UNIT I GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

OBJECTIVES
After the discussion and participation in varied activities designed for this concept, the
second year students will be able to:

1. Analyze the human life span from the neonatal period through old age
and death including development patterns, sequence, and rates.
2. Apply the knowledge on the principles of growth and development and the factors
influencing it through the assessment of own growth and development.
3. Familiar to major human development theories including those of Erik Erikson,
Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, Carole Gilligan, Sigmund Freud, and other
contemporary theorists.
4. Determine the physical, cognitive, social and emotional changes that occur in
infancy, early childhood, late childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, mature
adulthood and old age

INTRODUCTION

Child development can be defined as the process by which a child changes over time. It covers
the whole period from conception to an individual becoming a fully functioning adult. It’s a journey
from total dependence to full independence.

Child development incorporates, physical growth as well as intellectual, language, emotional

and social development. Whilst these aspects are often considered separately, in reality each influences
all of the others. For example, as the brain develops physically, so intellectual abilities increase. This in
turn allows a child to explore their social world more fully, develop their emotional responses to it and
the language needed to describe it, but in turn, this exploration directly impacts on further physical
brain development.

A number of factors affect the course and progression of child development within a given
individual. These include the innate or the biological makeup of the child themself and external
influences such as family, society, economics, health and culture. Thus, growth and development are
directly related to the child’s nutrition, affluence, parenting styles, education and interaction with peers.
 KEEP IN MIND
Growth - an increase in physical size of the body.
- Reflects the quantitative change of body.
- Refers to the changes that can be measured. (kilograms, lbs, centimeters)
Example: Taking the height and weight of a pediatric client and comparing the measurement
to the standardized growth charts
Development - a progressive increase in skills and capacity to function.
- Reflects the qualitative change in the body and are difficult to measure in exact units.
- Proceeds from simple to complex, general to specific, from head to toe and from trunk
to the extremities.
Example: A child’s progression from rolling over to crawling to walking are developmental
changes
Physical Growth
- The measurable aspect of an individual’s increase in physical measurements
- Measurable indicators include changes in height, weight, teeth, skeletal structures and
sexual characteristics
Maturation
- The process of aging
- The individual begins to adapt and show competence in new situations
- Involves an individual’s logical ability, physiological condition and desire to learn more
mature behavior
Principles of Growth and Development
1. Growth and development are continuous processes from conception until death.
2. G and D proceed is an orderly sequence.
3. Different children pass through the predictable stage at different rate.
4. All body systems do not develop at the same rate.
5. Development is cephalocaudal.
6. Development proceeds from proximal to distal body parts.
7. Development proceeds gross to refined skills.
8. There is optimum time for initiation of experiences or learning.
9. Neonatal reflexes must be lost before development can proceed.
10. Skill and behavior are learned by practice.
Rate of Growth
• Rapid – fetal, infancy, adolescence
• Slow – school age
• Alternating rapid and slow
– toddler - decline in growth
– preschooler – slow and steady growth

REMEMBER
o Children resembles one another but each child is unique.
o Play is the universal language of children.
o Behavior is the most sensitive indicator of development.
Major Factors Influencing Growth & Development

I. Nature Forces
A. Heredity
B. Genetic endowment determines race, hair/eye color, physical growth and psychological
uniqueness
C. Temperament
- Characteristic psychological mood with which the child is born - includes behavioral
styles
- Influences interactions bet. individual and the environment- early indication of
personality.
- individual's characteristic level of emotional excitability or intensity and is typically
recognized within the 1st few weeks after birth
Types of Temperament
• Difficult babies are often irritable and fussy. upset easily and unpredictable when it
comes to feeding schedules.
• Easy babies are calm and relaxed, follow predictable feeding schedules but are also
flexible within their day, seen as friendly and happy.
• Slow-to-warm-up babies do not like new situations. They are cautious and sometimes
fussy, but they do warm up to new stimuli or situations with repeated exposure.
II. External Forces
A. Family
- Protect and nurture its members.
- Influences through its beliefs, customs and specific patterns of interaction and
communication.
B. Life experiences
- A learning process that allow individual to develop by applying what has been learned
C. Peer Group
Provides:
• different learning environment
• different patterns of interaction and communication →different styles of behavior
• learn about success and failure
• Validate and challenge thoughts, feelings and concepts
• Receive acceptance, support, rejection as unique persons apart from family
• Achieve group purposes by meeting demands, pressures and expectations
D. Health Environment
- Level of health affects individuals responsiveness to environment and responsiveness of
others to the individual
E. Prenatal Health
– Pre-conception ( genetic, chromosomal factors, maternal age, health)
– Post-conception ( nutrition, weight gain, use of tobacco/alcohol, medical problems)

