UNITY UNIVERSITY

DEPARTEMENT OF CIVIL & MINING ENGINEERING

Surveying - II
(CENG 2081)

By: BERHANU G.
(Msc in Railway Transportation Eng.)

©Berhanu G/yohannes 2016/17

1. Highway Curves
 Introduction
 Types of curves and their uses
 Circular curves
 Vertical curves
 Methods of setting out
2. Control Surveying
 Introduction
 Triangulation
 Classification of Triangulation Systems
 Triangulation figures and choices
 Angle and side conditions
 Strength of Figures
 Adjustment of Triangulation networks
 Procedures in Triangulation
 Computation of lengths and positions
1. Contour Lines and digital terrain model
 Contours and Contour Lines  Digital Terrain Model (DTM)
 General Rules for Contour  DTM creation
 Methods of Contouring  Derivation from DTM
 Interpolation of Contour  Application of DTM
 Measuring Slope from Contour
 Uses of Contour Lines (Contour Map)
4. Photogrammetry
 Introduction
 Types of aerial photographs
 Scale of Aerial Photographs
 Relief Displacement
 Stereoscopy
 Parallax
 Use and Products of Aerial photographs
 Applications of Aerial photographs
5. Introduction to Global Positioning System (GPS)Surveying
6. Introduction to Geographic Information System (GIS)
 UNITY UNIVERSITY
DEPARTEMENT OF CIVIL & MINING ENGINEERING

Surveying II
(CEng 2081)

CHAPTER- 1
HIGHWAY CURVES
Oct,2016
(BERHANU G.)
CONTENTS
 Introduction

 Horizontal Curves

 Types of Horizontal Curves

 Characteristics of Simple Circular Curve

 Method of Setting out

 Vertical Curves

 Types of Vertical Curves

1.1. Introduction
 In highways, railways, or canals curves are provided for smooth or
gradual transitions at sharp edges.
 Sharp edges could be due to a change in direction of horizontal
alignment or a change in gradient of vertical alignment
 change in direction may be due to:-

the nature of terrain,

cultural features, or
other unavoidable reasons.
 The following figure shows how a smooth transition provided
between two tangents.

6
1.1. Introduction

7
1.2. Horizontal Curve
 Horizontal curve is used to provide smooth transition between two
tangents on horizontal alignment of a route.
1.2.1.Type of Horizontal Curves
 The horizontal curve may be:-

simple circular curve

compound curve.
Reverse curve
 For a smooth transition between straight and a curve, a transition or
easement curve is provided.
1.2.2. Characteristics of Simple Circular Curve
 A simple circular curve consists of simple arc of radius R connecting
two tangents intersecting at certain common point.

8
1.2. Horizontal Curve

9
1.2. Horizontal Curve
1.2.2.1. Circular Curve Terminology
 Beginning of Curve(BC) is the point at which the alignment
changes from straight to curved.
 Some books also call this point as point of curve(PC) or tangent to
curve(TC)
 End of Curve (EC) is the point where the alignment changes back
from circular to straight.
 Some books also call this point as point of tangency (PT) or curve to
tangent (CT)
 External distance (E) is the distance from PI to mid point of the
curve
 Curve length (L) is the distance between BC and EC

 Mid ordinate (M) is the distance between mid point of the curve
and long chord.

10
11
1.2. Horizontal Curve
1.2.2.2. Basic concepts of Circular Curve Calculation
 The principal consideration in the design of a curve is the selection of
the length of the radius or the degree of curvature
 This selection is based on such considerations as the design speed of
the highway and the sight distance as limited by headlights or
obstructions
Degree of Curve
Degree of Curve D is defined as the central
angle subtended by 20m of arc.
It measures sharpness of a curve; small D
value curves are relatively flat, where as
large D value curves are relatively sharp.

12
1.2. Horizontal Curve
 For any curve calculation the inputs:-
Deflection angle (Δ) and chanagie (location) of PI are
obtained from field measurement and
The Radius R is obtained from design parameters which
is dependent on design speed.
 The angle at the intersection of the radii is equal to the deflection
angle
 A line drawn through the mid point of a curve bisects this angle.
 All other curve parameters are computed, given the above
inputs using the following formulas for design and setting out
purpose.

13
1.2. Horizontal Curve

O
14
1.2. Horizontal Curve

Curve Length (L)

Chainage of BC = Chainage of PI – T

Chainage of EC = Chainage of BC + L.

15
1.2. Horizontal Curve

16
1.2. Horizontal Curve

Example:- A curve has a deflection angle of Δ= 230 18’02’’, and a

radius of 1432.6m. The point of intersection (PI) is 5+053.87. calculate
the tangent distance T, external distance E, curve length L, beginning of
curve BC, and end of curve EC. Assume horizontal stations are given
every one kilometer.

