1

CHAPTER SIX
MANAGING NATURAL HAZARDS
6.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes
L.O: Describe the structure of the Earth
The structure of the earth
The Earth is made up of four distinct layers:
 The inner core is in the centre and is the hottest part of the Earth. It is solid and made up of iron and
nickel with temperatures of up to 5500°C. With its immense heat energy, the inner core is like the
engine room of the Earth.
 The outer core is the layer surrounding the inner core. It is a liquid layer, also made up of iron and
nickel. It is still extremely hot, with temperatures similar to the inner core.
 The mantle is the widest section of the Earth. It has a diameter of approximately 2900km. The mantle
is made up of semi-molten rock called magma. In the upper parts of the mantle the rock is hard, but
lower down the rock is soft and beginning to melt.
 The crust is the outer layer of the earth. It is a thin layer between 0-60km thick. The crust is the solid
rock layer upon which we live.
There are two different types of crust: continental crust, which carries land, and oceanic crust, which carries
water.
Oceanic crust: younger, heavier, can sink and is constantly being destroyed and replaced
Continental crust: older, lighter, cannot sink and is permanent.

Tectonic plates
The Earth's crust is divided into pieces called tectonic plates, or plates. There are seven primary plates
(African, Antarctica, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, North American, Pacific, South American) and seven
smaller secondary plates (Nazca, Scotia, Arabian, Philippine, Juan de Fuca). These plates can be classified
 2

as either oceanic or continental. Generally oceanic crust is found beneath the oceans and continental crust is
found under land. Although plates are usually a combination of the two. There are some key differences
between oceanic and continental curst.
OCEANIC CRUST
 Normally thinner CONTINENTAL CRUST
 Denser (heavier)  Normally thicker
 Can be destroyed and made  Less dense (lighter)
 Younger  Cannot be destroyed or made
 Older

Each line along which two plates meet is called a

plate boundary.

The plates don’t stay still! They move around. When plates move at these boundaries- this is called
tectonics-
 3

PLATE MOVEMENT: CONSTRUCTIVE, DESTRUCTIVE AND CONSERVATIVE

DESTRUCTIVE PLATE BOUNDARY:

A destructive plate boundary is found where a continental plate meets an oceanic plate

 As it is sub-ducted the
plates cause friction
by rubbing together
which results in
earthquakes.
 The friction and heat
from the mantle melts
the oceanic plate.
 Once it melts new
magma is formed
which rises to create a
volcano with a violent
eruption (composite
The oceanic and continental plate moves towards each volcanoes)
other.  The continental plate
 The denser oceanic plate is sub-ducted or descends beneath folds into fold
the continental plate. This creates an ocean trench. mountains
CONSTRUCTIVE PLATE BOUNDARIES, ALSO KNOW AS DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

 As the two plates

move apart, magma
rises to fill the gap and
creates new oceanic
crust and volcanoes.
 However, since the
magma can escape
easily at the surface the
volcano does not erupt
violently
 Earthquakes are also
found at constructive
boundaries.
 An example of a
constructive boundary
is the Mid Atlantic
ridge
 At a constructive plate boundary, two plates move apart
causing sea floor spreading.
 4

CONSERVATIVE PLATE BOUNDARIES, ALSO KNOWN AS TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES

 Conservative plate
boundaries exist
where two plates do
not directly collide
but slide past each
other along a fault
(weakness).
 No volcanoes are
found along these
plate boundaries
because magma
cannot escape, but
earthquakes do occur.
 An example of such a
boundary is the San
Andreas Fault in
California, USA.

VOLCANOES

A volcano is essentially an opening in the Earth’s crust through which magma from within the mantle is
erupted onto the land. The vast majority of volcanoes are found at plate boundaries although there are some
exceptions, such as Hawaii and Mount Teide, which are located on hotspots. Magma refers to the molten
rock inside the Earth;s interior. When this molten rock moves onto the Earth’s reface it is called lava.

