DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

FCE446: TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II

Course Notes

LECTURER: MIRACLE WACHIRA

miraclewchr@uonbi.ac.ke/0710310911

4TH MAY 2021

 Table of Contents
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL HIGHWAYS .............................................................................. 4
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 4
2. Design Speed ...................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Selection of Design Speed ........................................................................................... 5
3. Sight Distance ..................................................................................................................... 6
3.1 The stopping sight distance (SSD) ............................................................................... 6
Exercise 1 ............................................................................................................................ 8
Exercise 2 .......................................................................................................................... 10
3.2 Passing Sight Distance ............................................................................................... 12
4 Horizontal Alignment ........................................................................................................ 14
4.1 Circular curves ........................................................................................................... 15
Exercise 3 .......................................................................................................................... 19
Exercise 4 .......................................................................................................................... 20
4.2 Super-elevation ......................................................................................................... 22
4.3 Transition Curves....................................................................................................... 26
Exercise 5 .......................................................................................................................... 28
4.4 The effect of horizontal curvature on stopping sight distance ................................. 29
Exercise 6 .......................................................................................................................... 30
Exercise 7 .......................................................................................................................... 30
5. Vertical alignment ............................................................................................................ 31
5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 31
Geometry of Vertical Curves ................................................................................................ 34
Circular Vertical Curves .................................................................................................... 34
Quiz 8 ................................................................................................................................ 35
Parabolic Vertical Curves .................................................................................................. 36
High/Low Point ................................................................................................................. 38
Quiz 9 ................................................................................................................................ 38
AASHTO: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
DMRB (UK): Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL HIGHWAYS

1. Introduction
Highway geometric design comprises the processes necessary for choosing appropriate geometric
features for a highway. These are the visible elements of the road. The geometric designer is the
architect of the road since geometric design includes a fair measure of art amongst the science.
The proper geometric design of a highway ensures that drivers use the facility with safety and
comfort. The process achieves this by selecting appropriate cross section, vertical and horizontal
curvature along with physical features of the road such as sight distances and superelevation. The
ultimate aim of the procedure is a highway that is both justifiable in economic terms and
appropriate to the local environment. Design speed is the determining factor in the selection of
the important geometric characteristics of a highway.

2. Design Speed
Design speed is the primary factor in selection of other design element of new highway
including horizontal curve radii, superelevatio/n rates, and vertical curve elements. These
are various definitions of design speed:
 AASHTO (1994): maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section
of highway when conditions are so favourable that the design features of the highway
govern
 AASHTO (2004): A selected speed used to determine the various geometric design
features of a roadway
 DMRB-UK (1993): A selected speed consistent with the anticipated vehicle speeds on
the road
 Road Design Manual – Kenya – Maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a
specified section of a road when conditions are so favourable that the features of the
road govern
 2.1 Selection of Design Speed
The design speed of a highway serves as a guide in the selection of the physical features
referred to above. Selection of the correct design speed ensures that issues of both safety
and economy in the design process are addressed. The chosen design speed must be consistent
with the anticipated vehicle speeds on the highway under consideration.

The standard design speeds are 50km/hr, 60km/hr, 70km/hr, 85km/hr, 100 km/hr and
120km/hr. These bands are based on the premise that it is considered acceptable if 85% of
drivers travel at or below the designated design speed for a given highway, generally inducing
a situation where approximately 99% of the drivers travel at or below one speed category
above the design speed (i.e. if the speed limit is set at 85km/hr, it can be assumed that 85%
of the drivers will travel at or below this value while 99% will travel at or below 120km/hr).

The guidance of the roads design manual (Kenya) in selection of design speed is shown below.
For a redesign or highway upgrade it is common to choose the 85th percentile as the design
speed on the basis that it constitutes the most appropriate and judicious choice.

