SOIL AND SOIL AGGREGATES o Not subject to changes in strength

or volume due to variation in water

➢ The term Soil are used by engineers,
content. However, loose granular
refers to the unconsolidated mineral
materials will undergo considerable
materials at or near the earth's surface,
reduction in volume if subjected to
including the air, moisture, organic
vibratory loads.
matter, and other substance which
➢ FINE-GRAINED SOILS:
may incorporate therein, which have
o Poor load - sustaining qualities
may resulted from natural processes,
o Highly impermeable
such as weathering, decay and
o Compressible under sustained load
chemical reaction.
o Subject to change in volume and
➢ Soil are group in three major divisions:
strength due to variation in water
o granular soils which include sand
content.
and gravel;
➢ ORGANIC SOILS:
o fine grained soil which includes silts
and clay and Inferior than fine-grained soils with respect
o organic soils which include muck to the properties stated under the latter.
peat or organic silts.
SOIL GROUP CLASSIFICATIONS
The most widely used grouping of soils
❖ GRAVEL
according to particle size is the following.
Rounded or water-worn pebbles. No
Gravel 2mm to 75 mm cohesion or plasticity.
❖ SAND GRITTY AND LOOSE GRAINS.
Sand 0.05 to 2 mm
Individual grains readily seen and felt.
Silt 0.005 mm to 0.05 mm No plasticity or cohesion. If dry, a cast
formed in the hand will fall apart; if
Clay 0.001 mm to 0.005 mm
moist, a cast will crumble when
Colloids less than 0.001 mm touched.
❖ SILT
Fine and barely visible grains. When in a
SOIL MAJOR DIVISIONS: dry pulverized condition, it feels soft

➢ GRANULAR SOILS: and floury. Can hardly be made plastic.

o Good load bearing qualities. Exhibits little or no strength when air-

o Permeable, hence they drain dried. A dried cast is easily crushed in

readily. the hands.

o Comparatively incompressible ❖ CLAY

when subjected to static loads. Can be made plastic by adjusting its

water content. Exhibits considerable
 strength when air-dried; difficult or NORMAL WEIGHT AGGREGATES
impossible to crush in hands. Clay can
o Used in most concrete construction,
be molded and rolled into thin threads
normal-weight aggregates are
without breaking or crumbling within a
obtained by draining riverbeds or
moderate to a wide range in water
mining and crunching formational
content, and threads of considerable
material.
length will support their own weight
o Concrete made with normal-weight
when held by one hand.
fine and coarse aggregates generally
❖ ORGANIC SOILS
weights about 144 lb. / ft3.
Gray to black color. Fibrous structure
o Boulders and cobbles are generally not
due to presence of undecomposed
used in their as-mined size but are
plant matter. Unhealthy sewage sludge
crushed to make various sizes of coarse
odor. Found as deposits in swamps and
aggregate and manufactured sand
peat bogs.
and mineral filler.
AGGREGATES o Aggregates comprise the greatest
volume percentage in Portland-
Aggregate is a broad encompassing
cement concrete, mortar, or asphaltic
boulder, cobbles, crushed stone, gravel,
concrete.
air-cooled blast furnace slag, native and
o In a Portland-cement concrete mix, the
manufactured sands, and manufactured
coarse and fine aggregates occupy
and natural lightweight aggregates.
about 60% to 75% of the total mix
Aggregates may be further described by
volume.
their respective sizes.
o For asphaltic concrete, the aggregates
TYPES OF AGGREGATES: represent 75 to 85% of the mix volume.

❖ NORMAL WEIGHT AGGREGATES GRADATION OF AGGREGATES

These typically have specific gravities The distribution of aggregate sizes in a

between 2.0 and 3.0. They are usually concrete mix is important because it
distinguished by size as follows: directly influences the amount of cement
required for a given strength, workability of
A. Boulders - Larger than 6 in
the mix (and amount of effort to place the
B. Cobbles - 6 to 3 in
mix in the forms), in-place durability, and
C. Coarse aggregate - 3 in to No. 4 sieve
overall economy. ASTM C33 provides
D. Fine aggregate - No. 4 sieve to No.
ranges of fine- and coarse-aggregate
200 sieve
grading limits.
E. Mineral filler - Material passing No. 200
sieve 2
PROPERTIES OF NORMAL WEIGHT is greater than that between smooth
AGGREGATES particles.

❖ HARDNESS ❖ POTENTIAL ALKALI REACTIVITY

Coarse – aggregate hardness is measured Aggregates that contain forms of silicas or

by the Los Angeles Abrasion Test, ASTM carbonates may react with the alkalines
C131 or C595. These tests break the present in Portland cement (sodium oxide
aggregate down by impacting it with steel and potassium oxide). The reaction
balls in a steel tumbler. The resulting product cracks the concrete or may
breakdown is not directly related to the create pop-outs at the concrete surface.
abrasion an aggregate receives in service,
❖ RESISTANCE TO FREEZING AND THAWING
but the results can be empirically related to
concretes exhibiting service lives. The pore structure, absorption, porosity and
permeability of aggregates are especially
❖ SOUNDNESS
important if they are used to make
Aggregate soundness is measured by concrete exposed to repeated cycles of
ASTM C88. "Test Method for Soundness of freezing and thawing. Aggregates that
Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or become critically saturated and then
Magnesium Sulfate." This test measures the freeze cannot accommodate the
amount of aggregate degradation when expansion of the frozen water.
exposed to alternating cycles of wetting
❖ IMPURITIES IN AGGREGATES
and drying in a sulfate solution.
Erratic setting times and rates of hardening
❖ PARTICLE SHAPE
may be caused by organic impurities in the
Natural sand and gravel have a round, aggregates, primarily the sand. Pop-outs
smooth particle shape. Crushed aggregate and reduced durability can be caused by
(coarse and fine) may have shapes that soft particles, chert, clay lumps and other
are flat and elongated, angular, cubical, friable particles, coal, lignite, or other
disk, or rodlike. These shapes result from the lightweight materials in the aggregates.
crushing equipment employed and the
❖ VOLUME STABILITY
aggregate mineralogy. Extreme angularity
and elongation increase the amount of It refers to susceptibility of aggregates to

cement required to give strength, difficulty expansion when heated or to cyclic

in finishing, and effort required to pump the expansion and contraction when saturated

concrete. Flat and elongated particles also and dried. Aggregates that are susceptible

increase the amount of required mixing to volume change due to moisture should

water. The bond between angular particles be avoided.

❖ HEAVYWEIGHT AND LIGHTWEIGHT Aggregate
AGGREGATES Light – Weight
Specific Gravity
Heavyweight aggregates include
–
magnetite, with a specific gravity of 4.3;
Unit Weight (kN / m3)
barite 4.2; limonite 3.8; ferrophosphorus 6.3;
12
and steel shot or punching 7.6. Such
heavyweight aggregates may be used Bulk Density (kg / m3)

instead of gravel or crushed stone to less than (<) 1120

produce a dense concrete for example, for Examples

shielding of nuclear reactions. dolomite, pumice, cinder, clay

Aggregate
Normal – Weight STONE AS ENGINEERING MATERIALS –

Specific Gravity ENGINEERING STONES

2.5 – 2.7 PARAMETERS CONSIDERED IN SELECTION OF

Unit Weight (kN / m3) A GOOD CONSTRUCTION STONE
23 – 26
The criteria are based upon the following
Bulk Density (kg / m3)
parameters:
1520 – 1680
Examples ❖ CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STONES

sand, gravel, granite, sandstone,

Using/selecting a stone for construction, its
limestone
chemical properties and composition must
be tested and verified because different

Aggregate elements and compounds in stones have

Heavy – Weight different properties.

Specific Gravity ❖ STRONGNESS AND HARDNESS

2.8 – 2.9
The more compact grained and heavier a
Unit Weight (kN / m3)
stone, the stronger it is. The specific gravity
25 – 29
of good stone should be above 2.7. Stones
Bulk Density (kg / m3)
used for road metal, paving blocks, floor
greater than (>) 2080
slabs and railway ballast have to withstand
Examples
mainly abrasion or wear and tear.
magnetite, baryte, scrap – iron
STRONGNESS AND HARDNESS ITSELF DEPEND o POROSITY
ON SOME FACTORS: ▪ Stones in wet conditions and having
pores in them allow a lower crushing
o HARDNESS OR SOFTNESS OF THE
strength than normal. Porosity can
COMPONENTS
reduce the strength up to 30 – 40.
▪ The composition of the compounds
▪ Porosity is the property of a substance
determines its hardness or softness.
in which it contains pores in it. It also
Si, Na,K - softer Mg, Ca, Fe - harder reduces the resistance to a
concentrated (point) load.
POOR GOOD
o DENSITY
▪ If the stone is composed of soft and ▪ If a stone is compact, dense, it would
unhardened materials it will result in a also be non-porous and strong, thus
soft material and vice versa. toughness also depends upon density.
o PROPORTION OF HARD AND SOFT o CEMENTING MATERIAL
MATERIALS ▪ Stones with silicates as cementing
▪ The amount of soft and hard material in material will be resistant to weathering
a specific sample of stone also matters. than those with calcareous or
Greater the amount of hard materials ferruginous binding material. So,
more will be the resistance to cementing material also affects the
weathering. choice of stone selection.
o SIZE AND SHAPE OF THE MINERALS IS ❖ RESISTANCE TO HEAT
STONES
Resistance to heat means that the stone
▪ Crystalline solids are hard and
must have a very low amount of expansion
compact, thus superior to non-
due to large increase in temperature.
crystalline. Finer the crystals, stronger
the stones and vice versa, This property ❖ BIO-DETERIORATION
i.e., fineness reduces the pores in the
Certain trees and creepers thrust their roots
stone.
in the joints of stones and have both
o COHESION
mechanical and chemical adverse effects.
▪ It is the property of atoms or particles to
attract each other. The fine grains have Special microbes can grow on the surface
more cohesive power than the coarser and in minute fissures, their by-products
grains. Greater the cohesion in stone cause flaking and discoloration.
causes increase in the hardness,
❖ APPEARANCE
strongness and toughness of stones. The
property of compactness also depends The aesthetic aspect that is color,

deeply on cohesion. appearance and show of stones must also

be considered when being used in a
project. Appearance depends on the ▪ Low pressure - fossils distorted or
color and the ease with which the stone destroyed
can be dressed, rubbed or polished. ▪ Moderate pressure - Grains form
moderately
GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF STONES
▪ High pressure - Active fluids may
SEDIMENTARY STONES circulate
▪ Heat alone, Metamorphic Aureole
CHARACTERISTICS:
surrounding a deep plutonic intrusion,
Sandstone, limestone, dolomite originally possibly with active fluids
formed mainly in sea water, or lakes, from ▪ Dynamic Meta - Large scale
the remains of animals and plants, also movement phenomena
from transportation and deposition of rock ▪ Crushing actions produce Xylonite
products. Meta rock from powder

▪ Formed at or near the surface ▪ Low angle thrust fault: Plate pressure

▪ Distinctive strata coupled with subsidence

▪ Many fossils have been found in this ▪ Thrust movement, plate movement

type of rock CLASSIFICATION:

