Module 2

Mathematical Language
and
Symbols
 MODULE 2
The Nature of Mathematics: Mathematical Language and Symbols

2.1 Introduction
The nature of mathematics has become clear to us when we learned in
the first part how it is used to understand nature and our surroundings
because of its ability to explain the different patterns in nature.

Another aspect of mathematics that needs to be studied is that it has its

own language which makes possible many different processes in different
fields of learning.

This module will discuss the characteristics of the mathematics language,

the conventions, basic concepts, and applications. Different symbols are
introduced as language characteristics and some mathematical concepts are
discussed.

2.2 Learning Outcome

After finishing this module, you are expected to:

1. discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics;

2. explain the nature of mathematics as a language;
3. translate expressions and sentences to mathematical symbols; and 4.
acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language

2.3 What You Need to Know

Mathematics is a language that is understood throughout the world. It
is effective in terms of expressing ideas and in communicating ideas to others
without the burden of translating such to different languages.

2.3.1 Characteristics of the Language of Mathematics

Mathematics as a language is precise, concise, and powerful.

It is precise in the sense that it is able to make very fine distinctions based
on definitions. We know that a square is different from a circle because they
were defined differently. Visual representations also tell us that two
mathematical objects are different. We all know that a square has a different
visual representation with a circle. Do you know the difference between a
square and a rectangle? Are all squares rectangles or are all rectangles
squares?

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 The language of mathematics is concise. It is able to say things briefly
because it has in it different symbols. For example, the sentence “Two plus
three is equal to five” may be expressed concisely as 2 + 3 = 5.

Lastly, this language is powerful. It is able to express complex thoughts

with relative ease.

The language of mathematics can be learned but it requires an effort

similar to learning a foreign language.

2.3.2 The English Language and The Mathematical Language

There are certain similarities between the English language and

mathematical language. A noun in the English language corresponds to a
mathematical expression while a sentence in the English language
corresponds to a mathematical sentence.

In English, nouns are used to name things we want to talk about (like
people, places, and things); whereas sentences are used to state complete
thoughts. A typical English sentence has at least one noun, and at least one
verb.
A mathematical expression is a correct arrangement of mathematical
symbols to represent the object of interest, does not contain a complete
thought, and does not possess a truth value (one will not know if it is true or
false).
The mathematical analogue of a sentence is also called a sentence. A
mathematical sentence must state a complete thought. The table below
shows the analogy.
ENGLISH MATHEMATICS
Name given to an NOUN (person, place, thing) EXPRESSION
object of interest:
Examples: Mario, Isabela, book
Examples:
A complete SENTENCE SENTENCE
thought: Examples: Examples:
The capital of the province of
Isabela is Ilagan City.
The capital of the province of
Isabela is Cauayan City.

Frequently, we need to work with numbers which are most common types
of mathematical expressions. Even a single number can have numerous
names. For example, the expressions
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 6 4+2 12 ÷ 2 (4 − 1) + 3 1+1+1+1+1+1
all look different, but are all just different names for the same number.
Just like English sentences, mathematical sentences also have verbs. In
the mathematical sentence ‘4 + 2 = 6’, the verb is ‘ = ’. If you read the sentence
as ‘four plus two equals six’, then it is easy to identify the verb. The equal sign
is one of the most popular mathematical verbs.
Learning Activity 1

Directions. If possible, classify the entries in the list below as:

• an English noun (EN), or a mathematical expression (ME)

• an English sentence (ES), or a mathematical sentence (MS)

Write your answer in the blanks before looking at the solutions. In each
sentence (English or mathematical), circle the verb.

Examples

2𝑥 + 5𝑦 ME
Three is a crowd. ES

Start Here:

1. cat 2. 2
3. The word ‘chat’ begins with the letter ‘t’.
4. 5+2=4
5. 7−3
6. 5−3=2
7. The cat is white.
8. 𝑥
9. 𝑥=1
10. 𝑥−1=0
11. 𝑡+3
12. 𝑡+3=3+𝑡
13. This sentence is false.
14. 𝑥+0=𝑥 15. 1 · 𝑥 = 𝑥

2.3.3 Conventions in the Mathematical Language

Just like any language, the mathematical language uses conventions. In

the English language, the use of capital letters for proper nouns is
conventional. Thus, our place Isabela is written with the first letter
capitalized. This convention helps us distinguish between common nouns
and proper nouns. In mathematics, there are different conventions for us to
distinguish between different types of mathematical objects.

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 Note that sentences state a complete thought, but nouns and expressions
do not. For example, read aloud: 7. What about 7? Now read aloud: 9 − 2 = 7.
This states a complete thought about the number 7.
Sentences can also be true or false. The notion of truth, the property of
being true or false, is of fundamental importance in mathematics.
Mathematical sentences are declarative in nature and we can determine
whether they are true or false.
We have mentioned earlier that the mathematical language is precise. In
order to communicate effectively, we must agree on the meanings of certain
words and phrases because confusion may result from ambiguities. Consider
the following conversation in a car at a noisy intersection:
Mario: “Turn left!”

Dana: “I didn’t hear you. Left?”

Mario: “Right!”

