CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT

COURSE TITLE:

ADVANCED PHOTOGEOLOGY /REMOTE SENSING

COURSE CODE: GEY 921

(1st Semester)

MATRICULATION NUMBER: AK20/PHS/GEY/PHD/006

July 2023
 1. Explain the various laboratory investigations associated with Geological Field Mapping.
2. What are the stages in preparing a Field Mapping Report?
LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
Introduction
Petrography is the description and classification of rocks. Following the field study and mapping
of rocks, the next step in their study is the preparation and examination of thin sections. This
procedure provides us with precise information regarding the mineralogy of the rock, the
proportions of the various minerals, and the texture - a feature that is as important as the
mineralogy.

Determination of colour of specimens- reference is made by comparison with the international

colour code chart

In sedimentology analysis,

 Grain size analysis- use sieves of standard mesh size

 Heavy mineral studies- use of bromoform
 Shape analysis-degree of roundness

Elemental analysis by Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)

This method is used to measure the atomic concentration of minerals. It is based on the fact that
the unexcited atoms are able to absorb radiation from an external source. The degree of
absorptivity can be measured and serves as the basis of the analysis. The radiation from a hollow
cathode tube is passed through a flame into which the sample in solution is aspirated. The tube is
usually filled by a low pressure of a noble gas. An application of about 100-200 V produces a
glow discharge from the tube. This radiation consists of discrete lines of the metal under
analysis. (NB. Each element scheduled for analysis has its own analytical lamp.) The desired line
can be isolated by means of a monochromator. The power of the line is sharply reduced by the
absorbing atoms in the flame. The peak heights are measured.

Elemental analysis by X-ray Fluorescence (XRF)

X-ray fluorescence interprets the characteristic radiation emitted by the elements of the sample
upon excitation. The analysis is element sensitive. It provides information about the elemental
composition of the sample.
Sodium Bisulfate Fusion
This is a new wet chemical technique whose purpose is to isolate the quartz and feldspar grains
from the mass of clay minerals and other substances in typical mud-rocks. Pea-size fragments of
the sample are fused over a Bunsen burner in sodium bisulfate. The only materials that survive
are quartz and feldspars, which are almost completely unaffected in either composition or grain
size. These grains can then be analyzed petrographically.
X-ray Diffraction
This method of analysis is used for mineral identification and is particularly useful when the
particles are small (for example, clays). The sample is powdered, mounted on a glass slide, and
bombarded with X-rays. The X-rays are diffracted by planes of atoms in the crystal structure and
a pattern is produced on a paper chart. The chart (diffractogram) is a plot of diffraction angle
versus intensity of diffracted radiation and reveals the interplanar spacings of the mineral and, in
turn, its crystal structure. This is the best method for identifying the various types of clays in a
rock. It is sometimes used in conjunction with differential thermal analysis (DTA), a technique in
which the sample is heated in a furnace to determine the temperatures at which water or carbon
dioxide is released. Different temperatures are characteristic of different minerals.

Electron Microscope
This instrument provides a means of determining the chemical composition of very small
volumes at the surface of polished thin sections or grain mounts. An electron beam is focused on
the area of interest, which can be as small as 1 µm in diameter. The impact of the beam on the
sample causes the emission of X-rays whose wavelengths are characteristic of the elements
present in the area hit by the beam. The intensity of the X-rays reveals the concentration of the
element. This technique is sufficiently sensitive to determine concentrations of trace elements as
well as of major elements in the sample.

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

This instrument is used for both textural and mineralogic determinations. A piece of the rock
perhaps a centimeter in diameter is coated under vacuum with a gold-palladium mixture. The
coated specimen is them bombarded by electrons, which are scattered by the gold-palladium
coating to produce the detailed topography of the fragment. Magnifications of 50,000X with
excellent resolution and great depths of field are easily obtained, and enlargements of 100,000X
are possible with somewhat diminished but quite usable resolution. X-ray attachments to the
SEM are commonly used and permit at least semi-quantitative element analyses of the sample.

