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NDT DISCONTINUITIES
By World Of NDT / 6 Comments / NDT, Defectology / July 19, 2020 July 9, 2021
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Defectology in NDT deals with the defects that affect all the stages of product realization, starting
from raw material to finished product. Discontinuities are imperfections in a test object that interfere
with the usefulness of the test object. Discontinuities affect the physical properties of the test object
and can also affect or hamper the test object’s ability to fulfill the intended purpose and service life.
Discontinuities can be present in a material from the very first stage of its manufacturing if good
quality raw materials are not used. when the same material passes through a multiple number of
processes shape and size of discontinuities can change.

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques

used in science and technology industry to evaluate the properties of a
material, component or system without causing damage.
To learn more about how NDT began Read our blog:

HISTORY OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING(NDT)

To learn about need of NDT read our blog:

NEED FOR NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING(NDT)

Definitions as per ASME BPVC Sec-V Article

1
• Defect: one or more flaws whose aggregate size, shape, orientation, location, or
properties do not meet specified acceptance criteria and are rejectable.
• Discontinuity: a lack of continuity or cohesion; an intentional or unintentional
interruption in the physical structure or configuration of a material or component.
• Flaw: an imperfection or discontinuity that may be detectable by nondestructive
testing and is not necessarily rejectable.
• Imperfection: a departure of a quality characteristic from its intended condition.

Discontinuities can be divided into three general categories inherent, processing, and service

1. Inherent Discontinuities are usually formed when the metal molten solidifies.
Inherent wrought discontinuities relate to the melting and solidification of the original
ingot before it is formed into slabs, blooms, and billets. Inherent cast discontinuities
relate to the melting casting and solidification of a cast article. Usually caused by
inherent variables such as inadequate feeding, gating, and excessive pouring
temperature and entrapped gasses.
2. Processing discontinuities are usually related to the various manufacturing processes
such as machining, forming, extruding, rolling, welding, heat treatment and plating,
3. Service discontinuities are related to the various service conditions such as stress,
corrosion, fatigue, erosion.

Inherent discontinuities found in the ingot are inclusions, blowholes, pipe, and segregations.

1. Nonmetallic inclusions such as slag, oxides, and sulfides are present in the original
ingot.
2. Blowholes (pores) are formed by gas which is insoluble in the molten metal and is
trapped when the metal solidifies.
3. Pipe is a discontinuity in the center of the ingot caused by internal shrinkage during
solidification.
4. Segregations occur when the distribution of the various elements is not uniform
throughout the ingot. This condition is called banding.
Inherent Discontinuity while making a ingot

Typical inherent discontinuities found in

castings
• Cold Shut: A cold shut is caused when molten metal is poured over solidified metal.
Cold Shut
https://slideplayer.com/slide/5732233/

• Hot tears (shrinkage cracks) occur when there is unequal shrinkage between light
and heavy sections as shown below
 Hot tears in
Casting Surface
http://ccmcotulsa.com/visible-defects-hot-tears/

• Shrinkage cavities are usually caused by lacking of enough molten metal to fill the
space created by shrinkage, similar to the pipe in the ingot.
Radiograph showing Casting Shrinkage

• Micro shrinkage is usually many small subsurface holes that appear at the gate of
the casting. It can also occur when the molten metal must flow from a thin section
into a thicker section of a casting.

• Blowholes are small holes at the surface of the casting caused by gas which comes
from the mold itself many molds are made of sand and when the molten metal comes
into contact with the mold the water in the sand is released as steam.
Blow Holes
Wikipedia

• Porosity is caused by entrapped gas porosity is usually subsurface but can occur on
the surface depending on the design of the mold.
Gas Porosity in castings

Processing discontinuities
Processing discontinuities are those found or produced by the forming or fabrication operations
including rolling, forging, welding, machining, grinding, and heat-treating.

When an ingot is further processed into slabs, blooms, and billets, it is possible for the above
discontinuities to change size and shape.
Depending on the type of processing and the original type of discontinuity, the discontinuities after
rolling and forming are

• Laminations: when a billet is flattened or spread out, discontinuities like pipe

porosity and nonmetallic inclusions may cause a lamination.
• Stringers: during the rolling process the nonmetallic inclusions are squeezed out into
longer and thinner discontinuities called stringers.
• Seams: surface irregularities can cause seams during the rolling process. They are
caused by folding of metal due to improper rolling, a crack in a billet, forming of
billets into rectangular bars.
Discontinuities in a rolling Process

Grinding crack is a processing type discontinuity caused by stresses which are built up from excess
heat created between a grinding wheel and metal.
 Grinding Cracks
visible in Florescent Magnetic Particle Testing
Forging discontinuities occur when metal is hammered or pressed into shape usually while the metal
is very hot. Forged part gains strength due to the grain flow taking the shape of the die.

