Guidance, advice and directions flow essentially from
top to bottom. No initiation will happen bottom up. Decisions will also
be concentrated at the top level of the organisation. Business processes
may take longer due to complex hierarchies. Status, age, power, seniority
are respected and the lower cadre individuals take orders on this basis.
Subordinates do not take decisions or any initiative, instead will wait for
orders to come from the superior. They will offer their suggestions only
when asked for. Countries like Austria and Denmark with low PDI
scores have societies where unequal distribution of power is not
acceptable. Activities are delegated appropriately and decision making is
faster as decisions are taken by people who are directly affected by the
decisions. This means that your questions will be answered faster or your
issues will be resolved easily if you approach the right person.

2) Individualism versus Collectivism: This parameter makes an effort to

measure the propensity towards attributing achievements and designing
connections to an individual or a group. Societies high on individualism
indicate that more importance is given to individuality. For instance, in a
society with high scores on individualism, success as well as failure is
attributed to an individual. On the other hand, in a society with a higher
score on collectivism, there exist very close ties amongst members of the
society. There exists high loyalty to the group which they represent.
They take care of each other‟s benefits, decisions and well-being.
Countries like the USA, Australia and the United Kingdom are high on
individualism and hence communication has to focus on individual and
not group unlike in countries like Guatemala, Ecuador, Panama, etc.
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Individual accomplishments are appreciated more on Individualistic
countries.

3) Masculinity versus Femininity: This attribute indicates who has the

concentration of power and control in the society. It compares between a
masculine work role model and a society which has low level of
discrimination and distinction between genders. In masculine societies,
men and women play different roles with men being more assertive, play
dominating defined roles and demonstrating success. Countries like
Japan, Hungary and Austria project high levels of masculinity. On the
other hand, Sweden, Norway, Netherlands, etc. rank low on masculinity.

4) Uncertainty Avoidance Index: Countries can also be classified on the

basis of Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI). This index is a measure of
the level of ambiguity and uncertainty which is acceptable in the society.
Countries low on UAI are more flexible and tolerant to a variety of ideas
and opinions. Countries like Singapore, Sweden, Hong Kong, Denmark,
etc. fall under this category. On the other hand, Belgium, Greece,
Portugal, etc. are on the higher side of the UAI and hence do not tolerate
uncertainty and ambiguity.

5) Long versus Short Term Orientation: The fifth dimension as suggested

by Hofstede is Long Term Orientation. This dimension defines the extent
of commitment to the traditional values. Countries high on long term
orientation take a long time to change due to their long term
embracement and respect to the traditional values. This is what is evident
in countries like China, Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong and Taiwan.
These countries invest in developing and maintaining long term
commitments and relationships. This is visible when they deal with their
customers, other countries, employees and all the other stakeholders.
This orientation is very different in Turkey, Venezuela, UAE and
Switzerland wherein the resistance to change is low and adoption and
movement to novel things is swifter. They are eager to and less resistant
to change.

6) Indulgence versus Restraint: Hofstede refers to indulgence as a

tendency to free gratification of basic needs, enjoying, having fun and
fulfilling desires. Social freedom is high. Residents of countries like
Venezuela, Mexico, Sweden, Puerto Rico, etc. are not motivated by
materialistic drivers. They are not status conscious, freely fulfil their
desires, don‟t compare and are self-indulgent. Social status is of prime
importance. Materialistic possessions and motivations allure the
residents.

Activity 1
Develop a short story incorporating the learnings from Hofstede‟s concept of
culture.
…………………………………………………………………………………

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14.6 HALL’S CULTURAL MODEL

Edward T. Hall is known for his contribution to the understanding of
cultures. He coined the term, intercultural communication and suggested that
in different cultures, individuals use different means to communicate which
may range from using just words to using body language, touch behaviour
and also para-verbal communication. He has classified the analysis and
interpretation of how communication and interactions take place between
cultures, under three categories i.e. context, space and time. Let us discuss
these in detail for a better understanding.

Context
The context refers to how a message is communicated. In a high context
culture, the most important part of the message is the physical context. This
means that message is expected to be interpreted in the same context in which
it is crafted. Extensive care is taken at both the sender‟s and receiver‟s end in
creating and interpreting the message. Body language accompanying the
message plays a crucial role and sometimes may be even more important than
words. High context communication, using hand and arm gestures (kinesics),
is more prevalent in Latin American, Asian and African cultures. United
States and Northern European countries exhibit a low context culture where
the message is constructed as it is meant. The message is direct and clear,
reducing no scope for misunderstanding. The message is straight and precise
without any adornments or unnecessary formalities. Challenges occur when
individuals from high context cultures communicate with those from low
context cultures. The low context culture people may miss on the important
contexts provided by the body language along with the specific message and
reduce the comprehensibility of the message. Largely Asian societies lay less
trust on words, more on context, while European and other English speaking
countries lay more emphasis on specific words and details (Kulich and
Condon, 2015).

Space
Hall refers to space as the study of physical space and people which is termed
technically as proxemics. It refers to the distance between the people who are
communicating. Americans prefer to stand apart while communicating in
workplace settings as compared to individuals from Spain and Philippines
where people prefer to stand closer. This trait basically indicates how much
one is ready to share their space with others in different settings.
Communication becomes effective when the comfort zone is not intruded.

Time
Cultures also differ on the basis of how they handle time. In polychronic
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Americans, of monochronic culture, keep the scheduled time. All business
meetings commence and end at the scheduled time. They strictly follow time
even in informal settings. In case of any spillover of agenda points, another
meeting is scheduled instead of extending the immediate meeting.
Polychronic cultures, on the other hand, respect people and relationships over
and above time. Time schedules are relaxed and they are flexible to overlap
activities or stretch the activity beyond schedule. They prefer to finish the
task at hand and can extend their time schedules to accommodate spillovers.
Individuals from each of the cultures find it difficult or uncomfortable to
switch to the other culture.

Table 1 represents a comparison among four different cultures on the basis of

their business networks and relationship culture. New Zealand and South
Africa have an egalitarian culture where everyone is seen as equal.
Communication strategies are not power centric. Contrary to this are India
and China where the relationships are power centric and while handling
business, communication should be designed to route as per the flow of
power. Similarly, prevalence of collectivism in the Indian and Chinese
culture is represented through the sentiment of a group and thereby resulting
in interdependent communication, as compared to an independent
communication in individualistic cultures. New Zealand and South Africa are
monochronic since they aim and achieve the single objective of achieving
business transactions as compared to their counterparts who are polychronic
and intend to align relationship goals during business transactions. This
comparison is an example of how cultures significantly differ from few other
cultures but are quite similar to some geographically distant cultures.