STRUCTURE OF VOLCANOE
Crater: the bowl shaped
opening at the top of a volcano
Vent: the channel through the
volcano which allows magma
within the volcano to reach the
surface
Secondary cone: an
alternative route that magma
may take to reach the surface
if the crater is blocked
Layers of ash and lava: these
build up with each eruption
and the volcano grows in size
Lava flow: the name for
magma (molten rock) once it
has reached the surface
Eruption cloud: A mixture of
Magma chamber: the reservoir of magma located deep inside a ash, gas, rocks and steam
volcano
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
There are several types of volcano with their physical appearance differing dramatically. Their shape
depends on the type of lava which is ejected from the volcano. Shield volcanoes are the product of very hot
and runny lava, whilst thick (viscous) lava produces cone volcanoes.
 5

TYPES OF VOLCANOE
BASED ON SHAPE
Shield volcano

– Found mainly at constructive boundaries or

hotspots

– Gentle eruptions with lava

– Runny basaltic lava which moves fast and can

travel long distances from the crater

– Gentle sided volcanoes which form from far

flowing lava

Composite cone volcano

 Found mainly at destructive plate

boundaries
 Violent eruptions often with pyroclastic
flows
 Thick viscous lava which moves slowly
and can block the crater
 Steep sided volcanoes which build up from
the thick lava and ash.
 The viscous nature to the lava also means
that gas within the lava is unable to escape
creating violent and explosive
eruptions.e.g. Mount Etna, Italy
 6

THE CAUSES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION

Volcanoes can erupt at both Constructive plate boundaries and Destructive plate boundaries
EXAMINATION TIPS
You need to be able to explain the process that causes to volcanoes erupting at each boundary
 7

EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is the shaking and vibration of the Earth's crust due to movement of the Earth's plates (plate
tectonics). Earthquakes can happen along any type of plate boundary.
Earthquake features/vocabulary:

Focus = the point within the

crust from which an
earthquake begins
Epicentre = the point on the
surface directly above the
focus, where the earthquake is
felt most strongly
Shock waves / Seismic
waves = Ripples of movement
passing through the earths
crust which come out from the
focus. They are what causes
the shaking.

Causes of earthquake
Question Explain how earthquakes are caused * Pressure is finally released and the plates move
(6m) suddenly (jolt)
Answer * This sends shockwaves through the crust from
* Two plates are trying to move past each other the focus
* The plates become locked * Shockwaves are felt most strongly at the
* Pressure builds as the plates continue to try to epicentre on the surface
move
Measurement of earthquake
L.O: understand magnitude and the Richter scale
The power of an earthquake is measured using a seismometer. A seismometer detects the vibrations caused
by an earthquake. It plots these vibrations on a seismograph.
The strength, or magnitude, of an earthquake is measured using the Richter scale. The Richter scale is
numbered 0-10:
1. Earthquakes measuring just one or two on the scale are very common and can happen every day in
places like San Francisco. These earthquakes are so small that people cannot feel them, they can only
be picked up by a seismometer.
2. Earthquakes measuring around seven or eight on the Richter scale can be devastating. The
earthquake in China's south-western Sichuan province in May 2008 measured 7.8 on the Richter
scale.
8
 9

6.2 Tropical cyclones

L.O: describe and explain the distribution and causes of tropical cyclones (storms,
hurricanes and typhoons)

Tropical cyclone occur between 5° and 20° north and south of the equator, were ocean surface
temperature of at least 27 °c and ocean depth of at least 60 m.

Tropical storms are large areas of low

pressure or extreme depressions. On

satellite images they turn up as huge,

swirling masses of cloud, with the eye

clearly visible at the center.

What are the stages in the formation of a tropical storm?