SHAPES: ▪ ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE

▪ Rounded A. Contact type is crystalline

▪ Angular B. Regional type is usually foliated

▪ ACCORDING TO GRAIN SIZE
CLASSIFICATION:
A. +0 Big grain, High pressure
▪ Detrital is made from disintegrated pre- B. 00 Med grain, Med pressure
existing rock. C. -0 Small grain, Low pressure
▪ Biogenetic is made from shells and
IGNEOUS STONES
other fossilized fragments.
▪ Chemical is made from chemical CHARACTERISTICS:

precipitation. ▪ Intrusive - subsurface crystallization

METAMORPHIC STONES ▪ Extrusive- above surface crystallization

▪ Mineral content
CHARACTERISTICS:
▪ Grain size, Plutonic >3/16" coarse.
Marble, serpentine, onyx, slate, quartzite, Extrusive 1/64" - 3/16" Medium and <
gneiss is produced from sedimentary or 1/64" fine
igneous rocks by the action of heat and ▪ Crystal shape
pressure. ▪ Texture % A, %B, crystal angle.
▪ Color
▪ No pressure - fossils survive
IGNEOUS FORM OCCURRENCE BELOW ❖ STRENGTH AND DURABILITY
GROUND PRESENTS ITSELF IN 2 BASIC WAYS:
The more compact grained and heavier a
o INTRUSIVE BASIC DIKE stone the harder it is. Due to alternate
wetting and drying the resulting crushing
Which is like having layers of cardboard
strength can be reduced even up to 30-
over your head and punching your fist up
40%. Being dry stones allow more crushing
into it.
strength than when wet.
o PLUTONIC
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WEIGHTS AND
This is like a huge hot ball of stone burning CRUSHING STRENGTH
its way around deep below the surface
Stone Weight in Ultimate Strength to
and it usually has "hot arms" that reach out
(lb/cu. ft) resist crushing
from its main mass. (lbs./sq. in)
Granite 165 13,000
CLASSIFICATION:
Basalt or 185 12,000
Trap
▪ Acid rocks > 65% Si + > 10% Modal
Limestone 160 7,500
Quartz
Sandstone 140 5,000
▪ Intermediate rocks 55% - 65% Si (stray)

▪ Basic rocks 45% - 55% Si < 10% Modal State 175 10,000
Marble 170 7,500
Quartz
▪ Ultra-Basic < 45% Si.

Durability is the ability of a stone to endure

STONE PROPERTIES AND TESTS
and maintain its essential and distinctive
TESTS ON STONES
characteristics i.e., resistance to decay,

Once a stone has been selected on strength and appearance. Physical

aesthetic basis, it is important than to properties such as density, compressive

ensure whether it exhibits the necessary strength and porosity are measured in

physical properties and durability to remain order to determine its durability. Another

in working condition for a long time. Fixing factor of stones durability is its Aesthetic

method adopted for the construction of Durability or Dimensional Stability.

stones also affects the type of stones

These changes can take place in two ways.
selected. Physical properties such as
o SUNLIGHT
density, compressive strength and porosity
are measured in order to determine its When some stones are used in exterior
durability. applications and exposed to direct sunlight
they fade or change color. Dark colored
stones and those that contain organic
matter will generally fade to a much lighter stones and is an important factor in
color. relation to stone decay.
❖ WATER ABSORPTION AND FROST
o MOISTURE
RESISTANCE
Some stones have moisture sensitive ▪ Moisture from rain, snow or other
mineral contents that will cause the stone environmental conditions
to develop rust spots, or other color penetrates the wall leading to
variations, or contain moisture sensitive cracks, efflorescence, rust staining,
substances that will cause blotchy and wood rotting, paint peeling,
streaking discolorations. Certain lime stones darkening of masonry and spalling.
contain bituminous materials that are ▪ The perfect sealing of a masonry
soluble when exposed to moisture. wall surface is almost impossible
since fine cracks and joints will allow
❖ POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY
the passage of water into the wall.
▪ Porosity is the ratio of pores (micro-
▪ Absorbency it is the result of these
voids) in the stone, to its total solid
two properties (permeability and
volume. Pores are natural holes in
porosity). Absorbency is an
the stones which allow fluids like
important determining factor in
rainwater to enter and leave the
stones sensitivity to stains.
fabric. Some free fluid flow through
❖ HARDNESS AND WEATHERING
a rock is necessary to maintain the
▪ Hardness is the property of a
rock's durability, and it is not always
material to avoid and resist
advisable to block such flow by
scratching. It is determined by
using incorrect mortar mixes or by
comparison with the standard
injecting unsuitable synthetic fluids.
minerals of the Moh’s scale. The
▪ Very high porosities may allow
objective of the MOH’s Scale is to
excessive volumes of corrosive fluids
measure stones resistance to
such as acid rainwater to enter and
hardness.
cause severe damage to the rock.
▪ Permeability is increased when a MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS
stone is highly fractured or the
1. Talc
veining material is soft or grainy. A
2. Gypsum
particular variety of stone may be
3. Calcite (Most Marbles)
highly permeable although its
4. Fluorite
porosity is low.
5. Apatite
▪ The size and shapes of pores and
6. Feldspar (Granite)
the capillary structure differs in
7. Quartz (Granite)
8. Topaz
 9. Corundum ▪ Sandstone which is not so-wearing or
10. Diamond beautifully patterned is used for garden
▪ Weathering is a complex walls and paths in landscaping.
interaction of physical, chemical ▪ Basalt: It is quarried and crushed as
and biological processes that alter “Blue Metal” which is used as a road-
the stone in some general or base, and in reinforced concrete as
specific way. The physical aggregate.
properties of stone differ widely ▪ Although wood, straw and mud is used
between stone groups and even for houses in some parts of the world,
within the same stone type. most buildings are preferred to be built
▪ The mineral composition, textural of stones.
differences, varying degrees of ▪ Building wells.
hardness and pore/capillary ▪ Material for foundation and walling of
structure are the main reasons why buildings, dams, bridges, etc.
stone nor all the surface of the same ▪ Aggregate
stone shows signs of alteration the ▪ Stone walls
same and evenly. ▪ Roof tile in the form of slates
▪ Murram for covering and flooring of
APPLICATIONS AND USES OF STONES
road surface
USES OF STONES ▪ Limestone for burning lime and for the
manufacture of Portland-cement.
▪ Sandstone is a popular stone with
▪ Shale is a component of bricks and
sculptors.
may also be used in manufacturing of
▪ Good and durable construction
cement.
material
▪ Nite, another stone type is used for
▪ Thresholds and steps in manor houses
architectural construction, ornamental
▪ War memorials in the 19th and 20th
stones and monuments.
centuries
▪ Marble is widely used in construction
▪ Limestone for burning lime and also for
industry, for aesthetic purposes,
manufacture of cement
beautification and strength.
▪ Limestone as a flux in blast furnaces
▪ Insulators in electrical appliances Aggregates are the most mined material in
the world. Construction aggregate is a
BUILDING STONES
broad category of granular raw material of
▪ Millions of tons of crushed rock are different sizes used in construction.
needed annually for road base,
paving, ready-mixed concrete and
asphalt.
USES OF AGGREGATE USES OF AGGREGATE IN RAILWAY BALLAST

Aggregate can be used in a number of Properties of aggregate used in railway

ways in construction. In roads and railway ballast are very different from those used in
ballast the aggregates are used to resist the roads.
load, to distribute the load properly to the
1. A fully loaded train weighs in thousands
supporting ground and to drain the water
of tons. To avoid damage to the rails,
off the surface. In concrete the aggregate
ground and other nearby structures a
is used for economy, reduce shrinkage and
very tough aggregate is needed not
crakes and to strengthen the structure.
only to support this high weight but also
They are also used in water filtration and
to distribute and transfer it properly to
sewage treatment processes.
the ground.
The uses of aggregates can be summarized 2. Railway ballast generally consists of a
in to the following three categories: tough igneous rock (crushed), such as
granite, with a larger diameter varying
1. As a Load Bearing Material
between 30mm to 50mm. Particles finer
2. As a Filling Material
than this diameter in higher proportion
3. As an Infiltrating Material
will reduce its drainage properties.
USES OF AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE While a higher proportion of larger
particles result in the load on the ties
Aggregate is an essential ingredient of
being distributed improperly.
concrete. The purpose of aggregates in
concrete is: DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIX

1. To provide a rigid structure. MATERIAL SAND GRAVEL

2. To reduce the shrinkage and cracking. Specific 2.4 3
3. Concrete aggregate is used in many gravity
structures and substructures e.g., Moisture 5.6 5.4
different elements of a Building, content
bridges, foundations. Absorption 5 4.8
4. The smaller the aggregate size the Type Manufactured Angular
greater its surface area and the more
binding material (cement) will be
SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS
required, resulting in a higher cost.
5. The greater the aggregate size the BSCE 2 – 1 data given
larger will be the voids, resulting in fc’ 34.47 Mpa 41.4 Mpa
wastage of binding material (cement). Fitness
Modulus of 2.6
Sand
 Maximum (9) Abs. Vol of Air
Aggregate 13 mm 9.5 mm = Abs. Vol. of Cement × % entrapped Air
Size (10) Abs. Vol. of Cement Paste

Unit Weight 1000 kg / m3 = Abs. Vol. of Air

of Water + Abs. Vol. of Water

Weight of 40 kg / bag + Abs. Vol. of Cement

= unit 𝑚3
Cement
(11) Abs. Vol of Solid Aggregates
Specific
= (1) Abs. Vol. of Concrete
Gravity of 3.10
− (10) Abs. Vol. of Cement Pase
Cement
= unit 𝑚3
Slump 25 - 50 mm 75 - 100 mm
(12) Abs. Vol of Gravel
Unit Weight
Unit Weight of Coarse Aggregate × (11)Abs.Vol.of Solid Aggregates
of Coarse 1660 kg / m3 = (Specific gravity of cement)(Unit weight of water)

Aggregates
(13) Abs. Vol of Sand
= (11) 𝐴𝑏𝑠. 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒
Quantity of cement, sand, gravel, and − (12) 𝐴𝑏𝑠. 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙
water required for 1 cylindrical specimen = unit 𝑚3
(14) Volume of Concrete Required
(d = 0.15 m ; H = 0.30)
= π × (slump × 10−3 )2 × 0.3
ACI METHOD
Free Water (FW) = Moisture Content × % Absorption
“The number in the formulas indicate the
(15) Free Water (FW)sand
(number) on the left denoted with
Free Water (FW)sand = (5.6)(5) = 28
parenthesis”
(16) Free Water (FW)gravel
(1) Absolute Volume of Concrete = 1 m3 Free Water (FW)gravel = (5.4)(4.8) = 25.92
𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 (𝐋𝐢)
(2) = 17.75 Li (TABLE 3) FW
𝐂𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨 (𝟒𝟎 𝐤𝐠)