F. Growth is regulated by dietary factors

- Adequacy of nutrients influences how physiological needs, growth and development
needs are met
G. Rest, Sleep and Exercise
- Balance between rest and sleep is essential to rejuvenating the body
 H. Living Environment
- season, climate, home life and socioeconomic status
I. State of Health
- Illness or injury hampers growth and development
- Prolonged injury or illness may cause inability to cope and respond to demands and
tasks of developmental stages

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
Five Areas of Theory Development
1. Biophysical development
2. Psychoanalytic/Psychosocial development
3. Cognitive development
4. Moral development
5. Spiritual development

Virtue - moral excellence, it is a positive trait or quality deemed to be morally good and is valued
as a foundation of principle and good moral being.

FIVE AREAS OF THEORY DEVELOPMENT

1. Biophysical Development
- describe the way our physical bodies grow and change.
- process of biological maturation
- biological influences on development include factors such as genetics and exposure to
teratogens. (Any agent that can disturb the development of an embryo or fetus.)
2. Psychoanalytic/Psychosocial Development
- describe the development of the human’s personality, behavior and emotions.
- thought is influenced by internal biological forces and external societal/cultural forces.
- Has stages that children go through while attempting to resolve conflicts between
biological drives and social forces.
3. Cognitive Development
- Focused on reasoning and thinking process including changes on how people come to
perform intellectual operations.
- Mental processes including perceiving, reasoning, remembering and believing.
4. Moral Development
- Focuses on the description of moral reasoning ( people think about the roles of ethics or
moral conduct but does not predict what a person would actually do in a given situation)
- ability of an individual to distinguish right from wrong and to develop ethical values on
which to base his/her actions.
5. Spiritual Development
- Refers to individual’s understanding of their relationship with the universe and their
perceptions about the direction and meaning of life.
PSYCHOANALYTIC/PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
• Sigmund Freud
• Erik Erickson
• Robert Havighurst

I. PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY

- Sigmund Freud (1856-1939 (Vienna, Austria)
- known as the “Father of Modern Psychology”
- Believed…. that behavior is motivated; either consciously or unconsciously and that
psychological principles could be applied to raising children
- that the personality changes and develops, during periods of infancy, childhood and
adolescence
- Divided man’s “mind” into id, ego, superego—each with function and impact on others
- Believed that children move from stage to stage of psycho-sexual development: oral,
anal, phallic, latency, genital

Freud’s Theory Divided man’s “mind”

• ID - Present at birth.
- Pleasure principle “ I know what I want and I want it now”.
• EGO - Begins to develop during 4-5 months.
- Reality principle
- I can wait for what I want”
• SUPEREGO - Develop during preschool period
- ‘I should not want that”
- Conscience

Sigmund Freud’s Five Psychosexual Developmental Stages

Stage I : Oral (birth-12-18 months)
Stage II: Anal ( 18mos-3 years)
Stage III: Phallic/ Oedipal ( 3-6 years)
Stage IV: Latency (6-12 years)
Stage V : Genital (Puberty to Adulthood)

Stage I: Oral (birth-12-18 months) infancy

– Mouth - the center of pleasure.

– Sucking and oral satisfaction is not vital to life, but extremely pleasurable
– Later, infant begins to realize that the mother/parent is something separate from self.
– Disruption in the physical or emotional availability of the parent have an impact on the infant
development.
Characteristics:
– Feelings of dependence arise and can persist through life
– If fixated: may have difficulty in trusting others
*Fixation demonstrated by:
1. nail biting
2. drug abuse
 3. smoking
4. overeating
5. alcoholism, argumentativeness
6. overdependence

– Implications
o Feeding produces pleasure and sense of comfort and safety
o Feedings should be pleasurable and provided when required

Stage II: Anal (12-18 mos-3 yrs) toddler

– focus of pleasure changes to anal zone.
– find pleasure in both the retention of feces (holding on) and defecation (letting go)
– Through toilet training process child is asked to delay gratification in order to meet
parental and societal expectations.
o Physical readiness – sitting, squatting, walking independently.
o Psychological readiness - ↓anxiety, can keep self dry for 2 hrs, urge to defecate is
present.