The two main components in the formation of a tropical storm are warm seas and warm, moist
air.
 Warm air from the sea surface and thunderstorms combine and warm air starts to rise.
 More warm air rises and due to the Earth’s rotation starts to move in a spiral. It cools and
condenses, forming clouds, releasing much energy.
 The air starts to rise faster and cooler air is sucked downwards. Wind speed starts to
increase.
 The tropical storm moves over the ocean, picking up warm moist air. Wind speeds reach
more than 120km/hour as more cold air is drawn into the eye.
 Tropical storms track westwards until the reach land where they begin to lose energy.
 10

6.3 Flooding
L.O: describe and explain the causes of flooding

 Prolonged rainfall - if it rains for a long time, the land around a river can
become saturated (it's holding as much water or moisture as can be absorbed). If there is more
rainfall it cannot be soaked up, so it runs along the surface - this is known as surface run-off.
 Heavy rainfall - if there is heavy rainfall there is less chance of it being soaked up by the soil
(infiltration) so it runs off into the river. The faster the water reaches the river, the more likely
it will flood.
 Snow melt: until snow melts, potential discharge for a river is held in storage. Rapid melting
can lead to flooding.
 Land Relief - a steep valley is more likely to flood than a flatter valley because the rainfall
will run off into the river more quickly.
 Geology - permeable rocks allow water to pass through pores and cracks,
whereas impermeable rocks do not. If a valley is made up of impermeable rocks, there is a
higher chance of flooding as there is an increase in surface run-off.
 Vegetation - trees and plants absorb water, this is known as interception. Lots of vegetation
reduces flood risk. Sometimes people cut down trees (deforestation). This will increase the
flood risk, as the water will not be intercepted and flow into the river.
 Urban land use - when an area surrounding a river is built on, there is an increase in the
amount of tarmac and concrete, which are impermeable surfaces. Drains and sewers take
water directly to the river which increases flood risk.
 Soil: The permeability of the soil and rock in a drainage basin is a big factor in flooding. If
the basin’s soil is impermeable, maybe because it has been saturated by previous rainfall or
has been baked by prolonged heating, then any precipitation that falls won’t infiltrate and will
instead run straight into the river, increasing the river’s discharge and triggering floods.
Similarly, if the rocks in the area are non-porous or impermeable (such as granite or clay) then
water won’t be able to infiltrate into the rocks and will, again, run straight off into the river
increasing its discharge.
 11

Other causes include:

 snowmelt
 storm surges, tsunamis
 rise in sea level through climate change.
STORM HYDROGRAPHH
Flood hydrographs are graphs that show how a drainage basin responds to a period of rainfall.
They are useful in planning for flood situations and times of drought as they show the discharge
(amount of water flowing through the channel) that originated as precipitation.
 Peak rainfall –
maximum amount of
rainfall (millimetres).
 Lag time - the time
taken between peak
rainfall and peak
discharge.
 Rising limb - shows the
increase in discharge on
a hydrograph.
 Falling limb - shows
the return of discharge
to normal/base flow on a
hydrograph.
 Base flow - the normal
discharge of the river.

 Peak discharge - maximum amount of water held in the

channel.
The lag time can be short or long depending on different factors. For example, if there is no
vegetation in an area, the water runs off into the river quicker, therefore it would have a short lag
time. Alternatively, if there is plenty of vegetation in the area, the lag time would be longer as
the plants would intercept the rainfall. A short lag time means water is reaching the river quickly,
so there is a greater chance of a flood.

Factors influencing lag time include:

 Size of drainage basin

 Vegetation
 Valley side steepness
 Soil type
 12

6.4 DROUGHT
Learning objective: describe and explain the causes of drought.
Lack of rain caused by prolonged high pressure: Drought is an extended period of unusually
dry weather when there is not enough rain. The lack of precipitation can cause a variety of
problems for local communities, including damage to crops and a shortage of drinking water.
These effects can lead to devastating economic and social disasters, such as famine, forced
migration away from drought-stricken areas, and conflict over remaining resources.
Causes of drought
Lack of rain caused by prolonged high pressure: Water vapour needs to rise high through the
atmosphere in order to condense and bring about rain. However, in areas of high pressure, with
the air subsides, water vapour does not rise and no rain or clouds will form. When the high
pressure stays in an area for a prolonged length of time the result is drought
Effect of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and La Niña on ocean temperatures and
evaporation: El Niño and La Niña events are a natural part of the global climate system. They
occur when the Pacific Ocean and the atmosphere above it change from their neutral ('normal')
state for several seasons. El Niño events are associated with a warming of the central and eastern
tropical Pacific, while La Niña events are the reverse, with a sustained cooling of these same
areas.