PALEONTOLOGICAL AND MICROPALEONTOLOGICAL STUDIES

STAGES IN PREPARING A FIELD MAPPING REPORT
Preparation
First you must plan the layout, section by section; then draft each section using all your notes,
maps, laboratory results and references gathered from other sources. This is the stage where you
get your thoughts down on paper without too much regard to grammar and literacy; there is not
even any need to draft the sections in the order they will appear in the finished report. As you
write, list the illustrations needed to support the text; they can be roughed out whenever you need
a break from writing.
Revision and Editing
Your first rough draft gets the essential facts and information in order and allows your ideas to
develop. The next stage is to revise it. Most repetitions can be eliminated by rewriting, but not all
repetition is bad.
Reference to rocks, minerals, fossils and the literature
There are numerous pitfalls to avoid when describing and identifying rocks, minerals, and
fossils. There are also internationally agreed conventions of reference, especially for fossils and
for citation of literature
Purpose
The basic purposes of a report are a) to describe accurately what has been observed; and b) to
synthesize and explain geologic relationships and events. The descriptive parts of the report
should be complete and concise. Maps, graphs and tables should be a part of this description
section.
Report writing
i). Title page – title of the report, the author’s name, date, and the name of the organization, if
any, for which the work is done. The title should be short as possible but should state clearly the
nature or content of the report.
ii). Table of contents – this is prepared from the final manuscript when all section headings have
been decided upon. In many cases the lowest rank of headings may be omitted from the table of
contents if they are repetitive.
iii). List of illustrations/plates – this gives page numbers where they do occur in the report
including all text figures and plates, including those folded separately at the back of the report.
Wherever possible, titles or captions of illustrations are shortened for the list.
iv). Abstract – the abstract is a very brief version of the report. It is all some readers will ever
see (or read) and should therefore be as informative and as brief as possible. Abstracts are
generally 150 – 600 words long, though much shorter ones may be adequate for some papers.
Three important suggestions to be adhered to when writing abstracts are: Each sentence must be
informative. Data should be presented in the same order as in the report or nearly so as possible.
Each major section of the report should be summarized in at least a sentence and if the report is
long, by a paragraph.
v). Acknowledgement - A brief acknowledgement of the assistance given during the preparation
of your report is necessary. This can take one or two paragraphs depending on the amount of
assistance given.