(3) Water Requirement = 179 rd (TABLE 4) = Free Water (FW)sand + Free Water (FW)gravel
(4) Entrapped Air = 2.5 % (TABLE 4)
= 28 + 25.92 = 53.92
(5) Vol. of Coarse Aggregate = 0.54 (TABLE 5)
(6) No. of Bag Required per m3 of Concrete Uncorrected Weight
Water requirement
= Water (Li) = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑔 = Abs. Vol. × Sp. Gr. × Unit Weight of Water
[(2) ]
Cement ratio (40 kg)

(7) Abs. Vol. of Cement Corrected Weight (𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙)

[Weight of cement ×[(6)No.of Bag Required per m3 of concrete]]
= (Specific gravity of cement)(Unit weight of water)
FW
= Uncorrected Weight (1 + )
= 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚3
100

(8) Abs. Vol. of Water

Water requirement
=( = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚3
Specific gravity of cement)(Unit weight of water)
 Corrected Weight of Water Table 4 | Approximate Mixing Water Ratios
= Uncorrected Weight of Water for Different Slump and Maximum Size of
− [(Corrected Weight
Aggregate
− Uncorrected Weight)𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 ]
+ [(Corrected Weight
− Uncorrected Weight)𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 ]

(17) Tabulation
Table 5 | Volume of Coarse Aggregates Per
Unit Volume of Concrete

(18) Summary

Weight of Material

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑

=
𝐴𝑏𝑠. 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS

Weight of Cement
WHAT ARE CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS?
Weight of Sand
➢ Cementitious materials include the
Weight of Gravel
many products that are mixed with
Weight of Water
either water or some other liquid or
_________________________________________
both to form a cementing paste that
Table 1 | Adjustment Table may be formed or molded while plastic
but will set into a rigid shape.
➢ When sand is added to the paste,
mortar is formed. A combination of
Table 2 coarse and fine aggregate (sand)
added to the paste forms concrete.

TYPES OF CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS

❖ CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT
Responsible for the setting or hardening
Table 3 | Compressive Strength of
of the cement. The raw materials used
Concrete for Various Water Cement Ratios
for the manufacture of cement consist
mainly of lime, silica, alumina and iron
oxide.
 building materials such as brick or stone
together.
❖ PORTLAND CEMENTS
➢ The most common of the modern
cements, is made by carefully blending
selected raw materials to produce a
finished material meeting the
requirement. Portland cement is the

❖ CALCIUM SILICATES AND ALUMINATES most common type of cement in

Constitute the most important group of general use around the world as a

modern cements. Included in this basic ingredient of concrete, mortar,

group are the portland, aluminous, and stucco, and non-specialty grout.

natural cements. ➢ The name “portland” originates from a

❖ LIMES trade name used by Joseph Aspdin in

Their principal function today is to 1824 to describe the new cement he

plasticize the otherwise harsh cements patented that year in England.

and add resilience to mortars and ❖ CONCRETE

stuccoes. Use of limes is beneficial in ➢ The most common use for portland

that their slow setting promotes healing, cement, is a complex material

the recementing of hairline cracks. consisting of Portland cement,

❖ CALCINED GYPSUM aggregates, water, and possibly

The gypsum cements are widely used in chemical and mineral admixtures.

interior plaster and for fabrication of ➢ Concrete is the most commonly used

boards and blocks. man-made material on earth. It is an

❖ OXYCHLORIDE CEMENTS CONSTITUTE important construction material used

A class of specialty cements of unusual extensively in buildings, bridges, roads

properties special uses, such as the and dams.

production of sparkproof floors, they

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT
cannot be equaled. It is called a
hydraulic cement because it will Cement refers to material which acts as a

harden even when it is under water. binding substance. In construction and civil

❖ MASONRY CEMENTS OR MORTAR engineering cement is used to bind

CEMENTS structural members for construction of

Widely used because of their buildings, pavements, bridges, tunnels,

convenience. While they are, in roads and highways etc.

general, mixtures of one of more of the

above-mentioned cements with some
admixtures. Mortar is used to hold
HOW SHOULD CEMENT BE STORED? which they obtained from Pozzuoli with
their normal lime-based concretes they
▪ Cement bags should not be stored in
obtained a far stronger material.
an enclosed area where the walls, roof
➢ The pink sand turned out to be fine
and floor are not completely
volcanic ash and they had
weatherproof.
inadvertently produced the first
▪ Cement bags must not be stored in wet
'pozzolanic' cement.
surroundings and humid conditions.
▪ Stack cement bags on wooden planks POZZOLANA
or concrete floor and do not stack the
It is any siliceous or siliceous and
against the wall.
aluminous material which possesses
▪ Cement bags should be piled close
little or no cementitious value in itself
together.
but will, if finely divided and mixed with
▪ It is better to arrange the cement bags
water, chemically react with calcium
in a header and stretcher fashion.
hydroxide to form compounds with
▪ Cement bags that were stored first
cementitious properties.
must be used first.
▪ Cement bags must not be piled up in ➢ The Romans made many

the field at work site, instead they developments in concrete technology

should be piled up on a raised platform including the use of lightweight

and covered with a sheet. Aggregates as in the roof of the

Pantheon, and embedded
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
reinforcement in the form of bronze
➢ Concrete is a compound material bars.
made from sand, gravel and cement. ➢ Although the difference in thermal
The cement is a mixture of various expansion between the two materials
minerals which when mixed with water, produced problems of spalling.
hydrate and rapidly become hard ➢ It is from the Roman words
binding the sand and gravel into a solid 'caementum' meaning a rough stone
mass. or chipping 'concretus' meaning grown
➢ The oldest known surviving concrete is together or compounded.
to be found in the former Yugoslavia
SPECIFICATIONS FOR PORTLAND CEMENTS
and was thought to have been laid in
5,600 BC using red lime as the cement. ❖ TYPE I

➢ The first major concrete users were the General-purpose cement, is the one

Egyptians in around 2,500 BC and the commonly used for many structural

Romans from 300 BC The Romans found purposes.

that by mixing a pink sand-like material

❖ TYPE II ➢ The test is out by placing 24-hour old
A modified cement for use in general neat cement pats of normal in an
concrete where a moderate exposure atmosphere of saturated steam above
to sulfate attack may be anticipated or boiling for 5 hours.
where a moderate heat of hydration is
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
required.
❖ TYPE III ➢ The specific gravity of cement is not of

Cement attains high early strength. In 7 particular because for most purposes a

days, strength of concrete made with it specific gravity of 3.15 assumed.

is practically equal to that made with ➢ However, this tests which is very easily

Type I or Type II cement at 28 days. carried detect adulteration or under

❖ TYPE IV burning of the cement.

A low-heat cement that has been

SETTING
developed for mass concrete
construction. The time of setting tests determines the time

❖ TYPE V which elapses the paste ceases to be fluid

A Portland cement intended for use and plastic (initial set) also the time

when high sulfate resistance is required. required for it to harden to a certain

degree.
CHEMICAL TESTS
FINENESS
TEST ON IGNITION
The course particles in cement are inert.
➢ The Loss on Ignition Test is a very simple
The finer the faster it will undergo hydration,
test which indicates the amount of
thus resulting in any strength and more
volatile matter including moisture in the
rapid generation or heat.
cement.
➢ The test is carried out by heating a one COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

(1) gram sample of porcelain or Compressive strength tests best judge the
platinum crucible for 15 minutes at 900 value of the cement as the condition or the
to 4’c, either in a muffle furnace or in tests are more nearly similar to the
Bunsen burner flame. conditions met by the material in sue.

PHYSICAL TESTS OTHER CEMENTIOUS MATERIALS

SOUNDNESS ❖ ALUMINOUS CEMENTS

➢ Soundness in cement implies the These are prepared by fusing a mixture

absence of those qualities tend to of aluminous and calcareous materials

destroy its strength and durability. (usually bauxite and limestone) and
 grinding the resultant product to a fine ❖ FINISHING HYDRATED LIMES
powder. Finishing hydrated limes are particularly
❖ NATURAL CEMENTS suitable for use in the finishing coat of
➢ Natural cements are formed by plaster.
calcining a naturally occurring mixture ❖ LOW-TEMPERATURE GYPSUM
of calcareous and argillaceous DERIVATIVES
substances at a temperature below When gypsum rock is heated to a
that at which sintering takes place. relatively low temperature, about
➢ Made from a naturally occurring 130_C, three-fourths of the water of
limestone. crystallization is driven off.
❖ LIMES ❖ OXYCHLORIDE CEMENTS
These are made principally of calcium Oxychloride cement, or Sorel cement.
oxide occurring naturally in limestone, It is particularly useful in making flooring
marble, chalk, coral, and shell. For compositions in which it is mixed with
building purposes, they are used chiefly colored aggregates.
in mortars. ❖ MASONRY CEMENTS
❖ QUICKLIMES Masonry cements, or—as they are
➢ When limestone is heated to a sometimes called—mortar cements,
temperature in excess of 1700_F, the are intended to be mixed with sand
carbon dioxide content is driven off and used for setting unit masonry, such
and the remaining solid product is as brick, tile, and stone.
quicklime. ❖ FLY ASHES
➢ It is a white, caustic, alkaline, crystalline ➢ Generally used as a cementitious
solid at room temperature. material as well as an admixture. This
❖ HYDRAULIC LIMES makes fly ash suitable as a prime
These are made by calcining a material in blended cement, mosaic
limestone containing silica and tiles, and hollow blocks, among other
alumina to a temperature short of building materials.
incipient fusion is a general term for ➢ When used in concrete mixes, fly ash
varieties of lime or slaked lime used to improves the strength and segregation
make lime mortar which set through of the concrete and makes it easier to
hydration. pump.
❖ MASON’S HYDRATED LIME ❖ SILICA FUME (MICROSILICA)
Hydrated limes are prepared from ➢ Silica fume, or microsilica, is a
quicklimes by addition of a limited condensed gas, the by-product of
amount of Water. metallic silicon or ferrosilicon alloys
produced by electric arc furnaces.
➢ Concrete containing silica fume can can be mixed, placed, consolidated and
have very high strength and can be finished.
very durable.
WATER REDUCTION
ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE
When the water to cement ratio of
ADMIXTURES concrete lowered, the strength of the
concrete increased in direct relationship
A material other than water, aggregates,
with the water reduction.
or cement that is used as an ingredient of
concrete or mortar to control setting and DISPERSION
early hardening, workability, or to provide
Physical separation of cement particles.
additional cementing properties.
AIR-ENTRAINMENT
WHY IS ADMIXTURE USED?
Air entrainment is the process whereby
Over decades, attempts have been made
many small air bubbles are incorporated
to obtain concrete with certain desired
into concrete and become part of the
characteristics such as high compressive
matrix that binds the aggregate together in
strength, high workability, and high
the hardened concrete.
performance and durability parameters to
meet the requirement of complexity of IMPERMEABILITY

modern structures.
An ability of concrete to resist pressurized

HEAT OF HYDRATION water penetration.