El Niño and La Niña are opposite phases of the ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation) cycle - a
term describing the fluctuations in temperature between the ocean and atmosphere in this part of
the planet.
El Niño means 'the little boy' in Spanish, and is often referred to as the warm phase of the
ENSO El Niño occurs when warm water builds up along the equator in the eastern Pacific. The
warm ocean surface warms the atmosphere, which allows moisture-rich air to rise and develop
into rainstorms.
La Niña translates as 'the little girl' in Spanish, and can be referred to as the cold phase of the
ENSO.
 13

La Niña is the buildup of cool waters in the equatorial eastern Pacific, La Niña’s impacts are
opposite those of El Niño. The atmosphere cools in response to the cold ocean surface, and less
water evaporates. The cooler, dry air is dense. It doesn’t rise or form storms.
La Niña translates as 'the little girl' in Spanish, and can be referred to as the cold phase of the
ENSO.

https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/WorldOfChange/ENSO
Effect of climate change: While droughts can have different causes depending on the area of the
world and other natural factors, the majority of scientists have started to link more intense
droughts to climate change. That’s because as more greenhouse gas emissions are released into
the air, causing air temperatures to increase, more moisture evaporates from land and lakes,
rivers, and other bodies of water. Warmer temperatures also increase evaporation in plant soils,
which affects plant life and can reduce rainfall even more.
Human activities can also cause drought which include:
 Deforestation
 Agricultural practice such as Overcultivation and over grazing
6.5 impacts of Natural Hazard
L.O: describe and explain the impacts of natural hazards on people and the environment
IMPACT OF TECTONIC HAZARD IMPACT OF TROPICAL CYCLONE
(VOLCANO AND EARTHQUAKE)
1. loss of life; 1. flooding,
2. destroy buildings/homes; 2. loss of life,
3. inundate farmland/destroy 3. Financial losses,
4. damage to buildings and
crops/livestock;
infrastructure,
4. disrupt communications; 5. loss of crops and habitats,
6. water-related disease
 14

5. bring down power lines/damage water

pipes;
6. destroy workplaces/damage factories;
7. destroy roads
8. fire breakout
9. unemployment
10. diseases from gas during eruption
11. destroy agricultural land
IMPACT OF FLOODING IMPACT OF DROUGHT
1. loss of life, 1. death of organisms,
2. loss of livestock, 2. water sources dry up,
3. loss of crops, 3. decline in crop yields,
4. damage to buildings and 4. starvation,
infrastructure, 5. increased soil erosion,
5. contamination of drinking water 6. desertification,
supplies, 7. decrease in air quality,
6. water-related disease, 8. increased risk of wildfires
7. financial losses

6.6 MANAGING THE IMPACTS OF NATURAL HAZARDS

L.O: describe and evaluate the strategies for managing the impacts of natural hazards before,
during and after an event
HAZARD MANAGEMENT STRATEGY
TECTONIC HAZARD 1. monitoring and warning,
2. land use zoning,
3. structure of buildings,
4. disaster preparation (plans, drills,
emergency supplies and emergency
rescue teams),
5. evacuation,
6. rebuilding of damaged areas,
7. international aid
TROPICAL CYCLONE 1. monitoring and warning,
2. structure of buildings,
3. disaster preparation (plans, drills,
emergency supplies and emergency
rescue teams),
4. evacuation,
5. emergency shelters,
6. rebuilding of damaged areas,
7. international aid
FLOODING 1. monitoring and warning,
2. use of storm hydrographs (run-off,
through-flow, ground water flow),
3. shelters,
 15

4. rescue,
5. rebuilding of damaged areas,
DROUGHT 1. monitoring.
2. emergency water supplies.
3. water conservation.
4. increase water supply (dams and
reservoirs, wells, use of aquifers,
water transfer, desalination, rainwater
harvesting).
5. international aid.