Table 1: Comparison of four cultures across developing business

networks and relationships

New
Strategies China India South Africa
Zealand
Uniqueness Social Unique Unique Social
Replaceability Replaceable Irreplaceable Irreplaceable Replaceable
Interdependence Independent Interdependent Interdependent Independent
Little self- Frequent self- Frequent self- Little self-
Disclosure
disclosure disclosure disclosure disclosure
Intrinsic Tangible Both tangible Both tangible Tangible
rewards goals and intrinsic and intrinsic goals
Monochronic
Monochronic Polychronic Polychronic Monochronic
vs. Polychronic

(Source: Yunxia et al., 2006)

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14.7 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION Communication
BARRIERS
Observation and interpretation are distinct when viewed in reference to cross-
cultural communication (Barna, 1982). Barriers in cross-cultural
communication can be classified under five heads as given by Hofstede
(2010). These are as follows:
● Language barrier
● Nonverbal communication
● Stereotypes
● Cultural Bias
● Anxiety

Now let us discuss each of these barriers one by one in detail below.

Language Barrier
The knowledge of language is way more than just vocabulary and grammar.
Your competence in language extends to acquiring the ability to know what
needs to be said, when it needs to be said, how to frame it and why or why
not to say it. Shallow knowledge of language may prove to be harmful,
especially in cases where one word could have multiple meanings when used
in different situations. An ideal learner would want to learn the language
from a native who knows in and out of the language per se and its
applications.

Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication forms an inevitable co-partner of verbal
communication. This includes gestures, posture and demeanour which
elevates the language and sometimes replaces words. This unspoken
language has become so much a part of us that we use it not just frequently
but also habitually. During cross-cultural communication, it is best to observe
nonverbal communication that is prevalent. One should be aware of those
gestures or postures that may be natural to them but may be considered
offensive in the other cultures. For example, crossing of legs or pointing of
index finger is treated as an insult in some cultures. It is best to reconfirm in
case you are not sure of the meaning of any nonverbal communication of
some other culture.

Stereotypes
Stereotyping is preconceiving interpretations about people belonging to
certain cultures. For example, if we assume that citizens of one country are
aggressive and unfriendly, we will interpret all their verbal and nonverbal
communication that way only. In order to remove this form of stereotyping,
take the individual on his or her face value and judge them as individuals and
not just as representatives of one culture. Even after being part of the same
culture, they may have significantly different actions. Culture being in a fluid
state may take different forms and may be represented differently. There will
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culture. Relinquishing your set stereotypes and grasping afresh the cultural
perspectives of another culture will help you acclimatize, appreciate and
apply them during cross-cultural communication.

Cultural Bias
This deals with the predisposition to assess behaviour of individuals
belonging to other cultures. There could be a propensity to assess behaviour
as good or bad. Cultural bias is an integral barrier of cross-cultural
communication. We tend to compare amongst cultures, primarily our own
culture. The ideal thing to do in such a situation is to remove all preconceived
notions and become aware of the other culture. It is not appropriate to
classify things but to accept the way they are. Watching the culture from a
distance and comprehending the bigger picture will help one remove cross-
cultural barriers and assist in effective communication.

Anxiety
While communicating with individuals of another culture, most people
experience anxiety. The unfamiliar experience causes stress. This anxiety and
stress mounts further in case knowledge of the other culture is minimal.
Accommodating the uncertainty of cross-cultural situations and maintaining
scope of mistake will help reduce anxiety. One must also be assured that the
blind spot exists at both ends and thus what should be expected by each from
the other is unclear. Be vocal about what is expected in a good way to
amplify communication and develop trust amongst each other. Requesting for
small tips on cultural aspects can help both parties. Tolerance also plays an
important role in reducing anxiety.

14.8 OVERCOMING CROSS-CULTURAL

COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
Cross-cultural communication stands as a process which not only identifies
and addresses differences but also similarities amongst cultural groups so as
to effectively engage within a given context. It is more about adjustments that
individuals belonging to different cultural backgrounds make in order to
improve interpersonal and inter group communication.In order to collectively
reduce all barriers to cross-cultural communication it is best to be more
patient and tolerant during all steps of communication. Approaching with an
open mind, without any prejudice helps both parties. Reiterating messages by
checking if the meaning interpreted by the other person is the same as you
intended will assist. Accommodating for things that do not immediately
match your reference to context is essential. The most ideal act will be to
pause during the complete process of communication, beginning from
perception, interpretation and evaluation and most essentially before
responding.
Flexibility in thought and action are the prerequisites for success today. The
same applies to communication wherein ability and willingness to adapt is an
opportunity to master cross-cultural communication. Cultural differences are
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belonging to different cultures. Acceptance is the first step, followed by
flexibility to adapt without the fear to lose your identity. There is no rule
book that one can follow to get started, it is the mind-set to embrace new
ideas. The best strategy is awareness. Most of the cross-cultural differences
can be classified as follows:

1) Language: The speed of language differs across different cultures.

Indians tend to speak English faster since they are used to speaking their
native languages at a good speed. People lay emphasis on different
places in a sentence, thus hinting towards where the importance needs to
be put. It could lay on important words or at the end of the sentence. The
emphasis and hence the focus will have to be adjusted according to the
language. This variation of focus also comes due to intonation and
volume. Stronger intonations indicate intensified emotions while louder
voices are linked to dominance and arrogance. The rate at which one
seeks responses or gives responses also changes as per nationalities.
Western speakers would instantly respond as compared to Asian
speakers who accept silence as a response. Japanese culture also has very
strict norms on speaking in turn. They do not accept conversational
overlap and treat it as impolite. Accents at times operate as a barrier to
intercultural communication. Individuals speak the same language, for
example English, with different accents and interpretation in this case
becomes a challenge. The most apt way to overcome this barrier is to
articulate clearly and speak slowly. One should also consider knowing
the exact meaning of words in different languages before intermixing
them. The meaning of words often changes with the situation and context
in which they are being used. Care should be exercised while using
words with multiple meanings.