3. Sight Distance
Sight distance is the length of the roadway a driver can see ahead at any particular time.
The sight distance available at each point on the highway must be such that, when a driver is
traveling at the highway’s design speed, adequate time is available after an object is observed
in the vehicle’s path to make the necessary evasive maneuvers without colliding with the
object.
The two types of sight distance are stopping sight distance (SDD) and passing sight distance

3.1 The stopping sight distance (SSD)

The stopping sight distance (SSD), for design purposes, is usually taken as the minimum sight
distance required for a driver to stop a vehicle after seeing an object in the vehicle’s path
without hitting that object. This distance is the sum of the distance traveled during
perception-reaction time and the distance traveled during braking.
AASHTO defines Perception time as “the time required for the driver to come to the
realization that the brakes must be applied. It is the time lapse from the instant an object is
visible to the driver to the instant he realizes that the object is in his path and that a stop must
be made”
The reaction time or the brake-reaction time is "the time required to apply brakes”. AASHTO
recommends a perception time of 1.5 s and a brake-reaction time of 1s. Perception time and
brake-reaction time are sometimes collectively referred to as perception-intellection-
emotion-volition (PIEV) time.
𝒅𝒔 =d + 𝒅𝒓
𝑽𝟏 𝟐
𝑑𝑟 =distance travelled during PIEV time = 𝑽𝟏 × 𝒕𝑷𝑰𝑬𝑽 ; d = deceleration distance = ; 𝑉1=
𝟐𝒂
Initial vehicle speed; a = decceleration (AASHTO recommends 11.2 ft/s2)
To account for grade,
𝑽𝟏 𝟐
𝒅= 𝒂 Where g= gravitational constant; G= roadway grade (+ for uphill, - for downhill)
𝟐𝒈( ±𝑮)
𝒈

in %
Exercise 1
You have been tasked with designing a highway. The design speed has been selected to be 80
km/hr. Assuming a perception-reaction time of 2.5s, determine the safe stopping sight
distance you would provide at a level section of the proposed highway
𝑉1 = 80km/hr = 22.22 m/s
G= 0%
a= 11.2 ft/s2 = 3.41 m/s2

g= 9.81m/s2
𝑉1 2
𝑑𝑠 =d + 𝑑𝑟 = + 𝑉1 × 𝑡𝑃𝐼𝐸𝑉
2𝑎

22.22 2
𝑑𝑠 = + 22.22 × 2.5
2∗3.41

= 127.95m
(Compare this with the recommendations of the Kenya’s road design manual)

(Source Kenya Road Design Manual Part 1)

Exercise 2
KeNHA is redesigning a section of an existing 2-lane single carriageway class A highway. From
a recent speed survey at the highway section, the average speed and the 85th percentile speed
were found to be 70km/hr and 120km/hr respectively. Assuming a PIEV time of 2.5s, advise
with justification, the safe stopping sight distance that should be provided. The roadway is on
an uphill gradient of approximately 3%.
Solution
𝑉1 = 85th Percentile speed 120km/hr = 33.33 m/s
G= 3%
a= 11.2 ft/s2 = 3.41 m/s2
g= 9.81m/s2

𝑽𝟏 𝟐
𝑑𝑠 =d + 𝑑𝑟 = 𝒂 + 𝑉1 × 𝑡𝑃𝐼𝐸𝑉
𝟐𝒈( ±𝑮)
𝒈
33.332
𝑑𝑠 = 3.41 3 + 33.33 × 2.5
2×9.81( + )
9.81 100

= 233.28m

𝑽𝟏 𝟐
𝑑𝑠 = 𝒂 + 𝑉1 × 𝑡𝑃𝐼𝐸𝑉
𝟐𝒈( ±𝑮)
𝒈
 3.2 Passing Sight Distance
Passing sight distance which also referred to as full overtaking sight distance refers to the
length of visibility required by driver of a vehicle to complete an overtaking manouvre without
colliding with an opposing vehicle and without cutting off the passed vehicle.