Introduction
The introductory section should pertain directly to the main subject of the report. Climate,
vegetation, and land use can usually be described adequately in a few sentences. Descriptions of
geographic features e.g., rivers, hills etc can be kept concise and clear by including a page-size
map of the region of study.
Geographic Setting
Geographic setting of the study area should include a small index map and a brief comment on
accessibility, if not obvious from the maps. The physiograpy should include a statement on the
nature and distribution of principal geographic features e.g. hills, rivers etc and a brief
description of the vegetation, climate and land use.
Regional Geological Setting
This should include a statement on the regional geological setting of the surveyed area. Briefly
comment on the nature and distribution of rock system; any series of formations etc. Give a brief
description of the major structures in chronological order whenever possible. This section
provides an important framework for the detailed descriptions of the report. This is a section that
will require a thorough critical review of the literature.
Purpose of the project
Here you need to provide a brief statement on the reasons why you undertook the project. This
should be supported by a statement on objectives of the study. Project methodology In this sub-
section you need to outline the study methods you used to achieve your objectives.
Previous Geological works
This section presents a chronological review of geologic work done in or near the study area.
However a critical evaluation of important contributions is generally preferred.
Rock Units [Geology]
This is an important part of the report and it is recommended to give a summary introduction to
the general nature, thickness and grouping of the stratigraphic sequence of the study area. It is in
this section of the report that you provide systematic petrographic descriptions of the rock units
identified in the study area starting with the oldest. In this description we have:
General lithology – distribution, shape and thickness of unit.
 Detailed description of lithology and mineralogy including lateral variations
. Definition of contacts if not included in lithology
 Fossil, if any
 Age and origin of the unit
Structures
This section must be organized with special care to describe both the individual features and
their inter-relationships. Data shown clearly on the geologic map need not be described at length
in the text. If the main map is too cluttered to show the geographic distribution of the major
structures clearly, a page-size structure map should be used in context with the structure section.
Some of the important structures that should broadly be included in the text description include
but not limited to: Brief introductory description of trends and interrelations of principal
structural features. Unconformities, Folds – presented in order of importance or age or both. This
includes anticlines, basins, synclines etc. Faults and their relationships to folds and other
structures. Joints, Structures formed in and around intrusive bodies such as veins, pegmatites,
etc.
Geological History and Stratigraphy
Included in this section are the chronological interpretation of processes, structural events and
paleogeography. The use of lithologic unit terms (group, formation, member, bed, etc) and time-
stratigraphic unit terms (group, system, series, stage, zone, etc) must be applied consistently
according to accepted rules. Stratigraphic data are generally presented in detailed columnar
sections that may represent either single measured sections or an average sequence for a given
area or region.
Igneous Activity
Igneous activity covers a wide spectrum, from plutonism to vulcanicity
Economic Geology
The section on economic geology is concerned with earth materials that can be used for
economic and/or industrial purposes. These materials include precious and base metals,
nonmetallic minerals, construction-grade stone including building stone and aggregates,
petroleum minerals, coal, and ground water resources. A description of the economic geology of
a given area is of prime interest to investors, stock analysts and other professions such as
engineers, environmental scientists, and conservationists because of the far-reaching impact that
extractive industries have on society, the economy, and the environment. The specific categories
of mineralization in an economic sense are: Mineral occurrences or prospects of geological
interest which may not necessarily be of economic interest, and Mineral resources - which
include both the potentially economical and technically feasible and those which are not.
Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendation
This is the section that you now have the opportunity to discuss your data, interpretation and
probable conclusions. It is also in this section that you draw your recommendations based on
your research data and observations. Conclusions are difficult but important. However remember
that this is what you leave the reader with. You could summarise your main points. It may be
better to try to tie the threads of your research findings stressing your main observations or
deductions. Provide a brief look back at your findings and suggest areas for further exploration
and examination. Finally remember that a good conclusion places material in a different
perspective, it saves a good point until the end (but not a new argument) and it indicates areas for
further study.
REFERENCES
Atkin, B.C and Johnson, J.A. (1988). The Earth- Problems and Perspectives. Blackwell
Scientific Publishers, pp 428.
Berry, LG., Mason, B. and Dietrich, R.V. 1983. Mineralogy: Concepts, Descriptions and
Determinations. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, 561 pp.
Compton, R.R. 1968. Manual of Field Geology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 378pp.
Ehlers, E.G. and Blatt, H. (1999). Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic. CBS
Publishers & Distributors, p289.
Hills, E.S. (1983). Elements of Structural Geology. Chapman and Hall Publishers, pp 502.
Kisabeth, J.L., 1979. On calculating magnetic and vector potential field due to large-scale
magnetospheric current systems and induced currents in an infinitely conducting earth. In: Olson,
W. P. (Ed.), Quantitative Modelling Magnetospheric Processes. American Geophysical Union.
Lipersonne, J. (1974). Carte geologique du Zaire a’ l’echele du 1/ 2.000.000 et notice
explicative. Soc. Geol. Du Zaire, Ministere des Mines, Kinshasha, Zaire.
Marov, M.Ya., Ioltukhovski, A.A., Kolesnichenko, A.V., Krasitsky, O.P., Shari, V.P., 1994.
On earth ozonosphere space monitoring by stars occultation. Keldysh Institute of Applied
Mathematics. Reprint No. 33, Moscow (in Russian).
Nyamai, C.M. (2004). Principles of Mineralogy Lecture Series, Nairobi University Press, pp
125.
Olago, D., 2009. Groundwater geochemistry of the Kenya Rift. PhD thesis, University of
Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya.
Sengupta, S.M. (2008). Introduction to Sedimentology. 2nd Ed. CBS Publishers & Distributers,
India.
Vijayakumar, G., Parameswaran, R., Rajan, R., 1998. Aerosols in the atmospheric boundary
layer and its association with surface wind speed at a coastal site. Journal of Atmospheric and
Solar-Terrestrial Physics 60 (16), 1531-1542.
 CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT

COURSE TITLE:

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS

COURSE CODE: GEY 961

(1st Semester)

MATRICULATION NUMBER: AK20/PHS/GEY/PHD/006

July 2023
Two boreholes in a Permian sandstone produce freshwater, but a third is quite saline. Overlying
sands and gravels plus faulting are thought to control the distribution of saline water, which
probably has a source in evaporite deposits. How would you employ geophysical surveys to
determine the extent of the saline water and the factors determining its distribution?

INTRODUCTION
Saline water intrusion into aquifers of many coastal areas has resulted in acute environmental
problems. Excessive withdrawal of ground water, as well as significant decrease in recharge of
the aquifer due to less rainfall, has largely aggravated the hazard. The extent of saline water
intrusion in any coastal area is influenced by the nature of geological formations present,
hydraulic gradient, rate of withdrawal of ground water and its recharge.

Geophysical Prospection
The subsurface information for depth, geometry, and characteristics of a source aquifer can be
determined by using geophysical surveys. Studies related to saltwater investigations frequently
use geophysical resistivity surveys because of the direct sensitivity to the water salinity.

Geophysical Well Logs

The natural gamma ray (GR) log measures the natural emission of total gamma radiation from a
geological formation in a borehole. The emission depends on the mineral composition of the
rock or sediment. Sands (quartz) tend to be less radioactive than clays and fine-grained
sediments. GR log is most frequently used for lithologic and stratigraphic correlation. Results of
the natural GR logs are reported in counts per second (CPS), commonly used by mineral
industry, or API units if calibrated.

Two electrodes typically spaced 16 or 64 inches apart during electrical resistivity logging in the
borehole, called short normal (SN) and long normal (LN) resistivity log, respectively, are used in
combination with two electrodes located at the surface. They measure the apparent resistivity in
ohm meters (Ω.m) and are used to detect water quality (mainly the salinity) and lithology
(mainly the clay content). The SN log is more strongly influenced by the invaded zone. It is
useful for detecting thin beds (>16 inch) and sometimes to measure formation porosity. The
combined use of short and long normal may be very helpful in identifying intruded zones.
However, SN is more influenced by the drilling fluid in the invaded zone, which may
misinterpret the results. When SN shows higher resistivity than LN, this indicates a high
resistivity mud has been used (Rmf > Rw). We have carefully checked both the SN and LN. We
observed that SN has lower resistivity compared to LN in our studied resistivity logs. Because it
is more influenced by the resistivity farther away from the borehole (and thus less disturbed by
borehole effects), LN usually provides a good approximation of formation resistivity (comprising
matrix and pore water). The qualitative interpretation of GR log was based on the identification
of the sand (minimum cps) and shale (maximum cps) lines, in relatively constant zones of the
log, from which a scale from 0 to 100% shale can be made. The shale line indicates a low
permeability unit (clay or shale), and a deflection towards lower values indicates a decrease in
the shale content and a higher permeability unit, such as sand and coarse grain sediments. The
deflection in the LN log occurs towards left when ρw < ρmf and right when ρw > ρmf, where ρw
and ρmf are formation water resistivity and mud-filtrate resistivity, respectively. At the same
time, high resistivity indicates fresh water and the absence of clay/shale, whereas low resistivity
identifies the presence of salt water/brackish water and/or shale/clay. Furthermore, the natural
GR deflections were correlated with borehole log data to identify the different hydrostratigraphic
boundaries. The deflections were also correlated with electrical resistivity data to identify fresh
water and saline zones. For example, a saltwater sandy zone with higher total dissolved solids
(TDSs) would be indicated by decrease in both natural gamma response and resistivity values,
whereas freshwater-bearing aquifers with low TDSs would be delineated by increase in
resistivity values and low gamma response. The resistivity values for different lithological units
were obtained from the LN resistivity log of the same borehole. Saltwater/freshwater interface
depth was then defined at the bottom of lithological unit containing saltwater and above the
lithological unit containing fresh groundwater.