Characteristics
– Occurs during toilet training (best 2½ y/o ; earliest 1½ y/o ; mastery 4y/o
*Fixation : result in obsessive-compulsive personality traits.
– Fixation manifested by: obstinacy, stinginess, cruelty, and temper tantrums.
Obstinacy: Unreasonable firmness and stubborness,
OCD -Perfectionism, preoccupied w/ order, rules, details, over conscientious, rigid, inflexible
Implications
o Controlling and expelling feces provide pleasure and sense of control
o Toilet training should be a pleasurable experience
o Appropriate praise can result in a personality that is creative and productive.

Stage III: Phallic/Oedipal (3-6 yrs) Preschool

– Center of pleasure: genital organs.
– Boy becomes interested in the penis.
– Girl becomes aware of the absence of the penis (Penis Envy).
– Time of exploration and imagination * the child fantasizes about the opposite sex as his/her 1st
love interest.
– Sexual differences awareness.
– end of stage, attempts to reduce conflict by identifying with the parent of the same sex in a way
to win recognition and acceptance
– Oedipal/Electra complex emerge - attraction of a child towards the parent of the opposite sex
and rivalry toward the parent of the same sex )
o Electra Complex – sexual feeling of a girl to father and aggressive feeling to mother
o Oedipal Complex – boy to mother

Characteristics
– Focus: Sexual and aggressive feelings associated with genitals
– Masturbation offers pleasure
 – *Fixation : can result in difficulties with sexual identity and problems with authority.
– Implications
o Child identifies with the parent of the opposite sex
o Later takes on a love relationship outside the family
o Encourage identity.
Stage IV: Latency (6-12 yrs) School Age
– Sexual urges from the earlier Oedipal stage are repressed and channeled into productive
activities that are socially acceptable.
– Period of calmness
– Mastery of learning.
Characteristics
– Energy is directed to physical and intellectual activities.
– Sexual impulses tend to be repressed.
– Unresolved conflicts can result in obsessiveness and lack of self-motivation.
Implications
– Encourage child with physical and intellectual pursuits
Stage V: Genital (Puberty – Adolescence)
– Renewed sexual drive - directed to an individual outside family circle.
– Phase of sexual maturity directed toward heterosexual relationship.
– Unresolved prior conflicts surface during adolescence - once resolved, will have
a mature adult sexual relationship.
Characteristics
– Energy is directed toward attaining mature sexual relationship.
– Reactivation of pre- genital impulses
– Conflicts can result in sexual problems:
1. Frigidity
2. Impotence
3. inability to have a satisfying sexual relationship
Implications
– Encourage separation from parents
– Achievement of independence and decision making
II. PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
– Erik Erikson (1902-1993 (US) was a student of Sigmund Freud
– believed that children go through stages of personality development
– Each stage has its own crisis, or struggle between positive and negative outcomes, which must
be worked through successfully
Eight Stages/Crises of Man
– each stage builds on successful completion of earlier stages.
– completion of each stage - a virtue or strength emerges.
– stages not successfully completed- expected to reappear as problems in the future.
– believed that treatment as an infant determines to a large degree, how a person views the world.