2) Written Communication: The formality involved in written

communication changes from culture to culture. Latin and Asian cultures
are very formal in their communication contrary to their counterparts in
the UK and USA who believe in brief and efficient communication. In
order to overcome this barrier, it is suggested that the format of written
communication should be first understood and then executed. The style
of written communication has to be learnt and not assumed.

Electronic communication has made the world closer and may take
different forms, email, voice communication, video communication, etc.
Different social media platforms require different skills to communicate.

3) Listening: Both passive and active listening skills add extensive value to
effective communication. This process assists in decoding messages and
interpreting what is being said. The process involves receiving the
message, interpreting it using a frame of reference, remembering or
storing the message, evaluating the accuracy of the content and finally
responding using verbal and/or non-verbal response. In countries like
Japan, China and Finland, listening is a reflective process wherein the
listener maintains silence till the time the speaker finishes speaking. This
is their way of active listening and helps in absorbing what the speaker is
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as a symbol of non-attentiveness. Some listeners may tend to jump in the
conversation before the speaker is able to complete his message.

4) Non-Verbal Communication: This communication goes beyond words,

sometimes complementing and sometimes replacing verbal
communication. Non-verbal communication contributes a major portion
of the message. It can take the form of gestures, facial expressions,
posture, appearance, touch, distance, paralinguistic, colour or odour.
Gestures offer richness to communication in several cultures. Japan and
China are two countries where gestures are largely restrained and not
used freely. Africans and Latin Americans use gestures and facial
expressions to add emotional touch to the words they use. Caution
should be exercised in how these gestures are interpreted in different
cultures. Posture may add to the perception people have about an
individual. For instance, standing tall is seen as a sign of confidence in
the western countries but is treated as arrogance in the eastern countries.

Body language also requires to be understood with its norms. In order to

interpret body language correctly,one should understand the postures,
gestures, comments or situation.The famous wobbling of the head in India
has different meanings depending upon the situation in which it is performed.
It could sometimes mean no, while at times it is an act of affirmation to the
speaker. The direction of wobble could sometimes be teasing and sometimes
authoritative. One needs to match it with the situation, movement of eyes and
sometimes movement of hands, to understand the accurate meaning of the
message. Eye contact, technically called oculesics, is an essential part of non-
verbal communication. Western culture promotes eye contact with listeners.
Eastern culture, contrarily, suggests that direct eye contact with people senior
or elder to oneself is disrespectful. Similarly, smiling at strangers is a sign of
happiness in the USA but is regarded as strange and inappropriate in the
Eastern cultures.
Touch behaviour (haptics) and facial expressions vary from culture to
culture,so does para-verbal communication like voice volume, the use of
silence, and conversational overlap. Touching each other most often indicates
personal relationships. People embrace each other during meetings in Russia
whereas Britishers prefer to avoid touching except handshakes. Firm
handshakes during meetings are a sign of collaboration in most Western
countries. Japanese, however, avoid body contact and prefer to bow. The
extent to which they bow depends on the seniority of the person opposite
them.

Figure 1 represents the strategies which one can follow to overcome cross-
cultural communication.

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 Cross-Cultural
Communication

Figure 1: Strategies to Overcome Barriers of Cross-cultural Communication

It is often noticed that the cause of communication problems or

misunderstanding, which could lead to conflict, occur due to cultural
differences amongst individuals. Hofstede suggests that in order to overcome
these cross-cultural communication barriers, it is best suited to interpret the
conversation only after deep diving into the other culture. More than half the
battle in building rapport across very different cultures is understanding.
Observation must precede interpretation and attribution. The largest
challenges are faced by businesses who as a product of globalization have to
operate in multiple countries. The demarked differences between cultures are
faced on a daily basis. This demands development of intercultural
communication skills amongst individuals of both cultures.Cultural
differences have an impact on how we conduct our relationships. They
determine, in part, how easily we can build rapport.

Activity 2
You have a Japanese colleague, Ms A, whom you have known for the past so
many years. You are currently working on a project with Ms A and have been
giving time and energy into the project while also balancing other work too.
You have a deadline to meet on Ms A‟s project, but it now seems as if you
will not be able to meet the deadline because of some technical challenges.
Your staff also has a summer vacation schedule. You know that Ms A will
get upset, and that she has little respect for the fact that so many of your staff
goes on leave at the same time. You want to reassure Ms A that you are doing
your best and will sincerely try to meet the deadline.

Please e-mail Ms A to let her know about the situation keeping in mind her
communication style as Ms A tends to value and express concern for others;
social necessities, such as apologies for difficulties; a strong work ethic; and
predictability and commitment.
…………………………………………………………………………………

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14.9 LEAN MEDIA, RICH MEDIA AND SOCIAL

MEDIA
Media has taken various forms thus providing different forms of
communication. Lean media is media that is generally asynchronous in nature
and thus sacrifices the possibility of immediate feedback and possibility of
social cues during communication. Lack of visual cues or limited verbal cues
could cause ambiguity in interpretation and with no chance to counter check
the content, may lead to misunderstanding. Most popular examples of lean
media include text messages, emails, bulletin boards, etc. While choosing the
most effective channel for enhancing the effectiveness of a message, one
must analyse the nature of the information that is required to be
communicated. Lean media is most suited for messages that are routine and
unambiguous.

Media richness is the indicator of the impact of information on understanding

within a defined time interval. Richness relates to the level of learning the
communication offers. Face-to-face, telephonic, live chat sessions are media
rich as compared to email. Media richness theory relates to giving managers
an aid to increase effectiveness of communication. Richness of message can
be evaluated using parameters like capacity to include personal focus and
immediate feedback, languages used, multiple hints etc. Messages embedded
with unclear information with multiple interpretations should use rich media
like face-to-face or telephonic communication. Information meant to
communicate only pure facts can be conveyed using media which are low in
richness like business letters, text message, etc. Figure 2 depicts certain
characteristics of media.

Figure 2: Characteristics of Media that determines richness of information processed

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(Source: Daft and Lengel, 1984) Cross-Cultural
Communication
Social media uses multiple online platforms. It helps in sharing and
collaborating information online. Communication on these platforms is
crucial since organisations while communicating with other stakeholders
build in a virtual image and equity. Today, the younger population procures
most of their information through these social media platforms. The actions
and reactions have been loud since information at times is unfiltered. There is
a sense of urgency for receiving responses. Social media has also created a
pressure to share something. This could sometimes create information that is
not required. The language used in social media has become more informal,
abbreviated, unfiltered, and emotional and oozes with catchy things that
make the information viral. Social media has definitely given traditional
media, run for its money. It offers options to brands to connect directly and
personally with its audiences. Social media definitely is a powerful
communication media with a huge impact in contemporary times.