Geo-electrical method
Geo-electrical surveys are used to determine the depth to groundwater and to locate the
interfaces of fresh and salt groundwater, to establish the depth to bedrock, the lithology of the
subsurface layers and the location of faults. The principle of the geo-electrical method is to inject
a direct current (DC) or a low frequency alternating current (AC) into the ground through two
current electrodes. If a material of resistance R has a cross-sectional area A and length L, then
its resistivity can be expressed as

The unit of resistivity is Ohm-meter ((Ω.m)). Resistivity of rock formations varies depending on
the material density, porosity, pore size and shape, water content, water quality and temperature
(Todd, 1980). Electric resistivity methods are based on the response of the earth to the flow of
electrical current. In these methods, an electric current is introduced into the ground by two
current electrodes, and the potential difference is measured between two points using potential
electrodes suitably placed with respect to the current electrodes. The potential difference for unit
current sent through the ground is a measure of the electrical resistance of the ground between
the probes. The measured resistance is a function of the geometrical configuration of the
electrodes and the electrical parameter of the ground.
The measured current in amperes (A) and potential differences in volts (V) yield an apparent
resistivity (ρa) over an unspecified depth. If the spacing between electrodes is increased, a deeper
penetration of electric field occurs and a different apparent resistivity is obtained (Todd, 1980).
In practice, various standard electrode spacing configurations/arrangements are adopted, but
mainly two types of electrode configurations known as Wenner electrode array (Fig 1) and
Schlumberger electrode array (Fig 2) are most commonly used in resistivity surveys. The
Wenner electrode array is used almost exclusively for shallow subsurface exploration, while the
Schlumberger electrode array is used for both shallow and deeper subsurface investigations.

In the Wenner electrode array, A and B are current electrodes, M and N are potential electrodes,
and ‘a’ (distance between adjacent electrodes) is called spacing or separation of the electrodes;
the value of ‘a’ is taken as the approximate depth of resistivity measurement. In this case, the
apparent resistivity (ρa) is given as

Where, ΔV = potential difference between the potential electrodes M and N on the earth’s
surface (volts), and I = direct current introduced into the earth by means of two current
electrodes A and B (Amperes).

In the Schlumberger electrode array, the distance between the current electrodes A and B is
denoted by L and that between the potential electrodes M and N is dented by l. Note that in this
case, the potential electrodes are placed close together and that half of the current electrode
spacing (i.e., L/2) is taken as the approximate depth of resistivity measurement. For the
Schlumberger electrode array, the apparent resistivity (ρa) is given as:

Fig 1 Wenner Array Fig 2 Schlumberger array

Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) curve
- is obtained by plotting the apparent resistivity against half the current electrode spacings.
- The interpreted graph will indicate the number of subsurface layers and their specific
resistivities and thicknesses.
- The specific resistivity depends on the lithology and porosity of the layer (formation factor) and
the conductivity of the pore water.
- Additional information of the subsoil is essential for a proper interpretation of the soundings.
- In sedimentary basins, high resistivities may indicate the presence of fresh groundwater in
sandy aquifers, while low resistivities are characteristic for brackish water and/or clays.