17
18
Exercise:- A circular curve of 500 m radius to be set out joining the
two straights with deflection angle of 38at a PI station of 60+13.385.
Calculate the necessary data. Assume horizontal stations are given
every 30m

Calculations of elements of the Curve

 Tangent length = Rtan(/2) = 500tan19 = 172.164 m

 Length of the curve (l) = (R/180) = 331.613 m

 Chainage of T1 = Chainage of PI – T1I = 60x30 + 13.385 – 172. 164
= 1641.221 = 54 + 21.22
 Chainage of T2 = Chainage of I + l = 1641.221 + 331.613
= 1972.834 = 65 + 22.83
 Long chord (L)= 2Rsin(/2) = 325.57 m
 L/2 = 162.785 m

19
1.2.2.3. Setting out circular curve
 This is the process of establishing the center-line of the curve on the
ground by means of pegs at 10 m to 30 m intervals.
 In order to do this the tangent and intersection points must first be
fixed in the ground, in their correct positions.
 The pegs that mark the center line of the curve can be set out from
these points:
By tape and off set
By angle and distance measurement
By angle measurement only
By Coordinates

20
1.2.2.3. Setting out circular curve
1. By tape and off set
I. Offset from long chord
 This method is suitable for curves of small radius like curb lines at
road intersection, boundary walls it can also be used for longer
curves providing the mid ordinate is not too long
 In this method the origin of X-Y coordinate is set at the mid point of
long chord.
 The offset from long chord is calculated as:

21
1.2.2.3. Setting out circular curve
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑂 − 𝑂𝐵
= 𝐴𝑂 − 𝑂𝑈 2 − 𝑈𝐵2
= 𝑅 − 𝑅 2 − (𝐶 2 )2
Draw CE parallel to TU then
𝑌 = 𝐸𝐵 = 𝐸𝑂 − 𝐵𝑂
𝐸𝑂2 = 𝐶𝑂2 − 𝐶𝐸 2 → 𝐸𝑂 = 𝑅2 − 𝑋 2
𝑌= 𝑅 2 − 𝑋 2 − 𝑅 2 − (𝐶 2 )2

22
1.2.2.3. Setting out circular curve
II. Offset from tangent
 This method is also suitable for short curves

X B

23
1.2.2.3. Setting out circular curve
2. By angle and distance measurement
Method of Deflection Angles
 This is a common method of locating a curve in the field

 Specially a theodolite is set up at BC and the deflection angles are

turned from the tangent line to stations on the curve.
 The deflection angle is given by

24
1.2.2.3. Setting out circular curve
 As layout of the horizontal distance could proceed 10 to 30m interval. So
the arc lengths are known.
 The procedure to determine the deflection angle would be
First determine the arc length and deflection angle of three arc
distances.
First even station from BC
𝑨𝒓𝒄 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 = 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝑪
First even station 𝑨𝒓𝒄 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝜟
𝐝𝐞𝐟𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 = ( )
𝑳 𝟐
Even stations between the first and the last even stations
Intermediate Even stations 𝑨𝒓𝒄 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 = First even
station 𝑨𝒓𝒄 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 + 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍
𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒄 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝜟
𝐝𝐞𝐟𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 =
𝑳 𝟐
Last even station to EC
𝑨𝒓𝒄 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 = 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑬𝑪
𝑨𝒓𝒄 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 Δ
𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 = ( )𝟐
𝑳
25
1.2.2.3. Setting out circular curve
 Then prepare a table of appropriate stations together with cumulative
deflection angles as will be shown in the example below.
3. By angle measurement only
Setting out with two theodolites
 The curve may be set out using two theodolites at T1(BC) and
T2(EC) respectively,
 The intersection of the lines of sight giving the position of the curve
pegs.
 Set out the deflection angles from T1I in the usual way. From T2, set
out the same angles from the main chord T2T1. The intersection of
the corresponding angles gives the peg position.
 If T1 cannot be seen from T2, sight to I and
turn off the corresponding angles Δ/2 − δ1,
Δ/2 − δ2, etc.
26
1.2.2.3. Setting out circular curve
4. Setting out By Coordinates
 Today, because of the availability of total station and GPS/GNSS
instruments with data collectors, circular curves are often staked
using the coordinate method.
 For this procedure, coordinates of the points on the curve to be staked
must first be determined in some reference coordinate system.