14.10 SUMMARY
Culture is the inherent core values of a society promulgated through social
interaction and teachings. It is acquired and collective. It has a value system
and is largely stable. It operates as a differentiator between members
belonging to different cultures and it changes with context. Some societies
have similar cultures but a few are significantly different from others.

The theories of culture suggest three contexts under which culture can be
viewed as functionalist view, conflict view and symbolic view. Hofstede‟s
cultural dimension model suggests that cultures could be classified on the
basis of power distance index, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity
versus femininity, uncertainty avoidance index, long versus short term
orientation and indulgence versus restraint. Edward T. Hall has classified the
analysis and interpretation of how communication and interactions between
cultures, under three categories, context, space and time.Communication gets
significantly impacted due to differences in cultures. These cross-cultural
barriers could be due to the language spoken, non-verbal communication,
stereotypes, cultural bias or anxiety. Awareness, acceptance and adjustment
are the key to overcoming barriers of cross-cultural behaviour. In order to
excel cross-cultural behaviour caution attention should be placed on
language, written communication, listening and non-verbal communication
which includes body language, touch behaviour, eye contact, gestures and
space.

Lean media and rich media theories highlight the two different versions of
communication channels. Lean media is suitable for unambiguous messages
as there is a lack of immediate feedback. Rich media consists of telephonic
and face-to-face communication where immediate feedback can be taken
from the listener. Such rich media channels are suitable for transmitting
ambiguous messages. With the emergence of social media platforms, various
newer means of communication has become a rage among the younger
population. Communication through social media platforms is much swifter
and widely accessible. It is a beneficial tool for marketing and easy 247
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information and at times chaos.

14.11 KEYWORDS
Culture: Culture is a complex compilation of beliefs, customs, law,
knowledge, traditions, etc. that a human being acquires while being a
member of a particular society.

Stereotyping: Stereotyping is pre conceiving interpretations about people

belonging to certain cultures.

Power Distance Index: The degree of inequality that is accepted and

actually exists within people.

Proxemics: The study of physical space and people.

Polychronic: Ability to handle multiple activities at the same time.

Monochronic: Handling only one activity at one time.

14.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Evaluate the culture of the United States of America on the basis of
Hofstede‟s cultural dimensions.

2) Assess two ways in which verbal language and body language may differ
between different cultures.

3) Compare Eastern and Western culture on at least five parameters as

proposed by Hofstede and Hall.

4) Explain the possible barriers that could occur during cross-cultural

communication.
5) “Awareness, acceptance and adjustment are the key to overcoming cross-
cultural communication.” Comment.

14.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Barna, LaRay (1982). “Stumbling Blocks in Intercultural Communication.”
In Intercultural Communication: A Reader, 330–38, edited by Larry Samovar
& Richard Porter. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Brian J. Hurn and Barry Tomalin (2013). Cross- Cultural Communication.

Theory and Practice. Palgrave Macmillan.

Hofstede, G. H. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values,

behaviors, institutions and organisations across nations. Thousand Oaks:
Sage.
Hofstede, G. H. (2013). National Culture. Retrieved from: http://geert-
hofstede.com/national-culture.html

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Kulich, S. J. & Condon, J. C. (2015). Culture and communication: Cross-Cultural
Communication
Celebrating a centennial of E. T. Hall‟s contributions. The Future Learn
Intercultural Communication Course. Shanghai, China: Shanghai
International Studies University.

Lengel, R.H. and R.L. Daft (1989). The Selection of Communication Media
as an Executive Skill. Academy of Management Executive, 2, 3, 225-232.

Tomalin, B. and Nicks, M. (2010).The World’s Business Cultures and How

to Unlock Them (London: Thorogood Publishing).

Yunxia Zhu, Pieter Nel& Ravi Bhat (2006). A Cross-cultural Study of

Communication Strategies for Building Business Relationships. International
Journal of Cross-cultural Management, 6; 319.

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Organisation UNIT 15 ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
● Understand the concept of ethics;
● Evaluate the contribution of values to ethical communication;
● Assess the elements of ethical communication.

Structure
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Ethical Framework
15.3 Ethical Communication
15.4 Values in Communication
15.5 Individual versus Organisational Values
15.6 Key Elements of Ethical Communication
15.7 Evaluation of Ethical Communication
15.8 Summary
15.9 Keywords
15.10 Self-Assessment Questions
15.11 References and Further Readings

15.1 INTRODUCTION
As per the Oxford Dictionary (1963), the Greek origin of the word “ethics''
means as ethos or the manner in which one disposes his or her culture. Ethics
since then has taken different definitions. One such definition suggests that
ethics critically analyses cultural values to ascertain the discourse as right or
wrong and the intensity of the right or wrong. Truth and justice are two
pillars of standard used as criteria for the evaluation. Ethics is an effort to
evaluate the connection that an individual has with society. It further explores
the role that nature and God play in this connection (Parhizgar & Parhizgar,
2006). While making decisions which are ethical in nature, individuals
introspect their discourse on the continuum of good and excellent.

Ethics and communication has linkages since ages and ethical

communication has been connected to behavioural conduct in personal and
professional lives both. Adam Smith in his book, „Moral Sentiment‟ (1759)
has made contributions in building up moral foundations in the economic and
political system of the society. He suggests that society and business require
mandatory inclusion of morality. The issue of morality and society were
patronized by Mahatma Gandhi from 1925 onwards while he rigorously
worked for the upliftment of morality in the society. He believed that every
human can get what s/he needs, but it can never satiate his/her greed. He
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Ethics is popularly visualised as a set of rules that proposes how one should Ethics in
Communication
conduct himself/herself/itself in a society. It operates as a guide that offers
inputs on morality in our day-to-day living. It helps us judge whether our
intended behaviour is justified or not. Ethics helps us differentiate between
what is right and what is wrong. Since all businesses have stakeholders, as
the norms are followed by the society businesses too have to follow certain
ethical norms. In this unit, we will discuss the concept of ethics and how it
plays an important role in communication.