Erik Erikson’s 8 Stages of Life (psychosocial tasks) → life virtue

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth-18 months) hope
2. Autonomy vs.Shame and Doubt(18mos-3yrs)will
 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 yrs) purpose
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 yrs) competence
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion(12-18 yrs) fidelity
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation ( 18-25yrs)
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (25-65 yrs)
8. Integrity vs. Despair (65 yrs to death)

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth-18 months) Infant

• Trust is achieved when infant will let the caregiver be out of sight without distress.
• Consistent caregiving
• Outcome (+) - learning to trust others, trust in people and the environment
(-) mistrust, withdrawal, estrangement
• Main question asked: “Is my world predictable and supportive?”
• Central focus: Receiving care
• Virtue: Hope
• Developmental tasks: Attachment, maturation of
• sensory, perceptual, and motor functions
2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (18 mos – 3 yrs) Toddler
• toddler develops autonomy by making choices.
• AUTONOMY: Self government; self rule
• child is now becoming accomplished in some basic self-care activities (walking, feeding,
toileting).
• Outcome (+) self-control without loss of self-esteem, pride in self, assertion of will
(-) compulsive self-restraint or compliance.
• Main question asked: “Can I do it by myself? or will I always need help?”
• Central focus: Imitation
• Virtue: Will
• Developmental tasks: Locomotion, language development, self-control, egocentrism
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 yrs) Preschooler
• like to pretend and try out new roles
• Fantasy and imagination allow them to further explore their environment.
• develops their superego or conscience.
• Conflicts arises between the child’s desire to explore and the limits placed on his/her behavior
leading to feelings of frustration and guilt.
▪ (+) learning the degree to which assertiveness and purpose influence the environment.
▪ (-) lack of self-confidence, pessimism, fear of wrong doing, over control and over
restriction of own activity.
• Main question asked: “Am I good or bad?”
• Central focus: Identification
• Positive outcome: Able to initiate activities and enjoy learning
• Virtue: Purpose
• Developmental tasks: Sex-role identification, fantasy play, early moral development, self-
esteem, group play
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years) School- Age
• School-age children are eager to apply themselves to learning socially productive skills and
tools.
• Learn to work and play with peers.
• Thrive on their accomplishments/ praise.
• Without proper support for learning, new skills are too difficult to achieve (Sense of inadequacy
and Inferiority)
▪ (+) beginning to create, develop and manipulate, acquire skills developing
sense of competence and perseverance, enjoy achievement
▪ (-) loss of hope, withdrawal from school/ peers
• Main question asked: “Am I successful at what I do or am I worthless?”
• How a child does at school becomes important in development
• Central focus: Education
• Virtue: Competence
• Developmental tasks: Friendship, skill learning, self-evaluation, team play
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18yrs) Adolescent
• Physiological changes associated with sexual maturation
• Marked pre-occupation with appearance and body image.
• Identity development begins with the goal of achieving same perspective or direction which
answer the question “Who Am I?”
• Acquiring a sense of identity is essential for making adult decisions such as choice of vocation
or marriage partner.
• New social demands, opportunities and conflicts that relate to the emergent identity and
separation from family.
▪ (+) coherent sense of self, plans to actualize one’s abilities
▪ (-) confusion, indecisiveness and inability to find occupational identity
• Main question asked: “Who am I? Where am I going in life?”
• Central focus: Peer group
• (+) Positive outcome: A strong identity that is predictable, reliable and consistent; ready to plan
for the future
• Virtue: Loyalty
• Developmental tasks: Physical maturation, emotional development, membership in peer group,
sexual relationship
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation / Young Adult (18-25y/o)
• fully participative in the community, enjoying freedom and responsibility.
• Young adults - sense of identity deepen their capacity to love and care for others
• If not achieved a sense of personal identity – may experience feelings of isolation, inability to
form meaningful attachments.
▪ (+) intimate relationship with another person, commitment to work and relationship.
▪ (-) impersonal relationship, avoidance of relationship, career or life-style commitments.
• Main question asked: “Will I be able to share my identity with a significant other?”
• Central focus: Care giving
• Virtue: Love
• Developmental tasks: stable relationships, child rearing, work
 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (25 – 65 y/o) Middle Age adults
• ability to expand one’s personal and social involvement is critical to this stage successful
development of an intimate relationship, adult can focus on supporting future generations.
• Middle age adults should be able to see beyond their needs and accomplishments
to the needs of society.
• They may find a sense of fulfillment by volunteering sometime in a local school, hospital or
church.(own desire)
• Main question asked: “Will I produce something of value with my life?”
• Central focus: Creativity
• Positive outcome: Nurturing children or helping the next generation, creativity,
productivity, concern for others
• (-) self-indulgence, self-concern, lack of interest and commitments
• Virtue: Care
• Developmental tasks: Nurture close relationships, management of career and household,
parenting.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (65 above) Older Adult
• older adults review their lives with a sense of satisfaction even with their inevitable mistakes.
• Others see themselves as failures with their lives marked by despair and regret.
• (+) acceptance of worth and uniqueness of one’s own life, acceptance of death.
• *A sense of fulfillment about life;
• *A sense of unity with self and others
• (-) sense of loss, contempt for others.Mix of disgust and anger
• Main question asked: “Have I gained a
• sense of wisdom and am I satisfied with the way my life has gone?”
• Virtue: Wisdom
• Developmental tasks: Promote intellectual vigor, redirect energy to new roles and activities,
develop a point of view about death.