The passing sight distance will also allow the driver to successfully abort the passing maneuver
(that is, return to the left lane behind the vehicle being passed) if he or she so desires.

The following assumptions regarding the movement of the overtaking vehicle during a passing
maneuver:
1. The vehicle being passed (impeder) is traveling at a uniform speed.
2. The speed of the passing vehicle is reduced and is behind the impeder as the passing section
is entered
3. On arrival at a passing section, some time elapses during which the driver decides whether
to undertake the passing maneuver.
4. If the decision is made to pass, the passing vehicle is accelerated during the passing
maneuver, and the average passing speed is about 16km/hr more than the speed of the
impeder vehicle.
5. A suitable clearance exists between the passing vehicle and any opposing vehicle when the
passing vehicle reenters the left lane.
Since it requires a greater distance to overtake than to stop, the FOSD values are greater than
the SSD values.
It is usually necessary to consider whether to design for overtaking only at crest curves on
single carriageways, since overtaking should not be a problem on dual carriageways and
visibility is usually more than adequate for overtaking at sag curves on single carriageways.
The passing sight distance is the sum:

𝑑 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3 + 𝑑4
Where:
𝒅𝟏 is the initial maneuver distance, which is the sum of distances traveled during perception
and reaction time plus the initial period of acceleration until the vehicle encroaches the
passing lane. The corresponding time for this initial maneuver is 𝑡1 : d1 is given by the
expression:
 v is the average speed of the passing vehicle
m is the relative speed of the impeder and passing vehicles
a is the average acceleration
𝒅𝟐 is the distance traveled while the vehicle is occupying the passing lane. The corresponding
time is 𝑡2

𝒅𝟑 is the clearance length, for margin of safety between the passing and opposing vehicles.
AASHTO recommends that 30 ≤ 𝒅𝟑 ≤90 m for 56 ≤ v ≤90 100 km/h

𝒅𝟒 is the distance travelled by the opposing vehicle during the passing maneuver during time
𝑡1 + 𝑡2 . AASHTO recommends that the opposing vehicle may be assumed to travel with speed
v; and 𝑑4 may be taken as
2
𝑑4 = 𝑑
3 2

Figure 1: Passing (Overtaking) sight Distance

 4 Horizontal Alignment

Roadways and railway tracks are never straight from end to finish. They changing directions.
Straight sections are usually connected by curves.

The purpose of the curves is to enable a vehicle travelling along one of the straights to safely
and comfortably change direction and continue its journey along the other straight. The
change in direction from one straight to the next is known as the deflection angle (Ø)

Figure 2: Illustration of a horizontal curve on a roadway

A road design is made up of a combination of straights (tangents) and the curved sections.
Together they form what is known as the HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT.
The curves joining straight sections could be of constant or varying radius. Circular curves,
which are horizontal curves of constant radius while Transition curves are curves of varying
radius. Transition curves are preferred in order to avoid a sudden/abrupt change from a
tangent with infinite radius to a curve of finite radius

Figure 3: a) Circular curves and b) transition curves

4.1 Circular curves

Circular curves are horizontal curves of constant radius. There are three basic types of
circular curves: simple curves, compound curves and reverse curves.

Figure 4: a) Simple circular curve, b) Compound curve c) Reverse Curve

A simple circular curve consists of one arc of constant radius R as Figure 4 (a). A simple circular
curve is described either by its radius, for example, 200m-radius curve, or by the degree of
the curve (D). D is the angle subtended at the centre of a 100 m arc. This is known as a degree
curve
Compound circular curves: these consist of two or more consecutive simple circular curves
of different radii without any intervening straight section. A typical two-curve compound
curve is shown in Figure 4 (b). The purpose of such curves is to avoid certain points, the
crossing of which would involve great expense and which cannot be avoided by a simple
circular curve.