The setting and hardening of concrete are DURABILITY

accompanied by nonlinear temperature

The durability of concrete is defined as its
distributions caused by developing heat of
ability to resist weathering action, chemical
hydration. This leads to tensile stresses that
attack, abrasion, or any other process of
may exceed the strength of the young
deterioration.
concrete, and cracks occur.
TYPES OF ADMIXTURES
ACCELERATE SETTING TIME
❖ CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES
Concrete is completely fluid before the
Water soluble compounds.
cement sets, then progressively hardens.
❖ MINERAL ADMIXTURES

WORKABILITY Finely ground solid material.

❖ WATER-REDUCING ADMIXTURE OR
Workability of concrete is the property of
PLASTICIZERS:
freshly mixed concrete which determines
➢ WRA has been used primarily in hot
the ease and homogeneity with which it
weather concrete placing, pumping,
and tremie.
➢ The use of WRA will give a higher initial Electrostatic forces are developed causing
concrete compressive strength (up to disintegration and the free water become
28 days) by 10% compared to the available for workability.
control mixture. Other benefit of using
Lubrication
WRA is that higher concrete density is
achieved which makes the concrete As these agents are organic by nature, thus

less permeable and have a higher they lubricate the mix reducing the friction

durability. and increasing the workability.

These admixtures are used for following Retardation

purposes:
A thin layer is formed over the cement

▪ To achieve a higher strength by particles protecting them from hydration

decreasing the water cement ratio at and increasing the setting time. Most

the same workability as an admixture normal plasticizers give some retardation,

free mix. 30–90 minutes.

▪ To achieve the same workability by

❖ SUPER PLASTICIZERS
decreasing the cement content so as
These are more recent and more
to reduce the heat of hydration in mass
effective type of water-reducing
concrete.
admixtures also known as high range
▪ To increase the workability so as to ease
water reducer.
placing in accessible locations
▪ Water reduction more than 5% but less BENEFITS:

than 12% Increased fluidity:

▪ The commonly used admixtures are
▪ Flowing
Ligno-sulphonates and hydrocarbolic
▪ Self-leveling
acid salts.
▪ Self-compacting concrete
▪ Plasticizers are usually based on
▪ Penetration and compaction
lignosulphonate, which is a natural
round dense reinforcement
polymer, derived from wood
processing in the paper industry. Reduced Water Cement ratio:

ACTIONS INVOLVED: ▪ Very high early strength, > 200 % at

24-hours or earlier.
Dispersion
▪ Very high later age strengths, > 100
Surface active agents alter the physic Mpa or 15000 psi.
chemical forces at the interface. They are ▪ Reduced shrinkage, especially if
adsorbed on the cement particles, giving combined with reduced cement
them a negative charge, which leads to content.
repulsion between the particles.
 ▪ Improved durability by removing markedly lower the surface tension
water to reduce permeability and of water.
diffusion. ❖ ACCELERATORS
➢ Increases the rate of hydration of
COMMONLY USED SUPER PLASTICIZERS
hydraulic cement.
▪ Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde ➢ Shortens the time of set-in concrete.
condensates (SMF) ➢ Increases the rate of hardening or
1. Give 16-25%+ water reduction. strength development.
2. SMF gives little or no retardation. ➢ Calcium chloride is the most effective
3. SMF generally give a good finish accelerator and gives both set and
and are colorless, giving no staining hardening characteristics. However, is
in white concrete. limited due to acceleration of corrosion
4. Often used where appearance is of steel reinforcement and decrease
important. resistance of cement paste in a sulfate
▪ Sulphonated naphthalene environment.
formaldehyde condensates (SNF) ➢ Chloride-free accelerators are typically
1. Give 16-25%+ water reduction. based on salts of nitrate, nitrite, formate
2. They tend to increase the and thiocyanate.
entrapment of larger, unstable air
Set Accelerating Admixtures
bubbles.
3. Retardation is more than with SMF Reduce the time for the mix to change
but will still not normally exceeds 90 from the plastic to the hardened state
minutes.
Hardening Accelerators
4. Very cost-effective.
▪ Polycarboxylate ether superplasticizers Increase the strength at 24 hours by at least

(PCE) 120% at 20ºC and at 5ºC by at least 130%

1. Typically gives 20-35%+ water at 48 hours.

reduction.
❖ SET RETARDERS
2. Relatively expensive per liter but
➢ Delay or extend the setting time of
are very powerful so a lower dose
cement paste in concrete. These are
(or more dilute solution) is normally
helpful for concrete that has to be
used.
transported to long distance, and
3. Dosage levels are usually higher
helpful in placing the concrete at high
than with conventional water
temperatures.
reducers, and the possible
➢ When water is first added to cement
undesirable side effects are
there is a rapid initial hydration
reduced because they do not
reaction, after which there is little
formation of further hydrates for
 typically 2–3 hours. The exact time increase its workability and frost
depends mainly on the cement type resistance. The bubbles are mostly
and the temperature. below 1 mm diameter with a high
➢ This is called the dormant period when proportion below 0.3 mm.
the concrete is plastic and can be ➢ Those are surfactants that change the
placed. At the end of the dormant surface tension of the water.
period, the hydration rate increases ➢ This concrete is used for lining walls and
and a lot of calcium silicate hydrate roof for heat and sound insulation
and calcium hydroxide is formed purpose.
relatively quickly.
BENEFITS:
➢ This corresponds to the setting time of
the concrete. Retarding admixtures ▪ Increased resistance to freeze –

delay the end of the dormant period thaw degradation.

and the start of setting and hardening.

▪ Increased cohesion, reducing the
This is useful when used with plasticizers
tendency to bleed and segregation.
to give workability retention. Used on
their own, retarders allow later vibration ▪ Improved compaction in low-

of the concrete to prevent the workability mixes.

formation of cold joints between layers ▪ Stability of extruded concrete.

of concrete placed with a significant
➢ However, because of air entrainment
delay between them.
the strength of the concrete reduces
➢ The mechanism of set retards is based
and as such the quantity of air
on absorption. The large admixture
entrained should not exceed 5%.
anions and molecules are absorbed on
the surface of cement particles, which MINERAL ADMIXTURES IN CONCRETE
hinders further reactions between
❖ CEMENTITIOUS
cement and water i.e., retards setting.
➢ The commonly known retards are These have cementing properties
Calcium Ligno-sulphonates and themselves.

Carbohydrates derivatives used in

For example:
fraction of percent by weight of
cement. Ground granulated blast furnace slag

❖ AIR-ENTRAINED ADMIXTURE (GGBFS)

➢ An addition for hydraulic cement or an ❖ POZZOLANIC

admixture for concrete or mortar which ➢ A pozzolan is a material which, when
causes air, to be incorporated in the combined with calcium hydroxide
form of minute bubbles in the concrete (lime), exhibits cementitious properties.
or mortar during mixing. Usually, to Pozzolans are commonly used as an
 addition (the technical term is "cement ❖ GROUND GRANULATED BLAST FURNACE
extender") to Portland cement SLAG (GGBFS)
concrete mixtures to increase the long- ➢ Granular material formed when molten
term strength and other material iron blast furnace slag (a by-product of
properties of Portland cement. iron and steel making) is rapidly chilled
(quenched) by immersion in water. It is
The additive act in three ways:
a granular product, highly cementitious
1. Filler in nature and, ground to cement
2. Nucleating fineness, hydrates like Portland cement.
3. Pozzolanic ➢ GGBFS has been widely used in Europe,
➢ These additives/admixtures are finer and increasingly in the United States
than cement, so when added to and in Asia (particularly in Japan and
concrete they occupy the small pores Singapore) for its superiority in concrete
previously left vacant. durability, extending the lifespan of
➢ These fine particles accelerate the rate buildings from fifty years to a hundred
of hydration and precipitation starts. years.
➢ When cementing material reacts with
BENEFITS:
water the following reaction take
place: DURABILITY

C2S + H CSH + CH ➢ GGBFS cement is routinely specified in

concrete to provide protection against
C3S + H CSH + CH
both sulphate attack and chloride
➢ CSH is responsible for strength while CH attack
is a soluble material reacts and ➢ GGBFS is also routinely used to limit the
dissolves in water leaving behind pores. temperature rise in large concrete
So, when admixture is added. pours. The more gradual hydration of
GGBFS cement generates both lower
SiO3 or Al2O3 + CH CSH
peak and less total overall heat than
➢ Thus, it reduces the amount of CH & Portland cement.
increase CSH.
APPEARANCE
Conditions to Declare a Material Pozzolan:
In contrast to the stony grey of concrete
▪ Having silica + Alumina oxide+ ferrous made with Portland cement, the near-
oxide more than 70%. white color of GGBFS cement permits
▪ Surface area on normal admixture is architects to achieve a lighter colour for
more than 300m2/kg. exposed fair-faced concrete finishes, at no
▪ Surface area should be more than extra cost.
cement used.
STRENGTH water in order to react and produce
cementitious compounds.
Concrete containing GGBFS cement has a
higher ultimate strength than concrete CLASS C FLY ASH:
made with Portland cement. It has a higher
➢ Fly ash produced from the burning of
proportion of the strength-enhancing
younger lignite or sub-bituminous coal,
calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) than
in addition to having pozzolanic
concrete made with Portland cement only,
properties, also has some self-
and a reduced content of free lime, which
cementing properties.
does not contribute to concrete strength.
➢ In the presence of water, Class C fly ash
Concrete made with GGBFS continues to
hardens and gets stronger over time.
gain strength over time, and has been
➢ Class C fly ash generally contains more
shown to double its 28-day strength over
than 20% lime (CaO).
periods of 10 to 12 years.
➢ Unlike Class F, self-cementing Class C fly
❖ FLY ASH ash does not require an activator.
➢ The finely divided residue resulting from ➢ Alkali and sulfate (SO4) contents are
the combustion of ground or generally higher in class C fly ashes.
powdered coal. ❖ SILICA FUME
➢ Fly ash includes substantial amounts of ➢ By-product of semiconductor industry.
silicon dioxide (SiO2) (both amorphous ➢ The terms condensed silica fume,
and crystalline) and calcium oxide microsilica, silica fume and volatilized
(CaO). silica are often used to describe the by-
➢ Toxic constituents include arsenic, products extracted from the exhaust
beryllium, boron, cadmium, chronium, gases of silicon, ferrosilicon and other
cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, metal alloy furnaces.
molybdenum, selenium, strontium, ➢ However, the terms microsilica and
thallium, and vanadium. silica fume are used to describe those
condensed silica fumes that are of high
CLASS F FLY ASH:
quality, for use in the cement and
➢ The burning of harder, older anthracite concrete industry.
and bituminous coal typically produces ➢ Silica fume was first ‘obtained’ in
CLASS F FLY ASH. Norway, in 1947, when environmental
➢ This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and restraints made the filtering of the
contains less than 10% lime (CaO). exhaust gases from the furnace’s
➢ The glassy silica and alumina of Class F compulsory.
fly ash requires a cementing agent, ➢ Silica Fume consists of very fine particles
such as Portland cement, quicklime, or with a surface area ranging from 60,000
hydrated lime, with the presence of to 150,000 ft2/lb or 13,000 to 30,000
 m2/kg, with particles approximately 100 PROPORTIONATING AND MIXING
times smaller than the average cement CONCRETE
particle.
➢ A concrete mix is designed to produce
➢ Because of its extreme fineness and
concrete that can be easily placed at
high silica content, Silica Fume is a
the lowest cost.
highly effective pozzolanic material.
➢ The concrete must be workable and
Silica Fume is used in concrete to
cohesive when plastic, then set and
improve its properties. It has been
harden to give strong and durable
found that Silica Fume improves
concrete.
compressive strength, bond strength,
➢ The mix design must consider the
and abrasion resistance; reduces
environment that the concrete will be
permeability of concrete to chloride
in; ie exposure to sea water, trucks,
ions; and therefore, helps in protecting
cars, forklifts, foot traffic or extremes of
reinforcing steel from corrosion,
hot and cold.
especially in chloride-rich environments
➢ The proportions of each material in the
such as coastal regions.
mixture affects the properties of the
❖ RICE HUSH ASH
final hardened concrete. These
➢ A bio waste from the husk left from the
proportions are best measured by
grains of rice.
weight. Measurement by volume is not
➢ It is used as a pozzolanic material in
as accurate, but is suitable for minor
cement to increase durability and
projects.
strength.
➢ Silica is grinded to fine powder which is FACTORS AFFECTING CONCRET MIXTURE