1-D inversion
Obvious outliers were first removed from the measured resistivity data. The filtered data were
then inverted in terms of 1-D multilayer earth models. The starting model is obtained from the
available geological and hydrogeological information. Finally, the IP2WIN-1D computer
program was used to obtain the final resistivity model. The inverse problem is solved by using
the minimum number of layers required to fit the data (blocky inversion) and the regularized
fitting minimizing algorithm, using Tikhonov’s approach to solve ill-posed problems. The result
from the blocky inversion is considered to generate sharp contrast during inversion. A priori
information about different layers depths and resistivities was used for regularizing the inversion
and get more realistic solution.

ERT
Electrical imaging is a popular geophysical method in hydrogeology, given its sensitivity to
crucial parameters, such as salinity and clay content. ERT measurements were collected by
repeating resistivity measurements with different electrode spacing at different locations. In
contrast to VES, it can thus be used to characterize subsurface lateral resistivity variations, as
well. For this study, a Wenner electrode configuration will be used, and the apparent resistivity is
calculated. The Res2DInv software is used to invert the measured apparent resistivity data to
create a model of the subsurface resistivity based on the iterative smoothness-constrained least-
squares method.

Depth of Investigation (DOI) Index

The DOI can be defined by the depth below which the electrical resistivity of the subsurface no
longer affects the measured resistivity data. The sensitivity of ERT data decreases with
increasing depth. The decreasing trend of resolution and sensitivity with depth is well
documented. Therefore, it should be addressed in calculation to avoid any misinterpretation or
overestimation of subsurface resistivity structures. This is particularly more important in saline
grounds. The electrical current flow tends to concentrate in highly conductive zones which will
significantly decrease the DOI. The DOI was calculated following the Equation (3) by
Oldenburg and Li. In the DOI method, two model inversions are carried out with different
reference models.

The discrepancy of the inverted model is insignificant when the value of DOI is approaching
zero, and then the inverted model can be considered as a reliable model. In contrast, the DOI
value around 1 indicates significant discrepancy of the inverted model. The DOI values between
0.1 and 0.2 are often used to delimit the reliable part of the inverted model.

Determination of Pore-Water Resistivity

We used the LN measured apparent resistivity, as an approximation of the formation resistivity.
Archie’s law describes the bulk resistivity as being related to pore-water resistivity through the
formation factor, F. This relation works well in sandy formations. However, in shale formations,
the relationship between is more complex, since the surface conductivity of clay particles must
be accounted for. Patnode and Willie prescribed an additional term to include the resistivity of
the sediment/rock matrix.

Depth-wise lithological zones have been defined based on natural GR response and validated
them with available nearest borehole. Shallow aquifers are affected by the presence of salt water.
Both salinity and clay in the formation reduce the bulk resistivity and will lead to low resistivity
values. The low resistivity values indicating saltwater intrusion might be equivocal. Nonetheless,
it should be noted that the low resistivity value of clay may indicate freshwater condition.

The resistivity values for different lithological units were obtained from the LN resistivity log of
the same borehole. The resistivity of pore water was determined from the corresponding
resistivity value of the same lithological units. For example, when the LN resistivity curve
encompasses the sand and clay/clayey zone, the corresponding resistivity values are correlated
with the formation resistivity (sand) and formation resistivity (clay).

A similar technique has been applied for the interpretation of VES. Each VES having different
zones of resistivity was checked carefully and correlated with the nearby borehole log. The depth
at which the resistivity value of pore water obtained from VES becomes more than 6 Ω.m was
taken as the beginning of freshwater depth. Usually, there is a steep change in resistivity at the
interface between the VES layers, and 6 Ω.m is mostly a trustworthy value to differentiate them:
layers saturated with fresh water will show higher resistivity, while layers with saline water will
show lower resistivity. The transition thus corresponds to a resistivity limit of 6 Ω.m and is
referred to as the freshwater–saltwater interface depth, where the upper part is saline (<6 Ω.m)
and the lower part is freshwater (>6 Ω.m) in the study area. The interface depth thus represents
the depth at which fresh water can be found.
REFERENCES