Reverse circular curves: These curves consist of two consecutive curves of the same or
different radii without any intervening straight section and with their centres of curvature
falling on opposite sides of their common tangent point. They are much more common than
compound circular curves and, like them, can be used to avoid obstacles. More usually,
however, they are used to connect two straights which are nearly parallel and that would
otherwise require a very long simple circular curve

Figure 5: Reverse circular curve

Geometry and Components of a Simple Circular Curve

A circular curve can be referred to in one of two ways:
● In terms of its radius, for example, a 750 m curve. This is known as a radius curve.
● In terms of the angle subtended at its centre by a 100 m arc, for example a 2° curve. This is known
as a degree curve
 Figure 6: Illustration of a radius and degree curve

Arc VW = 100 m and subtends an angle of D° at the centre of curvature O. The curve TU is,
therefore, a D° degree curve. The relationship between radius curves and degree curves is
given by the formula:

in which D is in degrees and R in metres

Figure 7: Parts of a simple circular curve

 TI and UI are the tangent lengths of the circular curve

 T and U are the tangent points to the circular curve. The curve starts at T (Point of
Curve) ends at U(point of tangent)
 I is the intersection point of the two straights TI and IU
 TPU is the circular curve which runs around the arc from T to U
 The length of the circular curve around the arc TPU = LC
 P is the mid-point of the circular curve TPU
 Long chord = TSU
 S is the mid-point of the long chord TSU
 Deflection angle (Ø)= angle CIU
 Intersection angle = (180° – Ø) = internal angle at I = TIU
 Radius of curvature of the circular curve = R
 Centre of curvature of the circular curve = O
 Q is any point on the circular curve TPU
 Tangential angle = for example, angle ITQ = the angle from the tangent length at T
(or U) to any point on the circular curve
 The mid-ordinate of the circular curve = PS
 Radius angle = angle TOU = deflection angle CIU = (Ø)
 External distance = PI

Formulae used in circular curves

Exercise 3
The intersection angle of a 13.1° curve is 124°35’ and the Point of Intersection (PI) is located
at chainage 400 + 644.75. Determine the length of the curve and the chainages of the Point
of Tangent (PT) and the Point of Curve (PC)
Deflection angle = 180- 124°35’
= 55. 417°
R = 18000/(π*13.1°)
= 437.37m
Tangent length = R tan ((Ø)/2)
= 437.37 (tan (55.417°/2))
= 229.512m
Ø
Length of the curve = 360(2πR)
55.417°
= (2*π*437.37)
360

= 423.03m
P.C= P.I – TL = (400 + 644.75) – 229.51 = 400+ 415.24
PT = P.C + LC = (400+ 415.24 ) + 423.03 = 400+ 838.27
Exercise 4
The two tangents 1A and AB are to be joined by a simple horizontal 6 ° curve. Determine
i) Radius of the curve
ii) Length of the curve
iii) Tangent length AB
Solution

Δ = 180˚ - 78˚22’ 59” - 71˚12’ 40” = 30˚24’ 21” = 30.40583°

R = 18000/ (π*6°) = 18000/18.85 = 954.91m
Tangent length = R tan ((Δ)/2)
= 954.91 (tan (30.40538°/2))
= 259:5 m
Ø
Length of the curve = Length of the curve = 360(2πR)
𝟑𝟎.𝟒𝟎𝟓𝟖𝟑°
= (2*π*954.91)
360

= 506.75 m
 4.2 Super-elevation
When a vehicle is moving around a circular curve at constant speed v, it experiences a radial
𝑣2 𝑚𝑣 2
acceleration a = and a radial force acting on the vehicle F = usually referred to as the
𝑅 𝑅
centrifugal force. There is also an outward radial force acting toward the centre of curvature
as a result of the centripetal acceleration. This radial/lateral force is non-existent on a straight
highway section.