A forging lap is caused by folding of the metal on the surface of the forging usually when some of
the forging metal is squeezed out between the two dies.

Forging Lap
PC: Anveshan, IIT BHU Varanasi

A forging burst is a rupture caused by forging at improper temperatures bursts that may be either
internal or open to the surface.
Forging Bursts
http://www.steeldata.info/macro/demo/data/2863.html

Welding Discontinuities:
Cold cracking (under bead or delayed cracking): cold cracking is a form of hydrogen-induced
cracking that appears in the heat-affected zone or weld metal of low alloy and hardenable carbon
steels. The principle factors contributing to cold cracking are the presence of atomic hydrogen.
Sources of atomic hydrogen include moisture in the electrode covering, shielding gas or base metal
surface as well as contamination of the filler or base metal by a hydrocarbon (oil or grease)

Hot cracking: occurs at elevated temperatures.

Solidification cracking: it occurs near the solidification temperature of the weld metal and is caused
by the presence of low melting point constituents typically iron sulfides that segregate to the weld
metal dendrite surfaces during the liquid – to – solid transformation processes.
 Weld Cracks
Welders_Visual_Inspection_Handbook-2013_WEB.pdf

Centreline hot crack is a crack seen following the longitudinal centerline of the deposited weld bead
and crater crack occurs in the crater formed at the termination of a weld pass are frequently observed
type of solidification cracking.
Crater Cracks in Welds

Liquation cracking or hot tearing occurs in the heat-affected zone of a weld when the temperature
in that region results in the results liquation of low melting points constituents.

Lamellar tearing: a lamellar tearing is a base metal crack that occurs in plates and shapes of rolled
steel exhibiting high nonmetallic inclusion content. These inclusions are rolled flat in the steel plate
manufacturing process, severely reducing strength and ductility in the through-thickness
direction. When the shrinkage stresses induced by weld solidification are imposed in that direction on
the base metal plate, separation of the metal at the flattened inclusions might occur, as may shearing
between those lamellar planes resulting in a terraced fracture. It can be readily detectable by magnetic
particle testing.
Lamellar Tearing

Lack of Fusion/ Incomplete Fusion: Lack of fusion occurs when some portion of the weld filler
metal fails to coalesce with the adjacent base metal or the weld metal from a previous pass. In welding
processes that use no filler metal, lack of fusion refers to complete coalescence between the two base
metal components being joined.
 Lack of fusion /
Incomplete Fusion in weld
Welders_Visual_Inspection_Handbook-2013_WEB.pdf

Lack of penetration / Incomplete penetration: it is inadequate penetration of the weld joint root by
the weld metal. The condition can result from a number of incorrect parameters like low amperage,
using oversized electrode, improper arc manipulation, and inadequate pre weld cleaning.
 Lack of Penetration /
Incomplete penetration
Welders_Visual_Inspection_Handbook-2013_WEB.pdf

Porosity: Porosity is composed of cavities or pores that form when some constituent within the
molten weld metal vaporizes and forms a small pocket of gas that is entrapped when the weld
solidifies. The pores can take a variety of shapes and sizes although they are usually spherical.
However, one type of elongated pore is often called elongated porosity. The distribution of porosity
within the weld metal may be clustered or linear.
 Weld Porosity
Welders_Visual_Inspection_Handbook-2013_WEB.pdf

Slag Inclusions: Many weld processes use flux shielding, including shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW), submerged arc welding (SAW), and flux-cored arc welding (FCAW). Welds produced by
these methods are particularly susceptible to discontinuities known as slag inclusions. Slag is
entrapped in the weld metal during solidification if it is unable to float out while the pool is still
liquid.
Slag Inclusions : Radiographic Image

Tungsten inclusions are found in the weld metal deposited by the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
process and are usually the result of the molten weld pool or the filler metal to come in contact with
the tip of the tungsten electrode.
Tungsten Inclusion : Radiographic Image

Undercut: undercut occurs at the toe of a weld when the base metal thickness is reduced. Essentially
a narrow crevice is formed in the base metal, paralleling the weld toe and immediately adjacent to it.
It lessens joint strength in the static sense by reducing the base metal section thickness. Also creates a
stress concentration that reduces the impact, fatigue, and low-temperature properties of the joint.
Under and Overlap in welds

Overlap: overlap is the protrusion of weld metal over the weld toe, producing a form of the lack of
fusion that creates a sharp mechanical notch or stress concentration.