6.7 Opportunities presented by Natural hazards

Flooding: deposition of silt on farmland
Volcanoes:
1. Tourist attraction
2. provide income and employment
3. create fertile
4. lava and ash add nutrient to the soil which lead to increase high agricultural production
5. heat generated provide good source for geothermal energy
6. most volcanic rock are source of rivers
7. provide gravel for building and rocks can be used for defense
8. contain minerals which when excavated provide income to the economy
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Earthquakes and volcanoes

5 The map shows some plate boundaries in the region of the Pacific Ocean.
 16

(a) (i) Name the types of plate boundary shown at X and at Y.

X .......................................................

Y .......................................................

[2]

(ii) Suggest why major earthquakes are more likely to occur close to plate boundaries than

further away from them.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................... [3]

(b) Indonesia is marked on the map. It has many earthquakes. It is an island country of 18 000

islands.

The graph shows the magnitude of 43 strong earthquakes that occurred in Indonesia between

2002 and 2011 and were above magnitude 6.0 on the Richter scale.

Each dot shows an earthquake and its magnitude.

 17

(i) Give the four-year period when earthquakes occurred most frequently. State the evidence

which supports your choice of years.

four-year period .................................................................................................................

evidence ............................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

[3]

(ii) Suggest what the graph shows about the risk of earthquakes occurring in Indonesia.

...........................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................... [1]
18
 19

Tropical cyclones and 6.6 Managing the impacts of natural hazards

6 (a) People living in the Philippines are at a great risk from tropical cyclones. The country is hit

by

20 or more tropical cyclones each year.

The map shows the location of the Philippines, and the source areas and tracks of the tropical

cyclones in that part of the Pacific Ocean.

 20

(i) Explain why many tropical cyclones are formed every year in the source area shown on

the map.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................... [3]

(ii) Suggest why the greatest tropical cyclone risk in the Philippines is during September

and October.
 21

...........................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) In December 2011, the full effects of a tropical cyclone called Typhoon Washi were felt on

the

island of Mindanao.

The people living in the northern part of Mindanao were affected by the tropical cyclone in the

following ways:

• severe flooding everywhere, including the main city of Cagayan de Oro

• flash floods and landslides swept houses into rivers and out to sea

• at least 1250 people died, most of them from drowning

• up to 500 000 people lost their homes.

(i) In Typhoon Washi, damage to property and loss of life were caused by the combined

effects of very strong winds and heavy rainfall.

Suggest which one of these two causes was more important in Typhoon Washi. Describe

the evidence which supports your choice.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) Survivors of Typhoon Washi blamed the government and local authorities for not doing

enough to protect Mindanao against the cyclone risk.

Suggest why you would expect the authorities in the Philippines to be well prepared for

cyclones.

...........................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................... [1]
 22

Suggest whether physical factors, human factors or a combination of both were

responsible for the great loss of life in Typhoon Washi.

Support your view with references to the comments made by the different people.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................
 23

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................... [7]

6.3 Flooding and 6.7 Opportunities presented by natural hazards

24
 25

Area of Australia: over 7 741 000 km2

Population: 23.8 million

Children per woman: 1.78

Life expectancy: 81.8 years

Currency: Australian Dollar (1.43 AUD = 1 USD)

Language: English and indigenous languages

Climate of Queensland: wet tropical along the northern and eastern coasts, semi-desert and

desert

further into the interior

Terrain of Queensland: fertile coastal lowlands, low desert plateau in the interior

Main exports of Australia: coal, iron ore, gold, meat, wool, wheat and machinery

Australia is an island with a large desert interior. Australia has extensive natural resources. Most

of the
 26

population live close to the east and south coasts. Queensland is a state in Australia. It has an

area of

nearly 2 million square kilometres and a population of 4.7 million. Queensland has extensive

irrigated

agricultural areas as well as large coalfields. The coal is mined for domestic power generation

and for

export, particularly to China.

1 (a) (i) Calculate the percentage of the total Australian population that live in Queensland.

........................................................% [1]

(ii) Suggest the benefits to Queensland and Australia of having large coalfields.

Queensland .......................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

Australia ............................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

[2]
27
28
 29

(e) Look at the diagram below, which shows some of the effects of deforestation.
 30

(i) Complete the diagram by filling in the missing labels in the three boxes, to explain the

effects of deforestation. [3]

(ii) Explain why removal of trees from the rainforest may cause flooding.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................[4]