The radial forces on a vehicle moving on a horizontal curve is sustained by the friction
between the tires and the pavement. The friction force (F) acts along the cross slope of the
roadway in a perpendicular direction from the normal force.
To further counter-balancing the effect of the centripetal force, the road is inclined toward
the centre of the curve. This inclination of the roadway toward the centre of the curve is
known as super-elevation.

Figure 8: Super-elevation on a roadway

All forces acting on the vehicle must be in equilibrium for the vehicle to resist the tendency
to slide up or down the pavement while travelling through the curve.

Figure 9: Forces acting on a vehicle moving around a horizontal curve with super-elevation
The friction force is equal to the side friction factor, µ, multiplied by the normal force (N).
Resolving forces and equating:

𝑚𝑣 2
𝑚𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃) + 𝐹 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜃)
𝑅
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁
𝑚𝑣 2
But 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜃) + 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
𝑅

𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑚𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃) + µ{ 𝑚𝑔𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜃) + 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃)} = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜃)
𝑅 𝑅

Dividing across by 𝑚𝑔𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜃), we get

𝜇𝑣 2 𝑣2
tan(𝜃) + 𝜇 + tan(𝜃) = 𝑅𝑔
𝑅𝑔

𝜇𝑣 2
The term tan(𝜃) can be ignored because it’s extremely small to get the expression
𝑅𝑔

𝑣2
tan(𝜃) + 𝜇 = 𝑅𝑔

The term tan(𝜃) is the super-elevation e. The equation becomes:

𝑣2
e + 𝜇 = 𝑅𝑔

If in addition we express velocity in kilometres per hour rather than metres per second, and
given that g equals 9.81m/s2, the following generally used equation is obtained
𝑣2
e + 𝜇 = 127𝑅

In the UK is assumed that, at the design speed, 55% of the centrifugal force is balanced by
friction, with the remaining 45% being counteracted by the cross-fall (e)

In Kenya, Figure 10 is used in selecting the correct combination of super-elevation, design

speed and horizontal curve radius.
 Figure 10 (Source Road Design Manual Part I figure 5.3.3)

The KENYA ROAD DESIGN MANUAL Part 1 also provide guidance for minimum radii for wholly
circular curves based on a maximum super elevation of 6%) as shown below:
Figure 11: KENYA ROAD DESIGN MANUAL Part 1 guidance on minimum radii for Horizontal
curves (based on a super elevation of 6%)
 4.3 Transition Curves
A vehicle travelling with a constant speed v along a curve of radius r is subjected to a radial
force F such that F= ma = mv2/R, where m is the mass of the vehicle. This force is, in effect,
trying to push the vehicle back on to a straight course
Circular curves have a limitation. A vehicle moving from a straight section to a circular curve
experiences the full radial force (F) instantaneously. This is a problem for the safety of the
passengers in the vehicle. If R is small and the vehicle is travelling too fast, the practical effect
of this is for the vehicle to skid sideways, away from the centre of curvature, as the full radial
force is applied. In severe cases the vehicle could overturn.
The purpose of transition curves is to permit the gradual introduction of centrifugal forces.
Such forces are required in order to cause a vehicle to move round a circular arc rather than
continue in a straight line.
If the transition curve is to introduce the radial force in a gradual and uniform manner, the
product of the radius of curvature at any point on the curve and the length of the curve up to
that point is a constant value i.e rl = K. This is the definition of a spiral, and because of this,
transition curves are also known as transition spirals or clothoids.