Service Discontinuities:
When we manufacture a product making sure it is free from any defect doesn’t mean that the product
will last till eternity. Everything has its service life. A product’s service life is its period of use in
service. The life expectancy of a component is dependent on its service environment both chemical
and mechanical, the quality on its maintenance, and the appropriateness of its design.

Articles which may develop defects due to metal fatigue are considered extremely critical and demand
close attention.

Fatigue cracks are service type discontinuities that are usually open to the surface where they start
from stress concentration points. Fatigue cracks are possible only after the part is placed into service
but may be the result of porosity, inclusions, or other discontinuities in a highly stresses metal part.
Fatigue Cracks in a crane hook visible in magnetic particle testing
PC:Hareesha N Gowda, Dayananda Sagar College of Engg, Bangalore – Slideshare

Abrasive wear occurs when a certain material scratches or gouges a softer surface. It has been
estimated that abrasion is responsible for 50% of all wear-related failures. A typical example of
abrasive wear is the damage of crankshaft journals in reciprocating compressors. Hard dirt particles
will break through the lubricant film and cut or scratch the journal’s comparatively softer surface.
Wear, or the undesired removal of material from rubbing surfaces, causes many surface failures.
 Wear (Abrasive and Erosion)
Science Direct

Corrosion is a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemically stable form such
as oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual destruction of materials by chemical and/or
electrochemical reaction with their environment. Corrosion failure is a material failure related to
corrosion. Studies of failure analysis are particularly useful in the chemical processing, refining, oil &
gas, and pulp & paper industries.
 Corrosion
and pitting on a metal bridge

Pitting corrosion, or pitting, is a form of extremely localized corrosion that leads to the creation of
small holes in the metal. The driving power for pitting corrosion is the depassivation of a small area,
which becomes anodic while an unknown but potentially vast area becomes cathodic, leading to very
localized galvanic corrosion. The corrosion penetrates the mass of the metal, with a limited diffusion
of ions.

Creep: In materials science, creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the tendency of a solid material to
move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of persistent mechanical stresses. It can
occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are still below the yield strength of
the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods and
generally increases as they near their melting point.

Erosive wear (or erosion) occurs when particles in a fluid or other carrier slide and roll at relatively
high velocity against a surface. Individually, each particle removed is insignificant, but a large
number of particles removed over a long period of time can produce staggering degrees of erosion.

Table A-110 of ASME BPVC Sec-V, Article 1 lists common imperfections and
the NDE methods that are generally capable of detecting them.
CAUTION: Table A-110 should be regarded for general guidance only and not as a basis for
requiring or prohibiting a particular type of NDE method for a specific application. For
example, material and product form are factors that could result in differences from the degree
of effectiveness implied in the table. For service-induced imperfections, accessibility and other
conditions at the examination location are also significant factors that must be considered in
selecting a particular NDE method.

In addition, Table A-110 must not be considered to be all-inclusive; there are several
NDE methods/techniques and imperfections not listed in the table. The user must consider all
applicable conditions when selecting NDE methods for a specific application.
Table A 110 ASME BPVC Sec – V, Article 1
For Reference only
Table A 110 ASME BPVC Sec – V, Article 1
For Reference only

Disclaimer
We have tried to cover basic types of discontinuities in the general processes. However, there are
more discontinuities process-specific and code specific which we have not covered in this article. we
will try to cover them in our coming articles.

References :
• PTP Classroom Training Books.
• ASNT RT Lecture Guide.
• ASME BPVC Sec-V
• Wikipedia
• Science direct
• Welders_Visual_Inspection_Handbook-2013_WEB.pdf
• Slide Share
• Erosive wear – Tec Eurolabwww.tec-eurolab.com

Feature Image Photo by Taton Moïse on Unsplash

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6 thoughts on “NDT DISCONTINUITIES”

1.

unfairly dismissed

July 30, 2020 at 4:23 pm

Really appreciate you sharing this blog post.Much thanks again. Fantastic.

Reply

2. Pingback: Introduction to Casting Process | World Of NDT

3.

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December 20, 2020 at 7:12 am

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4.

Obinna Amaefule

April 13, 2021 at 5:55 am

interesting stuff

Reply

5.

dorai subramani

September 12, 2021 at 12:45 am

worldofndt.com/ndt-discontinuities/ aticle copy plese.

thanks
doraisubramani.

Reply

6.

Okene

July 16, 2022 at 11:30 pm

This is very enlightening, wish to have a copy sent to my mail.

 Reply

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