III. PSYCHOANALYTIC/ PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

– Robert Havighurst
– Effective learning and achievement of tasks lead to happiness and success with later task.
– Failure leads to unhappiness, disapproval by society and difficulty with later tasks.
– Believed that schools have considerable responsibility in helping a child attain success to lead to
achievement of later adult development.

IV. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY

– Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
– 4 stages of cognitive development and relates them to a person's ability to understand and
assimilate the information.
Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2yrs)
Stage 2: Preoperational Stage (2-7yrs) (INTUITIVE THOUGHT PHASE – 4-7YRS)
Stage 3: Concrete Operations (7-11yrs)
Stage 4: Formal Operations (11-on)
 1. Sensorimotor Phase (birth-2 years)
- relates to world through senses using reflex behavior.
Stages of sensorimotor cognitive development
Stage 1: Use of Reflexes (birth-1month)
- Most action is reflexive
Stage 2: Primary Circular Reaction (1-4 mos)
- Perception of events is centered on the body
- Objects are extension of self.
Stage 3: Secondary Circular Reaction (4-8 mos)
- Acknowledges the external environment
- makes changes in the environment
Stage 4: Coordination of Secondary Schemata (18-12 mos)
- can distinguish a goal from a means of attaining it.
Stage 5: Tertiary Circular Reaction (12-18 mos)
- tries and discovers new goals and ways to attain goals
- rituals are important
Stage 6: Inventions on New Meanings (18-24 mos)
- Interprets the environment by mental image.
- Uses make-believe and pretend play.

*Object Permanence – knowledge that an object continues to exist independent of our seeing, hearing,
touching, tasting or smelling it!
* The child is incapable of solving problems. Around 18 months the child realizes the object has fallen
and will search for it. The child can form a plan to retrieve it, but success tends to be a trial and error
process. For example, a 20 - month old may finally figure out how to open a door by turning the
doorknob after many attempts, but may forget the next day and have to re-solve the problem.
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7yrs)
2.1 Preconceptual Phase (2-4 years)
• Uses an egocentric approach to accommodate the demands of an environment
• Magical thinking
• Everything is significant and relates to “me”
• Explores the environment
• Language development is rapid
• Ability to use symbols
• Associates words with objects
*By age 2, the child can use language to control the environment and help solve problems. The child
can sing a song, tell what happened and can understand some opposites. However, she cannot
understand abstract concepts, such as death or honesty.
2.2 Intuitive Thought Phase (4-7 years)
• Egocentric thinking diminishes
• Thinks of one idea at a time – one characteristic of an object.
• Includes others in the environment
• Lack conservation
• Words expresses thoughts
• No responsibility
*Conservation: understanding that, although an object’s appearance changes, it still stays the same
in quantity.
Eg. when you pour a liquid into a different- shaped glass, amount of liquid stays the same.

3.Concrete Operations Phase (7-11 years)

• Solves concrete problems.
• Concept of conservation.
• Begins to understand relationships such as size (concept of reversibility)
• Understands right and left
• Able to classify, order
• Aware, fully informed
• Accomplishments
• Logical Reasoning
• Reversibility

Reversibility: that numbers or objects can be changed and then returned to their original state.
Eg. A ball that deflates is not gone and can be filled with air, a ball of clay, once flattened, can be made
into a ball of clay again.

Classification: the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other
characteristic, classification, conservation mass/ area/liquid

From age 6-12, the child can see complex relationships, classify objects and put in order, solve simple
arithmetic problems, and read. S/he still has difficulty dealing with hypothetical situations.