Figure 12: Geometry of transition curves

 Figure 13: Compound Transition Curve
Figure 12 and Figure 13 illustrate the situation where transition curves are introduced
between the tangents and a circular curve of radius R. Here, the circular curve must be shifted
inwards from its initial position by the value S so that the curves can meet tangentially. This
is the same as having a circular curve of radius (R + S) joining the tangents replaced by a
circular curve (radius R) and two transition curves. The tangent points are, however, not the
same. In the case of the circular curve of radius (R + S), the tangent occurs at B, while for the
circular/transition curves, it occurs at T.
From the geometry of the above figure:
Length of transition curve (TT1) = 𝐿𝑇 (m)
Final radius = R (i.e. circular curve)
Design speed of road is v (m/s)
𝒗𝟐
Radial acc. on circular curve = 𝑹

The rate at which the radial acceleration changes is a very important parameter and it can be
used to calculate the value of 𝑳𝑻 . It is known as the rate of change of radial acceleration (c)
and should be considered as a safety or comfort factor, the value of which has an upper limit
beyond which discomfort is too great
𝐯𝟐
Rate of change in radial acc. on circular curve = 𝐑⁄
(𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐞)

𝑳𝑻
Time (t) to traverse Transition curve =
𝒗
𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟑
∴ Rate of change of radial acc. = c = = ……………………………………..2
𝑹𝒕 𝑹𝑳𝑻

A maximum value for c is of 0.3 m/s3, although it may be necessary to increase this value up
to 0.6 m/s3 in difficult cases. In practice, wherever possible, transition curves with c values at
0.3 m/s3 should be used to ensure that they achieve the comfort requirement without being
excessively long
From equation 2 and assuming an acceptable value of c = 0.3 m/s3

From the geometry of the above figure:

It has been proved that B is the mid-point of the transition (see Bannister and Raymond,
1984 for details)
𝐿𝑇
𝐵𝑇 =
2

𝑳𝑻 𝟐⁄
𝑺= 𝟐𝟒𝑹

Exercise 5
A transition curve is required for a single carriageway road with a design speed of 100 km/hr.
The bearings of the two straights in question are 17° and 59°. Assuming a value of 0.3 m/s3
for C, calculate the following:
I. The transition length, L
II. The shift, S
III. The length along the tangent required from the intersection point to the start of
the transition, IT
Figure 14: UK guidance on choice of radii of horizontal curves and other design standards

4.4 The effect of horizontal curvature on stopping sight distance

When a driver travels along a horizontal curve, his sight distance is limited by a physical
obstruction, such as sidewall, slope or building, at the inside of the curve.
As shown on Figure 15, M is the offset from the centre line of the inside lane to the
obstruction. For design purpose, the stopping sight distance is the length of curve along the
centre line of the inside lane, where the vehicle will be traveling or braking (with the vehicle
in full control)
 Figure 15: Sight Distance on a Horizontal Curve
Many manuals quote the relationship between the radius of curvature and the offset to an
obscuring object as being (AASHTO, 2004).

In terms of S, the sight distance, the relationship can be expressed as below:

Exercise 6
A sound wall is to be constructed at the edge of shoulder, along the inside of a horizontal
curve of an urban freeway. The inside lane is 3.8 m wide, with a shoulder of 1.20 m. The radius
of the curve measured up to the outer edge of the shoulder is 45 m.
i) Determine the sight distance of this section of the curve with the sound wall

Given M = 1.20 + 3.80/2 = 3.1 m

R = 45 + 1.20 + 3.80/2 = 48.10 m

ii) If the minimum sight stopping distance required is 50m, discuss the
options available to the engineer
Exercise 7
A 2-lane 7.3m wide single carriageway road is being designed to have a curve radius of
600m. The minimum sight stopping distance required is 160m.
i) Calculate the required distance to be kept clear of obstructions in metres
 5. Vertical alignment
5.1 Introduction
In the same way that horizontal curves are used to connect intersecting straights in the
horizontal plane, vertical curves are used to connect intersecting straight-line gradients in
the vertical plane. The combination of these gradients and vertical curves is known as the
vertical alignment.