Adepelumi, A.A.; Ako, B.D.; Ajayi, T.R.; Afolabi, O.; Omotoso, E.J. Delineation of saltwater
intrusion into the freshwater aquifer of Lekki Peninsula, Lagos, Nigeria. Environ. Earth
Sci. 2008, 56, 927–933.
Archie, G.E. The Electrical Resistivity Log as an Aid in Determining Some Reservoir
Characteristics. Trans. AIME 1942, 146, 54–62.
Belknap, W.B.; Dewan, J.T.; Kirkpatrick, C.; Mott, W.E.; Pearson, A.; Rabson, W. API
calibration facility for nuclear logs. In Drilling and Production Practice; American Petroleum
Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 1959.
Boughriba, M.; Melloul, A.; Zarhloule, Y.; Ouardi, A. Extension Spatiale de la Salinisation
des Ressources en eau et Modèle Conceptuel des Sources Salées Dans la Plaine des Triffa
(Maroc Nord-Oriental). Comptes Rendus Geosci. 2006, 338, 768–774.
Caterina, D.; Beaujean, J.; Robert, T.; Nguyen, F. A comparison study of different image
appraisal tools for electrical resistivity tomography. Near Surf. Geophys. 2013, 11, 639–658
Caterina, D.; Hermans, T.; Nguyen, F. Case studies of incorporation of prior information in
electrical resistivity tomography: Comparison of different approaches. Near Surf.
Geophys. 2014, 12, 451–465.
Goebel, M.; Pidlisecky, A.; Knight, R. Resistivity imaging reveals complex pattern of saltwater
intrusion along Monterey coast. J. Hydrol. 2017, 551, 746–755.
IPI2WIN-1D Program. In Programs Set for 1D VES Data Interpretation; Moscow University:
Moscow, Russia, 2000.
Keys, W.S. A Practical Guide to Borehole Geophysics in Environmental Investigations;
Routledge: London, UK, 2017.
Loke, M. Rapid 2D Resistivity Forward Modeling Using the Finite-Difference and Finite-
Element Methods; Geotomo Software: Penang, Malaysia, 2002.
Loke, M.; Chambers, J.; Rucker, D.; Kuras, O.; Wilkinson, P. Recent developments in the
direct-current geoelectrical imaging method. J. Appl. Geophys. 2013, 95, 135–15.
Loke, M.; Barker, R. Rapid least-squares inversion of apparent resistivity pseudosections by a
quasi-Newton method1. Geophys. Prospect. 1996, 44, 131–152.
Nguyen, F.; Kemna, A.; Antonsson, A.; Engesgaard, P.; Kuras, O.; Ogilvy, R.; Gisbert, J.;
Jorreto, S.; Pulido-Bosch, A. Characterization of seawater intrusion using 2D electrical
imaging. Near Surf. Geophys. 2009, 7, 377–390.
Paepen, M.; Hanssens, D.; Smedt, P.D.; Walraevens, K.; Hermans, T. Combining resistivity
and frequency domain electromagnetic methods to investigate submarine groundwater discharge
in the littoral zone. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2020, 24, 3539–3555.
Patnode, H.; Willie, M. The presence of borehole geophysics to water resources investigations.
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Seattle, WA, USA, 1950.
Reynolds, J.M. An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics; John Wiley & Sons:
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Tikhonov, A.N.; Arsenin, V.Y. Solutions of ill-posed problems. SIAM Rev. 2012, 21, 266–267.
Oldenburg, D.W.; Li, Y. Estimating depth of investigation in dc resistivity and IP
surveys. Geophysics 1999, 64, 403–416.
Wilson, S.; Ingham, M.; McConchie, J. The applicability of earth resistivity methods for saline
interface definition. J. Hydrol. 2006, 316, 301–312.