27
1.2.2.3. Setting out circular curve
4. Setting out By Coordinates
 First having the value of PI location (Xv ,Yv), Tangent(T) and azimuth
of back tangent(AzAV) calculate coordinates of BC (XA ,YA).
XA = XV + T sin AzVA
YA = YV + T cos AzVA
 With the coordinates of the BC known, coordinates of points on the
curve can be computed using the same deflection angles and
subchords used to stake out the curve by the total chord method.
 Deflection angles are added to the azimuth of AV to get azimuths of
the chords to all stations to be set.
 Using the total chord length and chord azimuth for each station,
departures and latitudes are calculated, and added to the coordinates
of A (the BC) to get the station coordinates.

28
29
1.2.2.3. Setting out circular curve
Example:- determine the deflection angle of the previous example if
the stations along the curve are located at 20m interval.
Solution
 Arc length between first even station (4+760) and BC(4+758.52)is :
4+760 - 4+758.52=1.48m
 Arc length between last even station (5+340) and EC(5+341.1)is :
5+341.1 - 5+340=1.10m
 Arc length between intermediate even stations is 20m
𝑨𝒓𝒄 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 ∆
 Deflection angle is calculated by ( ) for each stations
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝟐

21.48 23.30
Deflection of 4+780=(582.58) 2
= 0.4300

The rest summarized on the table below

30
 Arc length Deflection Arc length
Station ΔL Station ΔL Deflection angle
(L) angle (L)

BC(4+758.52) 0 0.000 5+060 20 301.48 6.029

4+760 1.48 1.48 0.030 5+080 20 321.48 6.429
4+780 20 21.48 0.430 5+100 20 341.48 6.829
4+800 20 41.48 0.829 5+120 20 361.48 7.229
4+820 20 61.48 1.229 5+140 20 381.48 7.629
4+840 20 81.48 1.629 5+160 20 401.48 8.028
4+860 20 101.48 2.029 5+180 20 421.48 8.428
4+880 20 121.48 2.429 5+200 20 441.48 8.828
4+900 20 141.48 2.829 5+220 20 461.48 9.228

4+920 20 161.48 3.229 5+240 20 481.48 9.628

4+940 20 181.48 3.629 5+260 20 501.48 10.028

4+960 20 201.48 4.029 5+280 20 521.48 10.428

4+980 20 221.48 4.429 5+300 20 541.48 10.828

5+000 20 241.48 4.829 3+320 20 561.48 11.228

5+020 20 261.48 5.229 3+340 20 581.48 11.628

∆
5+040 20 281.48 5.629 EC(5+341.1) 1.1 582.58 11.650 =
𝟐

31
1.3.Vertical Curves
 Are curves used to provide gradual change between two adjacent
grades(slopes).
1.3.1.Vertical Curve Terminology
 g1 is entrance gradient
 g2 is exit gradient
 PVI is the point where the two gradients intersect
 BVC is the point where the vertical curve begins.
 EVC is the point where the vertical curve ends.
 Length of vertical curve(L) is the projected horizontal distance
between BVC and EVC.
 Rate in change of slope A=g2-g1

32
1.3.Vertical Curves

Length of curve(L)

33
1.3.Vertical Curves
1.3.2. Types of Vertical Curves
 Two types:-

Sag vertical curve Crest vertical curve

 The geometric curve used for vertical alignment design is the
vertical axis parabola due to its desirable characteristics
𝒅𝟐 𝒀
A constant rate in change of slope ( = 𝟐𝒂 = A/L)
𝒅𝑿
Ease of computation of vertical offsets (𝒀 = 𝒂𝑿𝟐 + 𝒃𝑿 + 𝒄
The grade line intersect midway between the BVC and EVC.
1
i.e. BVC to PVI = PVI to EVC = 𝐿
2
34
1.3.Vertical Curves
1.3.3. Procedure for Computing A Vertical Curve
 Having g1,g2, length of curve(L), chainage of PVI and elevation
of PVI and origin of (x,y) axis at BVC
𝐴
 Parabolic equation 𝒀 = 𝒂𝑿𝟐 + 𝒃𝑿 + 𝒄 but 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑔1 if the
2𝐿
origin of the coordinate system is assigned at BVC.
 The general equation can finally be written as
𝐴 𝟐
𝒀= 𝑿 + 𝑔1 𝑿 + elvn of BVC
2𝐿
Compute the algebraic difference in grades: A=g2-g1
Compute the chainage and elevation of the BVC and EVC
𝟏
𝒄𝒉𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝑽𝑪 = 𝑪𝒉𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝑽𝑰 − 𝑳 Evn of BVC=evn of PVI ± g1*(L/2)
𝟐
𝟏 Evn of EVC=evn of PVI ± g2*(L/2)
𝒄𝒉𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝑽𝑪 = 𝑪𝒉𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝑽𝑰 + 𝑳
𝟐