Figure 16: Example of a vertical alignment

These vertical parabolic curves must therefore be provided at all changes in gradient to avoid
grounding, provide safe sight distances and for comfort as shown in the figure below
 Figure 17: Reasons why vertical curves are necessary

Gradients are usually expressed as percentages, for instance, 1 in 50 = 2%, 1 in 25 =4%. The
road design manual provides guidance on the maximum gradients which are dependent on
the highway design speed and terrain. See the figure below:

Figure 18: Source: Road Design Manual Part I

In design calculations, the algebraic difference A between the gradients is used. Gradients
rising in the direction of increasing chainage are considered to be positive and those falling
are considered to be negative. This leads to six different combinations of gradient, which are
shown in the figure below:
In the above figure, chainage has is assumed to increase from left to right and various entry
gradients (m% values) are shown intersecting with various exit gradients (n% values). A is
obtained from:
A = (entry gradient %) – (exit gradient %)
There are two types of vertical curve, namely, crest curve and sag curve and are defined as
follows:
A crest curve, which can also be referred to as a summit or hogging curve, is one for which
the A is positive e.g (a), (b) and (f)
A sag curve, also referred to as a valley or sagging curve, is one for which A is negative, e.g
(c), (d) and (e)
The design of the vertical alignment involves the selection of suitable grades for the straight-
line sections and the appropriate length of vertical curves
 5.2 Geometry of Vertical Curves
5.2.1 Circular Vertical Curves

θ=α+β
= m/100 + (-n)/100
= (m-n)/100
θ = A/100, Where A is algebraic difference in gradients

Length of Vertical Curve

θ = Lv/R (radians) or Lv = Rθ

But θ= A/100; so Lv = RA/100

Now let K = R/100, then Lv = KA

Where K = radius (m)/100

For m and n < 4%, length of arc = horizontal projection

𝑚𝐿𝑣
Elevation at PVC = Elevation at PVI –
200

Kenyan design standards

Quiz 8
A section of a highway is to have a vertical curve linking two gradients of 3% and -
2%. The minimum stopping sight distance required for the highway is 300m.

i. Determine the minimum length of the vertical curve

Minimum radius = 10,000m

K = R/100 = 100
Lv = KA = 100 × 5 = 500m
ii. If the elevation at the crest is 1000m, what is the elevation at the starting
point
Since m and n < 4%, length of arc = horizontal projection
 𝑚𝐿𝑣
Elevation at PVC = Elevation at PVI –
200

3∗ 500
= 1000 –
200

= 992.5 m

5.2.2 Parabolic Vertical Curves

Figure 19: Geometry of a parabolic vertical curves

 Point of vertical intersection (PVI): The location where the entrance grade, m%,
and the exit grade, n%, intersect.
 Point of vertical curvature (PVC): The point where the vertical curve begins and
the highway leaves the tangent.
 Point of vertical tangency (PVT): The point where the vertical curve ends and
the highway returns to the tangent.
 Entrance grade (m%): The grade of the tangent leading into the vertical curve.
The grade is expressed as a percent.
 Exit grade (n%): The tangent leading out of the vertical curve. The grade is
expressed as a percent
 Tangent offset, y : the change in elevation from the tangent to the curve
If Y is taken as the elevation of the curve at a point x along the parabola, then:

…………………….1

Integrating Equation 1:

𝒅𝒀
= 𝒌𝒙 + 𝑪 ……………………………… 2
𝒅𝒙

Examining the boundary conditions:

i. When x = 0

𝑑𝑌
= m (m being the slope at the start of the vertical curve or the gradient of the first
𝑑𝑥

straight line)

∴ 𝑪 = m ……………………………………...3

ii. When x = L

𝑑𝑌
= 𝑛 (n being the slope of the second straight line gradient)
𝑑𝑥

n = kL + C = kL + m……………………….. 4

Rearranging Equation 3

(𝐧− 𝐦)
k = (n- m)/ L = …………………..5
𝑳
Substituting Equations 3 and 4 into Equation 2