15.2 ETHICAL FRAMEWORK

Let us first discuss an ethical framework and how it compares the means,
ends and intention as good or bad. We will discuss the ethical framework as
given by McCroskey (2009) as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Ethical Framework (Source: McCroskey, 2009)

Intent is the parameter used to examine the ethicality of anything. During

communication, our preparation, receptivity and inclination are based on the
intent of the process. Behaviours which do not receive a consensus indicate
that they are not ethical. Code of ethics offers a standard to measure the
intended communication. Some organisations have a code of conduct or
ethical guidelines designed to suit the organisational requirements while
others follow the general ethical principles. Individuals may sometimes
unknowingly indulge in unethical behaviour. Thus understanding and
acknowledging the intent of action suggests whether it is ethical or not.
Means are the tools employed in order to achieve a desired outcome. The
choice of action one makes could lie on the spectrum of good and bad. Even
when the means lead to the same results, yet they can categorically identify
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same end could be good or bad for different people depending on what role
they are playing in the communication or action. Researchers suggest that
while evaluating ethical behaviour one should ask three basic questions:

1) “Have I discussed the ethicality of the behaviour with others and come to
a general consensus that the behaviour is ethical?”

2) “Does the behaviour adhere to known codes of ethics?”

3) “Would I be happy if the outcomes of the behaviour were reversed and

applied to me?

In the ethical matrix, behaviour is considered to be ethical when the good end
combines with good means, contrary to bad means leading to bad end, which
tends to be an unethical behaviour in the ethical matrix. There can be
situations where bad means lead to good end and this is termed as
Machiavellian Ethics whereas good means leading to bad end is termed as
Subjective Ethics.

Activity 1
Think of a situation when you intended to have a “good” end and employed
“good” means, but you ended up accomplishing a “bad” end? Why do you
think our ends are not always in line with our intentions?

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15.3 ETHICAL COMMUNICATION

Ethical Communication refers to the process of sharing information, which is
created with sincere intentions and intended to provide honest information.
This information will not be misleading and should be conveyed in a fashion
wherein the information is complete in all respects essentially with reference
to its context, so that there lies transparency in all formats and the receiver
does not correlate the information to a situation where the same is not
intended by the sender. Ethical communication is practised by all entities
including individuals, societies, cultures, nations, organisations, government,
etc. with an intention to foster reliable relationships while thinking and
deciding responsibly while communicating. This form of communication
ensures the establishment of individual integrity along with respecting people
around them. Ethical communication increases the quality of communication
by integrating truth in all forms so as to collectively enhance the ethical
standards of the society in general and individuals in specific.
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Principles to Ethical Communication: Ethics in
Communication
There are certain principles of communication which when adhered to leads
to ethical communication. These are:

1) To create communication, which is truthful, accurate, honest and has a

purpose.

2) To provide an environment for freedom of expression, varied viewpoints

and tolerance to non-agreement of viewpoints. This will ensure that the
community that we are in has the ability to make fair decisions in light of
all possible information.

3) To make extensive efforts in acknowledging and understanding the

perspective and viewpoints of other communicators ahead of
understanding, evaluating and responding to any communication from
their end.

4) To assist in providing an access to resources required for effective

communication as well as desired information for ensuring fairness to all
which will uplift the general ethical standards of the society in general
and section in particular.

5) To create an ambience of mutual trust and understanding wherever and

whenever communication happens as a respect to the unique requirement
and attributes of individuals involved in communication.

6) To denounce any communication that depletes the existence of humanity

by virtue of its content and intention. This includes any communication
that is distorted or intimidated, promotes violence or hatred and is
intolerant.

7) To promote and support unconditionally the expressions of an individual,

which are strong, fair and just.
8) To advocate exchange of information, opinions and expressions in the
hour of decision making that influences the society. This process should
be conducted while respecting the privacy of individuals.

9) All individuals involved in the communication hold the responsibility of

the consequences of the same and do not blame anyone else for it.

10) To ensure that communication elicits a general sense of positivity.

Ethics in Business Communication

Information is the biggest asset for any organisation. This information, which
sometimes may be sensitive in nature, should be managed appropriately.
Confidential information has to be handled with utmost care; leakage of the
same can cause ethical issues, which can affect the customers or investors
and sometimes the company itself. All the stakeholders in an organisation
seek ethical standards in communication. Ethics practised during
communication are essential contributors to reputation building, avoiding
legal issues and creating a general sense of good. Business communication
should ensure adherence to few ethical standards. These are: 253
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● Intending no harm
● Fairness

We will discuss these in brief.

Being Honest
Any communication that is developed should be honest. Communication
could flow from top management to employees or from employees to
superiors, or sometimes even between peer groups. The facts and figures
should be relevant and correct to the best of the knowledge of the individual
who has prepared it. Any confidential or sensitive information should be
masked and revealed only to the intended receiver. For example, medical
history or investigation information should not be made available on any
public domain.

Intending no harm
The communication should be designed in a fashion that it does not cause
intended or unintended harm to anyone. For example, while drafting statutory
warnings on cigarette packets, explicit information on the fatal impacts of
smoking should be mentioned. Hiding or twisting the information could
cause a negative impact on the consumers. Hence this type of distorted
information can be classified as unethical communication.

Fairness
While creating communication within the organisation, society or group,
efforts should be made to ensure that all intended receivers are treated
equally. For organisations should ensure such kind of parity at the end of
employees, customers and society at large. Fixing price, bribing or insider
information could be some instances where communication done could be
deemed as unfair and instrumental for only a few individuals.

Activity 2
Do the following situations follow ethical standards? Give your answer in
Yes/No.

a) Disclosing confidential information related to the finances of the

company. Yes / No

b) Highlighting statutory warnings in television advertisements depicting

certain stunts. Yes / No

c) Building a price cartel to harm competitors. Yes / No

15.4 VALUES IN COMMUNICATION

Values play a crucial role in shaping an individual‟s behaviour. Values may
differ across different cultures, regions, countries, etc. yet there are certain
values that remain common. These are the ones that operate as the beginning
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avoid suffering. Love, kindness, peace, mutual respect and understanding are Ethics in
Communication
preferred values. The core values as promoted by the UN General Assembly
are “inherent dignity” and “the equal and inalienable rights of all members of
the human family” along with freedom, justice and peace. Some common
shared values and traits proposed by different experts include empathy,
compassion, truthfulness, dignity, kindness, love, justice, fairness, moral
courage, respect, care and humility.