used as pozzolana.
❖ CEMENT CONTENT

CONCRETE
As the cement content increases, so does

WHAT IS CONCRETE? strength and durability. Therefore, to

increase the strength, increase the cement
Is made by mixing cement, water, course &
content of a mix.
fine aggregates, and admixtures (if
necessary). The aim is to mix these materials ❖ WATER CONTENT

in measured amounts to make concrete

Adding more water to a mix gives a weaker
that is easy to transport, place, compact,
hardened concrete. Always use as little
and finish which will then set and harden to
water as possible, only enough to make the
give a strong and durable product. The
mix workable.
amount of each material (i.e., cement,
water, and aggregates) affects the
properties of hardened concrete.
❖ WATER TO CEMENT RATIO government and private developers
are looking into lifecycle costs rather
As the Water to Cement Ratio increases,
than first cost of construction. Durability
the strength and durability of hardened
of concrete depends on many factors
concrete decreases. To increase the
including its physical and chemical
strength and durability of concrete,
properties, the service environment
decrease the Water-Cement ratio.
and design life. As such, durability is not
❖ AGGREGATES a fundamental property.

Too much fine aggregate gives a sticky TWO GROUPS OF CONCRETE PROPERTIES
mix. Too much coarse aggregate gives a
❖ FRESH CONCRETE
harsh or boney mix.
➢ The stage of concrete in which
❖ MIXING concrete can be moulded and it is in
plastic state.
Concrete must be mixed so the Cement,
➢ This is also called "Green Concrete".
Water, Aggregates and Admixtures blend
Another term used to describe the
into an even mix. Concrete is normally
state of fresh concrete inconsistence,
mixed by machine.
which is the ease with which concrete
CONCRETE IN PRACTICE will flow.

➢ Concrete is a composite with ❖ HARDENED CONCRETE

properties that change with time. The stage of concrete where the mixture
During service, the quality of concrete has cured and attains maximum strength.
provided by initial curing can be
FRESH CONCRETE
improved by subsequent wetting as in
the cases of foundations or water PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE
retaining structures. However, concrete
❖ SETTING
can also deteriorate with time due to
➢ The hardening of concrete before its
physical and chemical attacks.
hydration or the transition process of
➢ Structures are often removed when
changing of concrete from plastic
they become unsafe or uneconomical.
state to hardened state.
Lack of durability has become a major
➢ Setting of concrete is based or related
concern in construction for the past 20
to the setting of cement paste. Thus,
to 30 years. In some developed
cement properties greatly affect the
countries, it is not uncommon to find
setting time.
large number of resources, such as 30
❖ WORKABILITY
to 50% of total infrastructure budget are
➢ Referred to as the ease with which a
applied to repair and maintenance of
concrete can be transported, placed
existing structures. As a result, many
 and consolidated without excessive ➢ If the hydration is to continue, extra
bleeding or segregation. water must be added to refill the loss of
➢ The internal work done required to water on account of absorption and
overcome the frictional forces evaporation.
between concrete ingredients for full ❖ AIR ENTRAINMENT
compaction. ➢ Air entrainment reduces the density of
➢ The strength of concrete is adversely concrete and consequently reduces
and significantly affected by the the strength.
presence of voids in the compacted ➢ Air entrainment is used to produce a
mass, it is vital to achieve a maximum number of effects in both the plastic
possible density, 5% of voids can lower and the hardened concrete.
the strength by as much as 30%.
HARDENED CONCRETE PROPERTIES
❖ BLEEDING
➢ Bleeding is predominantly observed in FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF

a highly wet mix, badly proportioned CONCRETE

and insufficiently mixed concrete.

❖ WATER-CEMENT RATIO
➢ Due to bleeding, water comes up and
accumulates at the surface. It is water cement ratio that basically

Sometimes, along with this water, governs the property of strength. Lesser the

certain quantity of cement also comes water cement ratio, greater will be

to the surface. When the surface is strength.

worked up with the trowel, the ❖ TYPE OF CEMENTING MATERIAL

aggregate goes down and the
Type of cement affect the hydration
cement and water come up to the top
process and therefore strength of
surface. This formation of cement paste
concrete.
at the surface is known as “Laitance”.
❖ SEGREGATION ❖ AMOUNT OF CEMENTING MATERIAL
➢ Defined as the separation of the
It is the paste that holds or binds all the
constituent materials of concrete.
ingredients. Thus, greater amount of
➢ A good concrete is one in which all the
cementing material greater will be
ingredients are properly distributed to
strength.
make a homogeneous mixture.
❖ HYDRATION ❖ TYPE OF AGGREGATE

➢ Concrete derives its strength by the

Rough and angular aggregates is
hydration of cement particles. The
preferable as they provide greater
hydration of cement is not a
bonding.
momentary action but a process
continuing for long time. ❖ AIR CONTENT
❖ ADMIXTURES ❖ CONCRETE CREEP
➢ Deformation of structure under
Chemical admixtures like plasticizers
sustained load. Basically, long term
reduce the water cement ratio and
pressure or stress on concrete can
increase the strength of concrete at same
make it change shape.
water cement ratio. Mineral admixtures
➢ This deformation usually occurs in the
affect the strength at later stage and
direction the force is being applied.
increase the strength by increasing the
Like a concrete column getting more
amount of cementing material.
compressed, or a beam bending.
PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE ➢ Creep does not necessarily cause
concrete to fail or break apart.
❖ STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
➢ Creep is factored in when concrete
The strength of concrete is basically structures are designed.
referred to compressive strength and it
FACTORS AFFECTING CREEP
depends upon three factors.

▪ AGGREGATE
▪ Paste Strength

Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is

It is mainly due to the binding properties of
really the paste which is responsible for the
cement that the ingredients are
creep. However, the aggregate influences
compacted together. If the paste has
the creep of concrete through a restraining
higher binding strength, higher will be
effect on the magnitude of creep.
strength of concrete.

▪ MIX PROPORTIONS
▪ Interfacial Bonding

The amount of paste content and its quality

Interfacial bonding is very necessary
is one of the most important factors
regarding the strength. Clay hampers the
influencing creep. A poorer paste structure
bonding between paste and aggregate.
undergoes higher creep.
The aggregate should be washed for a
better bonding between paste and ▪ AGE OF CONCRETE
aggregate.
Age at which a concrete member is
▪ Aggregate Strength loaded will have a predominant effect on
the magnitude of creep. This can be easily
It is mainly the aggregate that provide
understood from the fact that the quality of
strength to concrete especially coarse
gel improves with time.
aggregates which act just like bones in the
body. Rough and angular aggregate ❖ SHRINKAGE
provides better bonding and high strength.
The term shrinkage is loosely used to
describe the various aspects of volume
changes in concrete due to loss of moisture ▪ CARBONATION SHRINKAGE
at different stages due to different reasons. ➢ Carbonation shrinkage is probably
caused by the dissolution of crystals of
TYPES OF SHRINKAGE IN CONCRETE
calcium hydroxide and deposition of
▪ PLASTIC SHRINKAGE calcium carbonate in its place. As the
new product is less in volume than the
Shrinkage of this type manifests itself soon
product replaced, shrinkage takes
after the concrete is placed in the forms
place.
while the concrete is still in the plastic state.
➢ Carbonation of concrete also results in
Loss of water by evaporation from the
increased strength and reduced
surface of concrete or by the absorption by
permeability, possibly because water
aggregate or subgrade, is believed to be
released by carbonation promotes the
the reasons of plastic shrinkage.
process of hydration and also calcium
▪ DRYING SHRINKAGE carbonate reduces the voids within the
➢ The drying shrinkage of concrete is cement paste.
analogous to the mechanism of drying ➢ As the magnitude of carbonation
of timber specimen. The loss of free shrinkage is very small when compared
water contained in hardened to long-term drying shrinkage, this
concrete, does not result in any aspect is not of much significance.
appreciable dimension change.
FACTORS AFFECTING SHRINKAGE
➢ It is the loss of water held in gel pores
that causes the change in the volume. ▪ Drying Condition or The Relative
Under drying conditions, the gel water Humidity of The Atmosphere
is lost progressively over a long time, as ▪ Hardness Of Aggregate and The
long as the concrete is kept in drying Modulus of Elasticity
conditions. ▪ Moisture Movement
➢ Cement paste shrinks more than mortar ❖ MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
and mortar shrinks more than concrete.
Is a quantity that measures an object or
Concrete made with smaller size
substance’s resistance to being deformed
aggregate shrinks more than concrete
elastically when a stress is applied to it.
made with bigger size aggregate.
▪ AUTOGENEOUS SHRINKAGE ❖ WATER TIGHTNESS (IMPERMEABILITY)

Autogeneous shrinkage is of minor Substances such as liquids or gases, cannot

importance and is not applicable in pass.
practice to many situations except that of
❖ RATE OF STRENGTH GAIN OF CONCRETE
mass of concrete in the interior of a
concrete dam. To determine the rate of gain of strength of
concrete, there is a need to select period
shorter than 28 days, as 28 days is affect the rate of strength gain and the
considered to be the reference time. In final strength achieved.
concrete practice, it is accepted that after
PLANNING AND SITE PREPARATION FOR
28 days concrete usually gains most of its
CONCRETE
strength. Strength determined at an early
stage say after 7th day of placing of ❖ CONCRETE PLANNING

concrete can be compared to strength

The most important step in placing
determined after 28 days, which is
concrete is planning. Proper concrete
considered to be the reference time. In this
planning also eliminates problems of Delay,
way, rate of gain of strength of concrete
Segregation and Wastage.
can be determined.
❖ FORMWORK
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF STRENGTH
GAIN OF CONCRETE Formwork gives concrete its shape,
formwork must be properly braced so it is
❖ CONCRETE POROSITY
strong. It should not flex or move.

Voids in concrete can be filled with air or

❖ SERVICES
with water. Broadly speaking, the more
porous the concrete, the weaker it will be. Plumbing, heating or electrical services
often run through a slab. These must be in
❖ WATER-CEMENT RATIO
place before any concrete is poured.