35
1.3.Vertical Curves
Compute the station of the high and low point.
−𝒈𝟏 𝑳
Which is obtained at 𝑿 =
𝑨
Compute the elevation on the curve at each required station by
combining the tangent offset with the appropriate tangent grade line
elevations (add for sag curves and subtract for crest curves)

36
 1.3.Vertical Curves PVI station=1+300
Example:- Vertical curve design Elevation=2146

G1= -1.8%
G2= 5%
G3= -2%
L=244.8m(sag curve)
L=420m(crest curve) PVI station=0+500
Elevation=2106m
Sag vertical curve Solution
 Y = (A/2L) X2+g1x+elevation of BVC
 Station of BVC
=(0+500)-(244.8/2)=0+377.6
BVC EVC  Elevation of BVC
=2106+(244.8*0.018/2)=2108.2032m
 Station of EVC
PVI = (0+500) + (244.8/2)=0+622.4
 Elevation of EVC
= (2106+122.4*0.05) = 2112.12
37
1.3.Vertical Curves
 Elevation and station of lowest point

dy/dx = 0,X=(g1L)/A=1.8*36=64.8m
Station of lowest point = (0+377.6) + 64.8=0+442.4
Elevation of lowest point (at x=64.8) = 2107.62

 Elevation at every 20m

Y=(X2/7200)-0.018X+2108.2032

The results are summarized on the table below.

38
1.3.Vertical Curves
Station X(distance from BVC) Y(elevation)
BVC 0+377.6 0 2108.2032
0+380 2.4 2108.161
0+400 22.4 2107.87
0+420 42.4 2107.69
0+440 62.4 2107.621
0+442.4(lowest point) 64.4 2107.620
0+460 82.4 2107.663
0+480 102.4 2107.816
PVI 0+500 122.4 2108.081
0+520 142.4 2108.456
0+540 162.4 2108.943
0+560 182.4 2109.541
0+580 202.4 2110.250
0+600 222.4 2111.070
0+620 242.4 2112.001
EVC 0+622.4 244.4 2112.120

39
1.4 Transition Curves
 These curve types are used to connect curved and straight sections
of highway.
 They can also be used to ease the change between two circular
curves where the difference in radius is large.
 The purpose of transition curves is to permit the gradual
introduction of centrifugal forces.
 The radial acceleration experienced by the vehicle travelling at a
given velocity v changes from zero on the tangent to v2/R when on
the circular arc.
 The radius of curvature of a transition curve gradually decreases
from infinity at the intersection of the tangent and the transition
curve to the designated radius R at the intersection of the transition
curve with the circular curve.

40
1.4 Transition Curves
 Two formulae are required for the analysis of transition curves:
where
S is the shift (m)
L is the length of the transition curve (m)
R is the radius of the circular curve (m)
V is the design speed (km/hr)
C is the rate of change of radial acceleration (m/s3)
 The value of C should be within the range 0.3 to 0.6.
 A value above 0.6 can result in instability in the vehicle while
values less than 0.3 will lead to excessively long transition curves
leading to general geometric difficulties.
 The length of transition should normally be limited to (24R)0.5 ,
thus:

41
1.4 Transition Curves
Shift
 When transition curve is introduced, the circular curve must be
shifted inwards from its initial position by the value S so that the
curves can meet tangentially.

42
1.4 Transition Curves
 This is the same as having a circular curve of radius (R + S) joining
the tangents replaced by a circular curve (radius R) and two
transition curves.
 The tangent points are, however, not the same. In the case of the
circular curve of radius (R + S), the tangent occurs at B, while for
the circular/ transition curves, it occurs at T. From the geometry of
the above figure:

 It has been proved that B is the mid-point of the transition (see

Bannister and Raymond, 1984 for details).
 Therefore:

 Combining these two equations, the length of the line IT is obtained:

43
1.4 Transition Curves
 if x and y co-ordinates are being used, then any point on the
transition curve can be estimated using the following equation of the
curve which takes the form of a cubic parabola.

 When y attains its maximum value of L (the length of the transition

curve), then the maximum offset is calculated as follows:

44
1.4 Transition Curves
Setting out of transition curve

45
1.3.Vertical Curves
Exercise

1. For the crest vertical curve in the example above determine

 station and elevation of
 BVC
 EVC
 Highest Point
 Elevation every 20m
2. Two roads meet at angle of 127030′. Calculate the curve
elements and the necessary data for setting out a curve of
450m radius to connect two straight portions of the road. if
BVC is at 0+200 and stations are layout every 100m

46
THANK YOU!

47