Values operate as the beginning point for ethical communication. While

designing communication that is deemed to be ethical, these values are used
as standard measure. With different cultures, the priority or importance given
to various values may differ. Human beings also differ with each other on the
basis of their education level, gender, ethnicity, age, etc. thus creating a
unique spectrum of combination of values for each individual. Even after this
demarcated difference between individuals, there is a common emotional
connection in communication. Each individual is unique with a set of
characteristics, which shaped with the distinct experiences offers an
interpretation of values, beliefs, perceptions, and needs. A similar sequence is
also created for an organisation, which we call the organisation's shared
values. We tend to behave in a fashion as we expect others to behave with us.
Ethical communication requires an understanding of the value system,
specific needs, beliefs and values of the individual one is communicating
with. Every ethical communication should be contextual in nature in order to
be relevant and meaningful.

15.5 INDIVIDUAL VERSUS ORGANISATIONAL

VALUES
Most of the time, individual values extend to the organisation. Organisations
value an individual‟s values and in turn get affected by the core values, which
populate the culture of the company and what the business stands for. This
corporate culture not only influences strategic decisions but also the day to
day operations including how employees are recruited, trained, treated and
parted with.

Personal values are prioritised as per the choice and happiness that an
individual derives from the values that s/he professes. Core values are the
ones that have the highest priority for an individual. Here, the question arises
whether the same values that an individual cares for are translated to his or
her professional life? Personal values as well as corporate values guide an
individual and an organisation while making decisions and contemplating
actions. They demarcate one individual or an organisation from another. The
major difference between personal and organisational values is that
individual values are explored whereas organisational values are typically
chosen, pre-decided and developed. They align with the organisation‟s goals
and assist in creating an ideal working environment for the employees.
This is where the concept of value congruence comes into picture. Value
congruence is the compatibility of personal values of an individual with that
of his/her surroundings. This has a positive impact on employee behaviour
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parameter is also used while recruiting employees. The social media,
company website and corporate publications like annual reports, all
communicate the values propagated and followed by an organisation. Most
organisations will have common values like integrity, competence,
teamwork, autonomy, creativity, work ethics, professionalism, social
emergence. Organisation should propel the enhancement of value congruence
between the value of people and organisational values, while also making
evident efforts in reducing value incongruence. This process is facilitated by
socialization and information sharing activities. Creating platforms for
communication between employees and co-workers, managers, board of
management and other stakeholders. This develops trust amongst employees
thus deriving more commitment from them towards organisational values.
Transformative leaders make efforts to ensure that personal values are in line
with organisational values to derive more commitment from employees. This
increases their motivation and their involvement in tasks allotted to them. It
can be concluded that value congruence develops and inspires effective
communication and trust amongst employees and their managers/supervisors.
Acknowledging and understanding the individual difference in values of
people can help them manage them better.

15.6 KEY ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL

COMMUNICATION
Ethical Communication integrates the essentials of communication which
include the objective of communication, the message itself and the
consequences or actions post the communication. The ethics related to the
message are always on the forefront. The sender has to make a precise
decision on what to say and how to say. With the freedom of choice comes
the responsibility and accountability as well. The freedom increases when the
communication is conducted within the closed circle. The choice of
attentiveness and response lies with the listener. This freedom reduces during
communication with strangers and is a challenge because the context and
situation in which the message is intended and received may be different.
This further complicates when the communication is happening in cross-
cultural settings. Therefore, while communicating, the key elements should
be kept in mind. These are:
● Objectives
● Morality
● Consequences

Objectives
Overall goals, values, emotions and perceptions influence how individuals
respond. The process may also be influenced by the values, beliefs and the
concentrated intentions of the individuals. The organisational culture creates
an envelope where all these aspects are either subdued or intensified. The
organisational structure creates positions of power due to organisational
256 hierarchy. Some communications which are indispensable may not always be
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pleasant. The individuals‟ personality in this case plays a deciding role in Ethics in
Communication
how the communication will be executed. The individual's choice to respond
to difficult circumstances suggests the quality of the environment in an
organisation and may contribute in shaping it in the future.

Morality
Being truthful is imperative but sometimes the truth hurts. Thus framing the
communication without sacrificing the objective of communication increases
the morality involved in communication. Using the subtle art of deception
could cross the line of ethical standards at times. Therefore, it should be
ensured to disclose the truth carefully and compassionately thereby achieving
the fulfilment of constructive objectives of communication. There are times
when individuals are in conflict between speaking the truth and hurting
others. Ethical standards suggest that truth should be exposed through
compassion and care to develop trust and understanding. Time and again it
has been discovered that means are the end in making. Means hence should
be devised to ensure that the end is achieved with high level of morality. For
example, achieving a sales target early at the cost of lying about the safety
precautions of your product, versus explaining the truth about the product
attributes and to what extent the safety precautions will operate and then
executing sale.

Consequences
The consequences derived at the end of the communication are a logical
sequence to the objective and means of communication. It is quite possible
that noble intentions and ethical means lead to unpleasant consequences.
People initiating a conversation have to weigh the magnitude and direction of
consequences that could follow a communication. For example, a news report
on a scam about a bank drafted with the objective to create awareness and
with truthfulness and transparency, may lead to grave upheaval amongst
shareholders and/ or customers. It becomes the moral responsibility of the
sender to evaluate all the aspects. Though it is difficult to appropriately
predict the consequences on all the stakeholders, yet a thought on the possible
consequences should be judged.

In totality, ethical communication should consider the intention or objective

of communication, the means used to convey the intention and the possible
consequences of the communication. Of course, there are more complexities
related to ethical communication yet these three could operate as the most
essential elements of designing ethical communication.

Activity 3
a) Identify any incident you are aware of where standards of ethical
communication were raised or defied.

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during such communication.