This is defined as the mass of water divided

❖ UNDERLAY AND SERVICES
by the mass of cement in a mix.
The underlay, or vapour barrier, is a heavy
❖ SOUNDNESS OF AGGREGATE
plastic covering the ground to minimize

If the aggregate in concrete is weak, the water vapour rising through the hardened

concrete will also be weak. concrete. Always overlap the sheets a

minimum of 200 mm and do not tape them.
❖ AGGREGATE PASTE BOND
Tape the edges of underlay only around
The compactness of the bond between drainage pipes or services which pass
the paste and the aggregate is critical. If vertically through the concrete slab.
there is no bond, the aggregate effectively
❖ REINFORCEMENT LOCATION
represents a void & voids are a source of
weakness in concrete. Reinforcement can be used to increase
the strength of concrete and/or to help
❖ CEMENT-RELATED PARAMETERS
control cracking.
Many parameters relating to the
composition of the cement constituents
and their proportions in the cement can
❖ ACCESS ➢ Concrete cannot finish too high against
steps or the external house wall and
Clear access must be provided to transport
should not cover any part of
the concrete. If concrete is to be delivered
weepholes in the wall.
by trucks make sure they have unrestricted
❖ STEPS (STAIRS)
access to the site in all weather conditions.
Placement ensure all planning and site Steps must have even risers.
preparation takes into account how
❖ EXCAVATION
concrete will be placed allowing room for
trucks, ramps for wheelbarrows, space for a The ground should be excavated as deep

pump etc. as is required by the finishing levels. Any

roots or grass must be dug out until there is
❖ JOINTS
firm soil to place on. Always dig the hole
The position, type and number of joints wider than needed to allow for the
should be planned well before the formwork. Try to keep the edges and
concrete is placed. corners square.

❖ WASTAGE ❖ SUBGRADE

Good planning and site preparation The soil a concrete pavement or floor rests
reduces wastage. Reducing wastage can on is called the subgrade.
cut costs, since up to 15% of concrete can
TYPES OF CONCRETE
be lost this way.
❖ NORMAL CONCRETE
STEPS SHOULD BE TAKEN BEFORE ANY
➢ The concrete in which common
CONCRETE IS PLACED
ingredients i.e., aggregate, water,
❖ SAFETY cement is used is known as normal
concrete. It is also called normal weight
Workers on the site should always wear their
concrete or normal strength concrete.
PPE.
➢ It has a setting time of 30 - 90 minutes
❖ MEASUREMENT depending upon moisture in
atmosphere, fineness of cement etc.
Measure and stake out the area to be
➢ The development of the strength starts
concreted and consider how thick the slab
after 7 days the common strength
must be.
values is 10 MPa (1450 psi) to 40 MPa
❖ THE FINISHING LEVEL (5800 psi). At about 28 days 75 - 80% of
➢ Once the thickness of concrete has the total strength is attained.
been established, work out where the ➢ Almost at 90 days 95% of the strength is
concrete will finish. achieved.
PROPERTIES OF NORMAL CONCRETE concrete and cause failure to start in
the aggregate.
▪ Its slump varies from 1 - 4 inches.
❖ HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE
▪ Density ranges from 140 pcf to 175 pcf.
▪ It is strong in compression and weak in This mix has the following main properties:
tension.
▪ High strength.
▪ Air content 1 - 2 %.
▪ High workability.
▪ Normal concrete is not durable against
▪ High durability.
severe conditions e.g., freezing and
▪ Ease of placement.
thawing.
▪ Compaction without segregation.
❖ HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
▪ Early age strength.
➢ Compressive strength of high strength
▪ Long-term mechanical properties.
concrete mix is usually greater than
▪ Permeability.
6,000 pounds per square inch.
▪ Density.
➢ High strength concrete is made by
▪ Heat of hydration.
lowering the water cement (W/C) ratio
▪ Toughness.
to 0.35 or lower.
▪ Volume stability.
➢ Often silica fume is added to prevent
▪ Long life in severe environments.
the formation of free calcium
hydroxide crystals in the cement, which PROPERTIES OF HIGH-PERFORMANCE

might reduce the strength at the CONCRETE MIX

cement aggregate bond.

▪ Strength of high-performance
➢ Low w/c ratios and the use of silica
concrete ranges from 10000 psi - 15000
fume make concrete mixes significantly
psi.
less workable, which is particularly likely
▪ Water cement ratio can be reduced to
to be a problem in high-strength
0.25.
concrete applications where dense
❖ AIR ENTRAINED CONCRETE
rebar cages are likely to be used. To
➢ One of the greatest achievements in
compensate for the reduced
field of concrete technology is
workability in the high strength
development of air entrained
concrete mix, superplasticizers are
concrete. It is used where the concrete
commonly added to high-strength
is vulnerable to freezing and thawing
mixtures.
action.
➢ Aggregate must be selected carefully
➢ It is used where the concrete is
for high strength mixes, as weaker
vulnerable to freezing and thawing
aggregates may not be strong enough
action. It is prepared by adding the air
to resist the loads imposed on the
entraining admixture.
THE AIR ENTRAINMENT IN CONCRETE DOES ❖ SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
THE FOLLOWING FUNCTIONS:
This self-consolidating concrete is
▪ It lowers the surface tension of water characterized by:
and thus bubbles are created.
▪ Extreme fluidity as measured by flow,
▪ The air entraining agents prevents
typically between 650-750 mm on a
coalescing i.e., the combining of
flow table, rather than slump (height).
bubbles. The diameter of these
▪ No need for vibrators to compact the
bubbles’ ranges from 10 micrometer to
concrete.
1000 micrometer and in entrapped air
▪ Placement being easier.
the diameter of bubble is greater than
▪ No bleed water, or aggregate
1mm.
segregation.
DRAWBACK OF AIR ENTRAINED CONCRETE
USES AND APPLICATIONS OF SELF-
It has low strength as compare to normal COMPACTING CONCRETE
concrete.
▪ It is used in location unreachable for
❖ LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE vibrations. e.g., underground structure,
➢ The concrete which has substantially deep wells or at bottom of deep sea.
lower mass per unit volume then the ▪ SCC can save up to 50% in labor costs
concrete made of ordinary ingredients due to 80% faster pouring and reduced
is called lightweight concrete. The wear and tear on formwork.
aggregates used are lighter in weight. ❖ SHOTCRETE
➢ Density of light weight concrete is 240 ➢ Shotcrete concrete uses compressed
kg/m3 (15pcf) -1850 kg/m3 (115 pcf). air to shoot concrete onto (or into) a
➢ Strength of light weight concrete frame or structure.
blocks varies from 7 MPa (1000 psi) - 40 ➢ Shotcrete is mortar or (usually)
MPa (5800 psi). concrete conveyed through a hose
➢ Sometimes Air Entrained Admixtures and pneumatically projected at
are also added to it giving resistance to through a shotcrete nozzle with high
freezing and thawing along with velocity onto a surface. Shotcrete
strength. undergoes placement and
compaction at the same time due to
USES OF LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE
the force with which it is projected from
Used where extra load is not applied e.g., the nozzle.
parapet wall, road lining etc. or to reduce ➢ It can be impacted onto any type or
dead load. shape of surface, including vertical or
overhead areas.
➢ Shotcrete is frequently used against landscaping should be designed to
vertical soil or rock surfaces, as it prevent flow of materials onto
eliminates the need for formwork. pavement surfaces. Soil, rock, leaves,
➢ It is sometimes used for rock support, and other debris may infiltrate the voids
especially in tunneling. and hinder the flow of water,
➢ Shotcrete is also used for applications decreasing the utility of the pervious
where seepage is an issue to limit the concrete pavement.
amount of water entering a ❖ ROLLER COMPACTED CONCRETE
construction site due to a high-water ➢ Roller compacted concrete,
table or other subterranean sources. sometimes called rollcrete, is a low-
➢ This type of concrete is often used as a cement-content stiff concrete placed
quick fix for weathering for loose soil using techniques borrowed from
types in construction zones. earthmoving and paving work.
❖ PERVIOUS CONCRETE ➢ The concrete is placed on the surface
➢ Pervious concrete contains a network to be covered, and is compacted in
of holes or voids, to allow air or water to place using large heavy rollers typically
move through the concrete. This allows used in earthwork.
water to drain naturally through it, and ➢ The concrete mix achieves a high
can both remove the normal surface density and cures over time into a
water drainage infrastructure, and strong monolithic block.
allow replenishment of groundwater ➢ Roller compacted concrete is typically
when conventional concrete does not. used for concrete pavement. Roller
➢ It is formed by leaving out some or the compacted concrete dams can also
entire fine aggregate (fines), the be built, as the low cement content
remaining large aggregate then is causes less heat to be generated while
bound by a relatively small amount of curing than typical for conventionally
Portland cement. placed massive concrete pours.
➢ When set, typically between 15% and
TESTS ON CONCRETE
25% of the concrete volumes are voids,
allowing water to drain. ❖ CONCRETE SLUMP TEST

➢ The majority of pervious concrete

This test is performed to check the
pavements function well with little or no
consistency of freshly made concrete. The
maintenance. Maintenance of
slump test is done to make sure a concrete
pervious concrete pavement consists
mix is workable. The measured slump must
primarily of prevention of clogging of
be within a set range, or tolerance, from
the void structure.
the target slump.
➢ In preparing the site prior to
construction, drainage of surrounding
EQUIPMENT USED FOR SLUMP TEST 7. Turn the cone upside down and place
the rod across the up-turned cone.
▪ Standard slump cone (100 mm top
8. Take several measurements and report
diameter x 200 mm bottom diameter x
the average distance to the top of the
300 mm high)
sample. If the sample fails by being
▪ Small scoop
outside the tolerance (ie the slump is
▪ Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm long x 16 mm
too high or too low), another must be
diameter)
taken. If this also fails the remainder of
▪ Rule
the batch should be rejected.
▪ Slump plate (500 mm x 500 mm)
❖ COMPRESSION TEST
PROCEDURE OF SLUMP TEST FOR CONCRETE
The compression test shows the
1. Clean the cone. Dampen with water compressive strength of hardened
and place on the slump plate. The concrete. The compression test shows the
slump plate should be clean, firm, level best possible strength concrete can reach
and non-absorbent. Collect a sample in perfect conditions. The compression test
of concrete to perform the slum test. measures concrete strength in the
2. Stand firmly on the footpieces and fill hardened state. Testing should always be
1/3 the volume of the cone with the done carefully. Wrong test results can be
sample. Compact the concrete by costly.
'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to
EQUIPMENT USED FOR COMPRESSION TEST
push a steel rod in and out of the
concrete to compact it into the ▪ Cylinders
cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a ▪ Small scoop
definite pattern, working from outside ▪ Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm x 16 mm)
into the middle. ▪ Steel float
3. Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, ▪ Steel plate
just into the top of the first layer.
PROCEDURE OF SLUMP TEST FOR CONCRETE
4. Fill to overflowing, rodding again this
time just into the top of the second 1. Clean the cylinder mould and coat the

layer. Top up the cone till it overflows. inside lightly with form oil, then place on

5. Level off the surface with the steel rod a clean, level and firm surface, ie the

using a rolling action. Clean any steel plate. Collect a sample.

concrete from around the base and 2. Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with

top of the cone, push down on the concrete then compact by rodding 25

handles and step off the footpieces. times. Cylinders may also be

6. Carefully lift the cone straight up compacted by vibrating using a

making sure not to move the sample. vibrating table.

3. Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 ▪ Suitable for use in pressure vessels, liquid
times into the top of the first layer, then retaining structures.
top up the mould till overflowing. ▪ Improved performance (resilience)
4. Level off the top with the steel float and under dynamic and fatigue loading.
clean any concrete from around the ❖ HIGH SPAN TO DEPHT RATIO
mould. ▪ Larger spans possible with prestressing
5. Cap, clearly tag the cylinder and put it (bridges, buildings with large column-
in a cool dry place to set for at least 24 free spaces)
hours. ▪ Typical values of span-to-depth ratios in
6. After the mould is removed, the slabs are given below.
cylinder is sent to the laboratory where
For the same span, less depth compared to
it is cured and crushed to test
RC member:
compressive strength.
▪ Reduction in self weight
ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
▪ More esthetic appeal due to slender
❖ PRESTRESSED CONCRETE sections
▪ More economical sections.
The prestressing of concrete has several
❖ SUITABLE FOR PRECAST CONSTRUCTION
advantages as compared to traditional
▪ Rapid construction
reinforced concrete (RC) without
▪ Better quality control
prestressing. A fully prestressed concrete
▪ Reduced maintenance
member is usually subjected to
▪ Suitable for repetitive construction
compression during service life. This rectifies
▪ Multiple use of formwork
several deficiencies of concrete. The
▪ Reduction of formwork
following text broadly mentions the
▪ Availability of standard shapes
advantages of a pre-stressed concrete
member with an equivalent RC member. LIMITATIONS OF PRESTRESSING
For each effect, the benefits are listed.
▪ Prestressing needs skilled technology.
❖ SECTION REMAINS UN-CRACKED UNDER Hence, it is not as common as
SERVICE LOADS reinforced concrete.
▪ Reduction of steel corrosion ▪ The use of high strength materials is
▪ Increase in durability costly.
▪ Full section is utilized ▪ There is additional cost in auxiliary
▪ Higher moment of inertia (higher equipment.
stiffness) ▪ There is need for quality control and
▪ Less deformations (improved inspection.
serviceability).
▪ Increase in shear capacity
 MORTARS AND CONCRETE MASONRY ❖ FINISHING MORTAR

MORTARS Used for pointing and plastering works.

These are used for bedding unit masonry, TYPES OF MORTARS | BASED ON BINDING
for plasters and stuccoes, and with the MATERIAL
addition of coarse aggregate, for
❖ CEMENT MORTAR
concrete.
Used as a binding material in this type of
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CEMENT, CONCRETE,
mortar and sand is employed as
AND MORTARS
aggregate.
❖ CEMENT
❖ LIME MORTAR
➢ Binding element in both concrete and
mortar. In this case, lime is used as binding material.

➢ Made of limestone, clay, shells, and

Can be fat lime or hydraulic lime.
silica sand.
➢ Sets and hardens when combined ❖ GYPSUM MORTAR

with water. Consists of plaster and soft sand as binding

❖ CONCRETE material and fine aggregate.
➢ Made of cement, sand, and gravel.
❖ GAUGED MORTAR
➢ Used for building, foundations, slabs,
patios, and masonry. In gauge mortar, combination of lime and
➢ Most flexible, forming into a mold and cement is employed as a binder material,
rock hard. and sand is used as fine aggregate.
❖ MORTAR
❖ SURKHI MORTAR
➢ Made of cement and sand.
➢ Used as the glue to hold bricks, blocks, Lime is used as binder material and surkhi is
etc. together. employed as fine aggregate.
➢ Various types available for specific
❖ AERATED CEMENT MORTAR
applications.
It is cement mortar to which air entraining
TYPES OF MORTARS | BASED ON
agent is added to increase plasticity and
APPLICATION
workability.

❖ BRICKLAYING OR STONE LAYING

❖ MUD MORTAR
MORTAR
Mud is used as binding material and saw
Used to bind bricks and stones in masonry
dust; rice husk or cow-dung is used as fine
construction.
aggregate.
TYPES OF MORTARS | BASED ON BULK ❖ PACKING MORTAR
DENSITY
The constituents of packing mortars are
❖ HEAVY MORTAR generally cement-sand, cement-loam or
sometimes cement-sand-loam.
Mortar having bulk density of 15 kN/m3 or
more. ❖ SOUND ABSORBING MORTAR

❖ LIGHTWEIGHT MORTAR Cement, lime, gypsum, or slag used as

binding materials and pumice, cinders as
Bulk density is less than 15 kN/m3.
fine aggregate.
Prepared by mixing lime or cement as
❖ X-RAY SHIELDING MORTAR
binder, sand. And saw dust, rice husk, jute
fibers, coirs, or asbestos fibers. To provide protection against ill effects of
X-rays, the X-ray room walls and ceilings are
TYPES OF MORTARS | BASED ON STRENGTH
plastered by X-ray shielding mortar. This is a
(ASTM C 270)
heavy type mortar with bulk density around
❖ TYPE M MORTAR 22 kN/m3.

Highest strength mortar minimum of 17.2 ❖ CHEMICAL RESISTANT MORTAR

MPa (2500 psi).
Generally used where there is a chance of
❖ TYPE S MORTAR chemical attack on the structure.

Medium strength mortar minimum of 12.4 PACKAGING OF MORTARS

MPa (1800 psi) with high bonding ability.
Mortars are usually proportioned by
❖ TYPE N MORTAR volume. A common specification is that not
more than 3 ft3 of sand be used with 1 ft3 of
Medium strength with minimum of 5.2 MPa
cementitious material.
(750 psi) and most common type of mortar.

HOW TO MAKE A MORTAR FOR MASONRY

❖ TYPE O MORTAR

JOINT PROFILES
Low strength mortar with minimum of 2.5
MPa (350 psi). ❖ CONCAVE JOINT

TYPES OF MORTARS | BASED ON SPECIAL Concave tooling of the mortar joint

PURPOSE OF MORTARS compacts the mortar properly against the
units.
❖ FIRE RESISTANT MORTAR

❖ WEATHERED JOINT
Prepared by mixing aluminous cement to
the fine powder of fire bricks. Although less effective than the concave
tooled joint, the weathered or weather
joint can be acceptable as a water- begin to suck moisture from mortar as soon
resistant mortar joint as it is somewhat as these come in contact with mortar.
compacted and sheds the rain.
❖ VOLUME CHANGE
❖ FLUSH JOINT
Normal volume change (as distinguished
The troweling of a flush joint forms an from unsoundness) may be considered as
uncompacted joint with a possible hairline the shrinkage during early hardening,
crack where the mortar is pulled away from shrinkage on drying, expansion on wetting,
the unit. and changes due to temperature.

❖ RAKED JOINT ❖ COEFFICIENTS OF THERMAL EXPANSION

May or may not be compacted and it Composition of the cementitious material

provides a ledge where rain water will apparently has little effect on the
settle and possibly enter the wall. coefficient of thermal expansion of a
mortar.
PROPERTIES OF MORTAR
HIGH-BOND MORTARS
❖ WORKABILITY
When polymeric materials, such as styrene-
Used in conjunction with unit masonry of
butadiene and polyvinylidence chloride,
high absorption.
are added to mortar, greatly increased
❖ STRENGTH OF MORTAR bonding, compressive, and shear strengths
result.
Mortar is said to be good in strength only
after its hardening. CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT

❖ MOBILITY ▪ Concrete Brick

▪ Concrete Block or Tiles
Consistency of a mortar is indicated by the
▪ Concrete Floor and Roof Slabs
term mobility.
▪ Precast Wall Panels
❖ PLACEABILITY ▪ Precast Beams

Ease with which the mortar mix can be ▪ Cast Stones

applied with a minimum cost in a thin and SIZES OF CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS
uniform layer on the surface.
ACTUAL DIMENSIONS
❖ WATER RETENTION
Height: 7 5/8”; Length: 15 5/8”; Base: 7 5/8”
Most of the masonry units have normally
NOMINAL DIMENSIONS
appreciable suction, depending on their
porosity and moisture content and they Height: 8”; Length: 16”; Base: 8”
4” CMU REQUIREMENT FOR STRENGTH AND
ABSORPTION OF CONCRETE BRICK AND
ACTUAL SIZE NOMINAL SIZE
BLOCK ESTABLISH BY ASTM
D X H X L (INCHES) D X H X L (INCHES)
3 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 4x8x8 TYPE I GRADES N-I AND S-I
3 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 4 x 8 x 16
Moisture Controlled

TYPE II GRADES N-II AND S-II

6” CMU
Non-Moisture Controlled
ACTUAL SIZE NOMINAL SIZE
D X H X L (INCHES) D X H X L (INCHES) DISADVANTAGES IN CURING METHOD

5 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 6x8x8 ▪ Using high pressure steam, shrinkage

5 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 6 x 8 x 16 may be as small as 1/4 to 3/8 in per 100
ft.
▪ About one half as great as those
8” CMU
obtained with normal atmospheric
ACTUAL SIZE NOMINAL SIZE pressure.
D X H X L (INCHES) D X H X L (INCHES) ▪ Expansion from 1/4 to ½ in per 100 ft
7 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 8x8x8 after saturation of dried specimen.
7 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 8 x 8 x 16
BURNED-CLAY UNITS

▪ Use of burned-clay structural units

10” CMU
dates from prehistoric times. Hence,
ACTUAL SIZE NOMINAL SIZE durability of well-burned units has been
D X H X L (INCHES) D X H X L (INCHES) adequately established through
9 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 10 x 8 x 8 centuries of exposure in all types of
9 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 10 x 8 x 16 climates.
▪ Properties of burned-clay units vary with
the type of clay or shale used as raw
12” CMU
material, method of fabrication of the
ACTUAL SIZE NOMINAL SIZE units, and temperature of burning.
D X H X L (INCHES) D X H X L (INCHES)
11 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 12 x 8 x 8
11 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 12 x 8 x 16
 WOOD AND TIMBER ❖ EXOGENOUS

TIMBER DECAY Trees which grow outward from the center

in approximate concentric rings across the
Deterioration occurs mainly due to:
longitudinal section of the stem.
▪ Decay or Rot
Extensively used in engineering works.
▪ Insects. Marine borers
▪ Fire CONIFER

TIMBER Evergreen tree yielding softwood trees

with pointed leaves.
➢ Wood suitable for building or other
engineering works is called “timber”. Ex. Pine, chirr
➢ Not properly subjected to intermittent
DECIDUOUS
wetting decays.
➢ It has a less than 25% of moisture or Trees with broad leaves yielding

fully submerged in water. hardwood shed their leaves in winter.