4. The Formal Operations Stage (11 Years and Up)

• Mental actions performed on ideas and propositions.
• Can reason logically about hypothetical processes and events that may have no basis in reality.
• Uses rational thinking
• Can think abstractly
• begins at about age 12 and continues throughout life.
• The person can project into the future and set up long range goals.
• more sensitive to the needs of others and can understand abstract concepts, isolate a problem,
review it systematically and test possible solutions.
• they do not believe in fanciful stories.
• Reasoning is deductive and futuristic. (Unknown to known) deductive logic - using a general
principle to predict the outcome of a specific event.

For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a
dog, and that a dog is an animal, and draw conclusions from the information available, as well as
apply all these processes to hypothetical situations.
 LEARN MORE

V. MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• Jean Piaget
• Lawrence Kohlberg
• Carol Gilligan

*JEAN PIAGET - 3 Stages of Personality -

The Pre-moral Stage – child has no obligation to rules
The Conventional Stage – children follow the rules set up by those in authority such as parents,
teachers and clergy
The Autonomuos Stage – moral judgments are based on mutual respect for rules

*LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
A. 1927-1987 (New York)
B. Has studied development of moral development in children
C. Believed that children go through stages of moral development
Stages of Moral Development - Kohlberg
a. Level I Preconventional
*Standards of right from wrong are set down by parents
*Actions-based from satisfying one’s own personal needs.
Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation
- The activity is wrong if one is punished, and the activity is right if one is not punished.
Eg: Nurse follows a physician’s order so as not to be fired
Stage 2: Instrumental-relativist Orientation
- Action is taken to satisfy one’s needs rather than society
Eg: A client in hospital agrees to stay in bed if the nurse will buy the client a newspaper
b. Level II Conventional
- Children’s actions are based on standards and expectations of the group.
Stage 3: Interpersonal Concordance (good boy, nice girl)
- Action is taken to please another and gain approval
Eg: A nurse gives elderly clients in hospital sedatives at bedtime because the night
nurse wants all clients to sleep at night
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation
- Right behavior is obeying the law and following rules
Eg: A nurse does not permit a worried client to phone home because hospital rules
stipulate no phone calls after 9PM.

c. Level III Postconventional

Stage5: Social contract,legalistic orientation
- Standard of behavior is based on adhering to laws that protect the welfare, rights of others
- Personal values and opinions are recognized and violating the rights of others is avoided
Eg: A nurse arranges for an East Indian client to have privacy for prayer each evening
Stage 6: Universal-ethical Principles
- Universal moral principles are internalized
 - Person respects other humans and believes that relationships are based on mutual trust.
Eg:nurse becomes advocate of hospitalized client by reporting to the supervisor a
conversation in which a physician threatened to withhold assistance unless the client
agreed to surgery.
1. Early pre-moral stage : infant is totally egocentric
2. Pre-moral stage : “hedonism” with fear of punishment
3. Early conventional morality: upholds rules out of desire to please others (mother, father, teachers…)
4. Conventional morality : upholds rules, knows general rules of behavior, compares individual rules
to the rules of society
5. Post-conventional morality : abstract moral philosophy; ideas of right and wrong; follows moral
code; obeys laws; concerned with legality
6. Individual Conscience: self-directed moral choice based on the betterment of society

VI. SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT

*JAMES FOWLER
– Described the development of Faith
– Believes that faith or the spiritual dimension is a force that gives meaning to a person’s life.
– Uses term Faith as a form of knowing, a way of being in relation to “an ultimate environment”.
– To him Faith is a relational phenomenon, “ an active mode-of-being-in-relation” to another or
others in which we invest commitment, belief, love, risk and hope.

BEHAVIORISM OVERVIEW
– Behaviorism is more concerned with behavior than with thinking, feeling, or knowing.
– It focuses on the objective and observable components of behavior. The behaviorist theories all
share some version of stimulus-response mechanisms for learning.
– Behaviorism originated with the work of John B. Watson, an American psychologist. Watson
held the view that psychology should only concern itself with the study of behavior, and he was
not concerned with the mind or with human consciousness.