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15.7 EVALUATION OF ETHICAL

COMMUNICATION
Most organisations at some time or other could face some common ethical
issues. Using work computers for personal or non-work activities is a very
common issue that organisations are facing today. This could be related to
stealing also where employees do not mind using the property and time of an
organisation for personal use. Employees also indulge in lying for various
reasons like asking for leave, getting or keeping their job, getting advance
money, etc. Creating false impressions at the workplace is another common
practice. It is a common activity amongst employees to portray what they are
actually not to get accolades and praises. Employees also get into the act of
using organisational activities for personal benefits like getting a bribe for
getting a contract signed for a supplier etc. Confidential information when
divulged to outsiders is an unethical task. Similarly hiding information for
personal good is critical. Taking an unfair advantage is a common
phenomenon in organisations. For example, charging extra for products at the
time when the demand is the highest. A very good instance was during the
pandemic when the price of masks and some life-saving medicines rose
obnoxiously. Knowingly reducing the efficiency and performance of an
organisation can also be deemed as unethical. Stories related to sexual
harassment, physical violence, emotional abuse are common at workplaces.
Organisational abuse also adds to the peril. Employees tend to violate
common rules of the organisations, e.g. violating simple rules of dress code
in an organisation. Ethical dilemmas amongst workers also at times pushes
them to make decisions on the wrong side of the spectrum. (Cherrington &
Cherrington, 1992)

Ethical issues occur at a time when either the communication will have a
significant impact on the audiences or is a conscious choice of means and
ends or can be adjudicated as right or wrong. This process also includes
ethical evaluation by the receiver. The ethical intent of the source and the
ethical choices of the receiver are what play a significant role over and above
the message. Ethical responsibilities vary as per the situation. The same
individual might respond differently in different situations.

Redding (1996) has raised four questions that should be asked in order to
increase attention to ethics. These revolve around the following concerns:

● The communication that is designed for different types of receivers.

Which amongst them treats the message as unethical?
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● Why is the communication treated as unethical and what are the Ethics in
Communication
parameters that are used for evaluating the ethicality of the message?
● What is the connection of the ethicality of these messages and the
organisation culture and to what extent do they affect the culture?
● What are the repercussions of communication that is deemed as
unethical? How does this unethical communication and other individuals
or processes with others in the organisation and the society as a whole?

The study conducted by Reinsch (1990) has also contributed to the

understanding of communication ethics. He evaluated the research conducted
on ethical communication and arrived at the following areas of attention:

● The moral worth of communication behaviours varies with the set of

people involved.
● Unethical behaviour evidently occurs in business.
● These unethical behaviour do give results in the short run.
● Communication ethics in business usually revolve around all functional
areas of a business.
● Ethical beliefs guide the behaviour of an individual.
● Honesty and trust are the most significant parameters of business
communication ethics.
● The demographics and psychographics (age, gender, perception, etc.) of
an individual influence the ethical values, beliefs and behaviours.
● Both written and oral communication form a part of business
communication.

There are multiple theoretical perspectives that a person can comply with
while determining the ethical stand of communication. The communication
ethics theories suggest how communicative behaviour is viewed and
understood. Table 1 shows the comparison of these different theories which
present a structured view to evaluating ethical communication as per Lewis
and Speck (1990).

Table 1: Comparison of various perspectives on ethics and their application in

communication

Perspective on Foundation Standard Application in Application in

Ethics Business Communication
Altruism The foundation All acts of All
standard of this theory business, communication
was developed on which could be should have been
understanding if the classified as crafted in order to
individual‟s discourse ethical, should leave a good
has a good impact on essentially impact on others.
others or not. have a good
impact on
others.
Categorical The premise for this There is a Amongst the
Imperative / theory encompasses the demarcated set communication
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Communication Deontology complete set of of ethical and conducted, there
Organisation activities performed by unethical are some which
an individual and behaviours for are always
categorizes them businesses. All unethical.
exclusively under good businesses Examples could
or bad. The theory is without be deception,
applicable to all moral exceptions bribery,
duties whatsoever. should follow. falsification, etc.
There are no exceptions Unethical
and no middle ways in business
practice. practices have
zero tolerance.
Communitarianism According to this view, All businesses All
the standard of ethical should communication
behaviour is to estimate contribute in transpired
to which level does the some way or between
behaviour ensure the the other to individuals
restoration of the ensure that belonging to a
compassionate social their acts society should
standards of a contribute to assist in the
society/group/country. the social good building up
all in all. The structure.
business
activities
should
positively
enhance the
relationships
and
compatibility
amongst
individuals of
a society.
Cultural Cultural relativism In lieu of the Ethics in
Relativism indicates that cultures legal system communication
differ from each other governing also is defined by
on the basis of the business the regulations set
cultural/legal system of establishments, by the legal
an individual. businesses are system governing
regulated by the
the law. society/culture/co-
Additional culture.
complexities
are added by
the legal
standards
followed by
the society/
culture/country
and the
organisation
itself which
could
significantly
be different
from each
other.
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Ethical Egoism The premise for ethical Businesses Individuals set Ethics in
egoism is the priority also have communication Communication
given to the individual stakes for goals. They follow
and his or her own which they the code of
interest. This operate. conduct which
perspective promotes Businesses suits their
people to behave in a follow ethics communication
fashion where they are as per their objectives the
able to achieve what own vested best.
they want to. self-interest
and
requirements.
Justice The Justice perspective Businesses While professing
is founded on the should also ethical
standard that evaluates align their communication,
each individual on decisions people should
equal opportunities. ensuring the ensure that the
Under this perspective good of all needs of all the
each individual should stakeholders. stakeholders are
be given the right to Effect of these taken care of and
independence and decisions on no one is ignored
chance to seek career each in the process.
opportunities. Those stakeholder Flexibilities
who are disadvantaged should be should be
should be given priority individually practised only in
in case of any chance of evaluated and case of
inequality. in case of any inequalities and in
discrepancy, this case also the
the stakeholder ones who are
who are affected the most
unprivileged should be offered
should be highest priority.
given priority
to ensure
equality
amongst all.
Nihilism This perspective on Businesses are Communication
ethics suggests that into the core has a set of goals
ethics curbs creativity. activity of for which it is
In the process of creation and designed. These
crafting new ideation, hence they goals or objectives
ethics enforces to should adrift should not be
maintain the status quo themselves sacrificed on the
hence reducing the from the postulate of being
possibilities of new conflict of good or bad. All
creation. The good and bad. communication
individuals involved in Business should necessarily
the process of creativity activities are achieve the core
should stay away from required to be goal for which it
engaging into the tussle compulsorily is designed.
between ethical and productive in
unethical. nature but not
necessarily
ethical in
nature.
Psychological The Psychological Businesses Communication
Egoism egoism theory suggests have their own goals should be
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Communication that each individual has mission, vision guided by the
Organisation his or her own motives and working motives behind
behind their behaviour. motives. They the
These motives should should proceed communication.
be given highest in behaving There is no
priority and flexibility whatever it specific mandate
should be given in takes to fulfil on means instead
accepting the same. their own the motive takes
motives. the front seat.