➢ Major disadvantage: ease with which

Ex. Sal, and Sheesham
it burns as compared with structural
materials. METHODS OF SAWING TIMBER

CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER ❖ ORDINARY SAWN OR FLAT SAWN

❖ STANDING TIMBER Parallel cuts made throughout the length

of the log cutting parallel slices of planks
when it forms a part of a living tree
easiest and economical method shrinkage

❖ ROUGH TIMBER of sapwood more than the heartwood

causing warp and twisting of planks.
when the tree has fallen
❖ QUARTER SAWING
❖ CONVERTED TIMBER
Tendency to curve in a transverse direction
when it has been sawn to various market
when applied to wood, not having distinct
forms such as beams, battens, and planks
medullar rays.
CLASSIFICATION OF TREES
❖ RIFT OR RADIAL SAWING QUARTER
❖ ENDOGENOUS
Timber cut parallel to medullar rays and
Trees which grow inward in a longitudinal perpendicular to annual rings either with
fibrous mass. least shrinkage but most wasted or limited
rift is adopted.
Ex. canes, bamboos, and palms
❖ TANGENTIAL SAWING ➢ Wood also shrinks as it dries, or swells as
it picks up moisture, with concomitant
Boards or planks sawn tangentially to
warpage potential.
annual rings not suitable for flooring planks
❖ THERMAL PROPERTIES / TEMPERATURE
cut by this method warp too much.
EFFECTS
PROPERTIES OF WOOD AND TIMBER ➢ Its strength and other properties are
affected adversely by exposure for
▪ It is readily and economically available.
extended periods to temperatures
▪ Easily machinable.
above about 100°F.
▪ Amenable to fabrication into an infinite
➢ At temperatures above 220°F, wood
variety of sizes and shapes using simple
takes on a thermoplastic behavior.
on-site building techniques:
❖ ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY
• Exceptionally strong relative to its
➢ Timber is the most environmentally
weight.
responsible building material.
• A good heat and electrical
➢ Timber has low production energy
insulator.
requirements and is a net carbon
• It is a renewable and
absorber.
biodegradable resource.
➢ Timber is a renewable resource. Well-
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES managed forests produce timber on a

❖ SPECIFIC GRAVITY sustained continuous basis, with

➢ Used structural species ranges from minimal adverse effects on soil and

roughly 0.30 to 0.90. water values.

➢ Higher allowable design values are ❖ IN PLENTIFUL AND GROWING SUPPLY

assigned to those pieces having Timber is readily available.

narrower growth rings or more dense
❖ STRONG AND LIGHTWEIGHT
latewood per growth ring and, hence,
➢ Timber is strong, light and reliable
higher SG.
making timber construction simpler and
❖ MOISTURE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE
safer than steel or concrete
➢ Wood is hygroscopic, it picks up or
construction.
gives off moisture to equalize with the
➢ A comparison with steel and concrete
relative humidity and temperature in
shows that radiata pine structural
the atmosphere.
timber, for example, has a strength for
➢ Bending strength can increase by
weight ratio 20 percent higher than
about 50% in going from green to a
structural steel and four to five times
moisture content found in wood
better than unreinforced concrete in
members.
compression.
➢ The lightweight structures possible in to or modified to suit changing
wood confer flow-on advantages in circumstances. High levels of thermal
terms of reduced foundation costs, insulation are incorporated within the
reduced earthquake loading and construction, reducing heating costs and
easier transport. Building components conserving energy.
and complete constructions are simple
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
and safe to erect, and cheaper to
deconstruct or reuse at the end of a ❖ DRYING AND SEASONING OF WOOD

building are useful life. ➢ The process of removal of moisture

❖ SAFE content from wood so as to make it

➢ Timber is strong, light and reliable useful for construction and other uses

making timber construction simpler and ➢ This reduces the chances of decay,

safer than steel or concrete improves load bearing properties,

construction. reduces weight, and exhibits more

➢ A comparison with steel and concrete favorable properties like thermal &

shows that radiata pine structural electrical insulation, glue adhesive

timber, for example, has a strength for capacity & easy preservative

weight ratio 20 percent higher than treatment.

structural steel and four to five times ❖ NATURAL OR AIR SEASONING

better than unreinforced concrete in ➢ It is the traditional method of seasoning

compression. timber was to stack it in air and let the

❖ RECYCLABLE heat of the atmosphere and the

natural air movement around the
Timber is a forgiving material that can be
stacked timber remove the moisture.
easily disassembled and reworked. If
➢ The process has undergone a number
demolition or deconstruction of a wooden
of refinements over the years that have
building is necessary, many wood-based
made it more efficient and reduced
products can be recycled or reused.
the quantity of wood that was
❖ COST EFFECTIVE damaged by drying too quickly near
❖ DURABLE the ends in air seasoning.
❖ COMFORTABLE
FOUR MAIN REASONS FOR AIR DRYING
❖ COMPRESSION STRENGTH
WOOD:
❖ FLEXIBLE
1. To increase dimensional stability. Wood
A particular feature of timber is the flexibility
shrinks across the grain when it dries. If
of design forms and finishes that can be
wood is cut to size before it is seasoned,
used. This flexibility also extends to the ease
it will shrink during drying and thus be
with which existing buildings can be added
undersized in its final form.
2. To reduce or eliminate attack by kiln-dried softwood members in the market
decay or stain. Wood that is dried place. All untreated structural pine and
below 20 percent moisture content is some commercial hardwoods are
not susceptible to decay or sap seasoned, mostly using kilns that are often
staining. heated by sawmill by-products or gas.
3. To reduce the weight. The weight of
❖ COMPARTMENT SEASONING
lumber will be reduced by 35 percent
or more by removing most of the water Compartment kilns differ from progressive

in the wood or, as we say, by kilns in that the timber is loaded into the kiln

"seasoning." and remains in place throughout the drying

4. To increase the strength. As wood dries, process. Compartment kilns are usually

the stiffness, hardness and strength of smaller than progressive kilns, and because

the wood increases. Most species of of their construction the temperature and

wood increase their strength humidity conditions within them can be

characteristics by 50 percent or more closely controlled. Consequently, they are

during the process of drying to 15 often used to dry expensive material or

percent moisture content. woods which are difficult to dry.

❖ ARTIFICIAL (KILN) SEASONING

PRESERVATIVES OF WOOD

Kiln drying of lumber is perhaps the most

Preservatives increase the resistance of
effective and economical method
wood to decay and increase its useful life.
available. Drying rates in a kiln can be
carefully controlled and defect losses Main classes of preservatives:

reduced to a minimum. Where staining is a ▪ Oily substances insoluble in water

problem, kiln drying is often the only ▪ Water Soluble Salt
reasonable method that can be used ▪ Salts carried in volatile solvent other
unless chemical dips are employed. than water

❖ PROGRESSIVE SEASONING ▪ Painting

OILY SUBSTANCES INSOLUBLE IN WATER
Progressive kilns may be further subdivided
▪ Coal-tar is the best known
into natural draft kilns in which heated air is
▪ Obtained from bituminous coal
allowed to rise through the material by
▪ Available in many grades
natural convection, and forced draft kilns
▪ Insoluble in water
in which fans are employed to force the air
▪ Highly toxic to fungi
through the wood. Generally, it is not
▪ High degree of penetration
feasible to kiln- dry structural timber in
thicknesses greater than 45 mm, although
there are limited amounts of 70 mm thick
DISADVANTAGES OF USING OILY ▪ Preservatives applied by mean of brush
PRESERVATIVES (several times).
▪ Timber can also be immersed in tank full
▪ Timber
of liquid (preservative).
▪ Disagreeable odor
▪ Penetration should hardly exceed (1/16
▪ Difficult to be covered with paints
inch).
WATER SOLUBLE SALT
▪ Duration of immersion and
▪ Zinc chloride
temperature of preservative solution.
▪ Readily available, clean, odorless
▪ To increase penetration.
SALTS CARRIED IN VOLATILE SOLVENT
OTHER THAN WATER PRESSURE PROCESS (FULL CELL PROCESS)
▪ Another recent product is AsCu
▪ A higher degree of penetration can be
which is a copper and arsenic
obtained by forcing the preservative
compound is used as a
into the wood.
preservative.
▪ Timber placed inside a chamber.
▪ Odorless and leave on strains on
▪ Air drawn out to create a vacuum.
timber.
▪ The cells are completely (almost)
▪ Good fire resistant.
empty to receive the preservative.
PAINTING
▪ Preservative material may be
▪ Acts not only as a preservative but
creosoting oil or zinc chloride.
it also enhances the appearance
▪ Preservatives pumped under a pressure
of the treated surface.
of 100 to 200 psi at 120ºF.
▪ Only well-seasoned timber should
▪ The excess preservative is removed by
be painted closing of timber pores
creating a low vacuum.
by paint.
▪ Timber preserved by this method are
METHODS OF APPLYING WOOD used in piles in saltish water, poles,
PRESERVATIVES sleeper.

Wood must have the following THE EMPTY CELL PROCESS

characteristics before preservatives are
▪ Similar to the full cell process but no
applied to it:
initial vacuum is created.
▪ Wood must be well seasoned ▪ No attempt is made to remove the air
▪ Wood must be cut to size before from the cells.
applying ▪ The preservatives applied under a
▪ Preservatives pressure of 200 psi.
▪ The excess preservatives drain away.
PAINTING & DIPPING
▪ A deeper penetration of preservatives.
▪ Simplest method.
DECAY OF WOOD & TIMBER renewable and biodegradable
resource.
➢ The principal destroyers of wood are
decay, caused by fungus, and attack PROBLEMS IN WOOD CONSTRUCTION
by a number of animal organisms of
▪ Wood and water do not mix well.
which termites, carpenter ants, grubs of
▪ Pay attention to detail.
a wide variety of beetles, teredo, and
▪ Wood is viscoelastic and will creep
limnoria are the principal offenders. In
under load.
addition, fire annually causes
▪ Repair structural members correctly.
widespread destruction of wood
▪ Protect materials at the job site.
structures. Decay will not occur if wood
▪ Take time to know what species and
is kept well ventilated and air-dry or,
grades of lumber you require, and then
conversely, if it is kept continuously
inspect it.
submerged so that air is excluded.
▪ Inspect the job site.
➢ The drywood and dampwood termites
▪ Inspect all timber connections during
found along the southern fringes of the
erection.
country and along the west coast.
▪ Be aware of wood’s orthotropicity.
➢ Teredo, limnoria, and other water-
▪ Use metal joist hangers and other
borne wood destroyers are found only
fastening devices; they add strength
in salt or brackish waters.
and efficiency in construction to a job.
WOOD AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL ▪ Wood and fire pose a unique situation.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION WOOD DEFECTS

➢ Wood is the oldest material used by ▪ Knots

humans for constructional purposes, ▪ Slope of grain
after stone. Despite its complex ▪ Wane
chemical nature, wood has excellent ▪ Shake
properties which lend themselves to ▪ Splits and cracks
human use. ▪ Insect attack
➢ It is readily and economically available; ▪ Decay
easily machinable; amenable to
fabrication into an infinite variety of
sizes and shapes using simple on-site
building techniques; exceptionally
strong relative to its weight; a good
heat and electrical insulator; and—of
increasing importance—it is a