𝒅𝒀 (𝐧−𝐦 )
= 𝒙+𝒎 ………………….6
𝒅𝒙 𝑳

Integrating Equation 6

(𝐧−𝐦) 𝟐
𝒀= 𝑳
𝒙 + 𝒎𝒙 …………………...7
From Figure 19,

(𝒚 + 𝒀)
𝒎= ………………….……..8
𝒙
Substituting Equation 8 into Equation 7

(𝐦− 𝐧) 𝟐
𝒀= 𝑳
𝒙 + (𝒚 + 𝒀)……………..9
(𝐧−𝐦) 𝟐
𝒚=− 𝟐𝑳
𝒙 = (𝐦−𝐧)
𝟐𝑳
𝒙𝟐 ………10
where x is the distance along the curve measured from the start of the vertical curve and y is
the change in elevation from the tangent to the curve

At the intersection point PVI:

x = L/2
(𝐦−𝐧) 𝑳 𝟐 (𝐦−𝐧)
e = 𝟐𝑳 (𝟐) = L ……….11
𝟖

High/Low Point
Identifying and locating the high or low point of a vertical curve is important for drainage
considerations and for determining where the appropriate clearance is provided underneath an
overhead structure or on top of underground utilities

The high or low point, also known as the turning point, of a vertical curve occurs when the
slope of the highway is equal to zero.

Therefore, using basic calculus principles, the derivative of the parabolic equation can be used
to find the location of the high/low point

𝒅𝒀 (𝐧−𝐦 )
= 𝒙+𝒎 =0
𝒅𝒙 𝑳

𝑳𝒎
𝒙= ……………….. 12
𝒎−𝒏

Substituting Equation 12 into Equation 10

𝑳𝒎𝟐
∴ 𝒚= …………...13
𝟐(𝒎−𝒏)

Quiz 9
A vertical alignment for a single carriageway road consists of a parabolic crest curve
connecting a straight-line uphill gradient of +4% with a straight-line downhill gradient of -3%.
Assuming an absolute minimum curve length of 210m for a crest curve, calculate:
i. Calculate the vertical offset at the point of intersection of the two tangents at PI
ii. Calculate the vertical and horizontal offsets for the highest point on the curve
Solution
Using Equation 11
(m−n) (0.04−(−0.03))×210
e= L= = 1. 8375 m
8 8

Co-ordinates of highest point on crest curve (Y, x):

𝑳𝒎 𝟐𝟏𝟎(𝟎.𝟎𝟒)
𝒙= = = 120m
𝒎−𝒏 𝟎.𝟎𝟒+𝟎.𝟎𝟑

𝑳𝒎𝟐 𝟐𝟏𝟎×𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟐
𝒚= = = 2.4m
𝟐(𝒎−𝒏) 𝟐(𝟎.𝟎𝟒+𝟎.𝟎𝟑)

(𝒚 + 𝒀)
m=
𝒙

Y = mx – y

=0.04(120) - 2.4

= 2.4m

Quiz 10
A vertical curve needs to be designed to connect the gradients -4.5% and - 1.0% of a Rural 2
lane single carriageway road. The design speed is 85km/h.

i. Determine the minimum length of the vertical curve. (Make reasonable

assumptions)
ii. If, due to physical constraints, the maximum length of the vertical curve limited to a
value less than in (i), how would you propose revising the design without
compromising safety
iii. For a vertical curve (parabola) with an entry and exit gradients of m% and n%
respectively and length L, show that that the tangent offset at L/2 is given by the
(A)
equation L
800

iv. Calculate the vertical offset at the point of intersection of the two tangents at PI
v. Calculate the elevations at the start and end of the vertical curve if the elevation at
the crest is 1650m
vi. Calculate the vertical and horizontal offsets for the highest point on the curve
vii. Compute the elevations of points at 10m intervals on the vertical curve

Quiz 11
Compare crash rates and severity on horizontal curves and straight sections of highways
Quiz 12
Define the term “design standards”.
Are design standards necessary? Why?
Do design standards change with time? Why?
Why do design standards vary between counties?