Social Relativism The premise behind this Businesses are Communication

perspective is giving a part of the goals similarly be
importance to the social system matched to meet
interest of the people in receiving and the priorities as set
and around the contributing to by the social
immediate circle like the system. system in totality.
friends, family, Their
acquaintances, etc. behaviour
should be
based on what
coincides with
the interest of
their social
network.
Subjectivism Each individual differs Businesses Individuals while
in how s/he defines and also differ communicating
practices ethics. This while they set their own goals
perspective suggests define ethical based on what is
that each individual behaviour. deemed as ethical
should be given the What goes and unethical by
freedom to make his or well with one each one of them.
her moral judgement. is treated
unethically by
someone else.
Hence each
business
should
ascertain what
holds ethical
for them.
Utilitarianism Utilitarianism suggests Business Communication
that behaviour should should be goals should be
be based on managed in a aligned with the
maximizing the interest manner that it good of the largest
of the largest group of benefits the set of people. The
people. largest set of Greatest good for
people. the maximum set
of people should
be the motto.

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 Ethics in
Communication

Figure 2: Model of Ethical Communication

Figure 2 summarises the concept of ethical communication through a model.

It can therefore be concluded that “ethics” is a difficult term and it is a tough

task to segregate business communication between good and bad. Even when
there are some given ethical perspectives, yet most of them are relevant based
on the context and situation. Ethical business communication is a complex
activity and takes considerable effort to reach a conclusive stand. The
responsibility of the consequences of communication, both short term and
long term are in the hands of the parties involved in the process.

Activity 4

Case Situation
Mr. Y, a teacher at a higher studies university, had been travelling for several
weeks with sleepless nights. As soon as he joined his regular classes, he was
scheduled to complete the evaluation of student projects. While sitting
through the presentations, he got very tired from concentrating on one
particular project. As an essential mandate to give feedback to the students,
he made some very general comments and said that the project was just
satisfactory.

Do you think his way of communicating was ethical? Support your answer
with the ethical framework or any of the ethical theories that you deem
reasonable.

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………
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Communication
Organisation
15.8 SUMMARY
In this unit, we discussed the concept of ethical communication and how it
can be applied to the business world. Ethics and communication have
meanings that are largely diversified. Ethics in communication refers to the
application of ethical considerations in practising communication. It refers to
the process of sharing honest information with sincere intentions. When
practising ethical communication is also means that you will not tolerate
communication that demean an individual‟s existence and human values by
the acts of misrepresentation, terrorizing, compulsion, vehemence, partiality
and hatred. It includes both internal and external communication. We studied
that truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason are guiding principles to
ethical communication and acceptance to communication initiated by others
before evaluating it is the first step to commencing an ethical communication.
Values are the foundation of ethical communication and individual values
influence and shape organisational values. Organisations prefer to recruit
employees whose value system is in line with the organisational value
system. Communication that encompasses the specific needs of an individual
with compassion and understanding should be promoted. All courageous
expressions should be encouraged rather than being condemned. We also
discussed various ethical lapses that are common in modern business which
include (1) purloin (stealing), (2)untruthfulness, (3) fallacy, (4) conflicting
interests, (5) masking relevant information or exposing critical information,
(6) duping, (7) personal corruption, (8) interpersonal abuse, (9) organisational
abuse, (10) rule violations, (11) unethical acts, and (12) moral misbalance. To
summarise it can be said that individuals themselves have the onus of
ensuring conduct of ethical communication.

15.9 KEYWORDS
Ethics: Ethics is a set of rules that proposes how one should conduct
himself/herself/itself in a society.

Ethical Communication: Ethical Communication refers to the process of

sharing information, which is created with sincere intentions and intended to
provide honest information.

Ethical Framework: A framework compares the means, ends and intention

as good and bad.

Value Congruence: Value congruence is the compatibility of personal values

with that of the organisational values.

15.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Evaluate the role of values in ethical communication.

2) While working in an organisation, which values are more important for

an individual, personal or organisational? Justify.

3) What would you do if you were caught in a conflict between personal

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4) Are advertisements ethical? Write an elaborate explanation to support Ethics in
Communication
your answer.

5) Are the ethical findings in ethical communication valid for the

organisations that rely heavily on technology? Why or why not?

15.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Abbot, G.N., White, F.A, & Charles, M.A (2005). Linking values and
organisational commitment: A correlational and experimental investigation in
two organisations. Journal of Occupational and Organisational
Psychology, 78, 531-551.
Baker, T. (2009). The 8 values of highly productive companies: Creating
wealth from a new employment relationship. Australia: Australian Academic
Press.
Cherrington, J. O., & Cherrington, D. J. (1992). A menu of moral issues: One
week in the life of the Wall Street Journal. Journal of Business Ethics, 11,
255–265.
Edwards, J. R., & Cable, D. M. (2009). The value of value
congruence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(3), 654-677.
Hoffman, B. J., & Woehr, D. J. (2006). A quantitative review of the
relationship between person-organisation fit and behavioral
outcomes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68(3), 389-399.
Jaffe, T.D., & Scott, D.C. (2001). How to link personal values with team
values. American Society for Training and Development. Retrieved from
http://www.dennisjaffe.com/adminpanel/uploads/documents/1307423812AS
TDValuesArticle.pdf
Lagan, A., & Moran, B. (2005). Three dimensional ethics. Australia:
EContent Management.
Lewis, P.V., & Speck, H.E. (1990). Ethical orientations for understanding
business ethics. Journal of Business Communication, 27(3), 213-232.
McCroskey, J. C. (2009).Organisational communication for survival: Making
work (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon, pg. 1.
Parhizgar, K. D., & Parhizgar, R. (2009). Multicultural business ethics and
global managerial moral reasoning. Lanham, MD: University Press of
America.
Redding, W.C. (1996). When will we wake up. In J.S., Jaksa, & M.S.
Pritchard, (Eds.). Responsible communication: Ethical issues in business,
industry, and the professions. (pp. 17-40). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Reinsch, N. L., Jr. (1990). Ethics research in business communication: The
state of the art. The Journal of Business Communication, 27, 251–272.
Tilley, E. (2005). The ethics pyramid: Making ethics unavoidable in the
public relations process. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 20, 305–320
Versnel, H., & Koppenol, H. (2005). The values matrix. USA: Pearson
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