Question: Which way will Dana turn? It depends on how she interprets
the word ‘right’. If she interprets ‘right’ as the opposite of ‘left’, then she will
turn right. If she interprets ‘right’ as ‘correct,’ then she will turn left. The word
‘right’ caused confusion.
There is much less ambiguity allowed in mathematics than in English.
Ambiguity is avoided because mathematics has in it the use of definitions. By
defining words and phrases, it is assured that everyone agrees on their
meaning. Here is our first definition:

DEFINITION 2.1 (expression)

An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun; it is a correct

arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object of
interest. An expression does NOT state a complete thought; in particular, it does not
make sense to ask if an expression is true or false.

Most mathematics books do not define expression. It must be clear that

expressions and sentences are totally different. They do not overlap. If
something is an expression, then it is not a sentence. If something is a
sentence, then it is not an expression.
There are many types of expressions in mathematics. Some of these are
numbers, sets, functions, ordered pairs, matrices, vectors. Most common
types are numbers, sets, and functions.

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 In mathematics, some expressions can have many different names. The
name depends on what we are doing with the expression. An example is the
number 1 which goes with the following names:

2−1

The name , for example, is appropriate if we need to divide a chocolate

bar evenly for two kids. The name is appropriate if we only have a
one-third cup measure but needs 1 cup of sugar. Do you know when it is
appropriate to name 1 as ?

Learning Activity 2

Direction. Give a name for the number ‘3’ that would be appropriate in each
situation:
Examples:

Three identical rods must be cut

equally to be distributed to 6 students.

Start Here:

1. three candy bars must be equally

divided among three people

2. three candy bars must be equally
divided among six people
3. you need three cups of flour, but
only have a one-quarter cup measure
4. you need three cups of flour, but

only have a one-half cup measure

The most common problem involving expressions in mathematics is

simplification. To simplify an expression means to give another name for the
expression in a way that is simpler. When is an expression simpler?

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 The notion of ‘simpler’ can have different meanings:
An expression is simpler if Example
it has fewer symbols Both expressions 2 + 3 + 4 and 9 are names for
the same number but 9 uses fewer symbols.
it has fewer operations Both expressions 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 and 5 ∙ 3 are
names for the same number but the latter has
fewer operations.
it is better suited for current use
The name is a great name for the
number 1 if we need to convert units of inches
to units of feet.
it follows the preferred style or The expressions andare both names for the
format 1 same
number. People usually prefer because
2
it is in the ‘reduced form’ or ‘simplest form’.

We now move to defining precisely what a mathematical sentence means.

The definition follows:

DEFINITION 2.2 (mathematical sentence)

A mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct

arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a complete thought. It makes sense
to ask about the TRUTH of a sentence: Is it true? Is it false? Is it sometimes
true/sometimes false?

The sentence ‘ 1 + 2 = 3 ’ is read as ‘one plus two equals three’. A complete

thought is being stated, which in this case is true.
A question commonly encountered, when presenting the sentence
example ‘ 1 + 2 = 3 ’, is the following: If ‘ = ’ is the verb, then what is the ‘+’?
The symbol ‘ + ’ is a connective; a connective is used to ‘connect’ objects of a
given type to get a ‘compound’ object of the same type. Here, the numbers 1
and 2 are ‘connected’ to give the new number 1 + 2.

There are two primary ways to decide whether something is a sentence,

or not:

• Read it aloud, and ask yourself the question: Does it state a complete
thought? If the answer is ‘yes’, then it is a sentence. Notice that
expressions do not state a complete thought. Consider, for example,
the number ‘ 1 + 2 ’ . Say it aloud: ‘one plus two’. Have you stated a

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 complete thought? NO! But, if you say: ‘ 1 + 2 = 4 ’ , then you have
stated a complete thought.

• Alternately, you can ask yourself the question: Does it make sense to
ask about the TRUTH of this object? Consider again the number ‘ 1
+ 2 ’ . Is ‘ 1 + 2 ’ true? Is ‘ 1 + 2 ’ false? These questions do not make
sense, because it does not make sense to ask about the truth of an
expression.
Here are some more examples of mathematical sentences and their truth
values.

Mathematical sentence True, False, Sometime true/sometimes false

True
𝑥+2<𝑥−3 False
𝑓(2) = 3 Sometimes true/sometimes false

The first sentence, 𝑥2 + 2𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 2), is true for all real numbers following
the distributive axiom. The second sentence, 𝑥 + 2 < 𝑥 − 3, is false for all real
numbers. No real number will make the sentence true. The last sentence,
𝑓(2) = 3, is true if we define 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 so that 𝑓(2) = 2 + 1 = 3. However, if we
define 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 then 𝑓(2) = 6 ≠ 3 which makes the given sentence false. Thus,
this sentence is sometimes true/sometimes false.
Learning Activity 3

Direction. Classify the truth of each sentence: always true (T); always
false (F); or sometimes true/sometimes false (ST/SF).

Examples

1+2=3 T

ST/SF; The
sentence is
𝑥+5=2 true if 𝑥 = −3.
Otherwise, it is
false.

Start Here:

1. 𝑥÷3=2

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 2. 3+5+4=2+7+3
3. 𝑥−1=3
4. 5−1=5 5. 5 − 1 ≤ 5
6. 5 − 1 < 5
7. 1 + 2 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 + 2
8. 5𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 7
9. 3 − 5 = 4
10. 3 × 7 + 3 ÷ 3 = 8

2.3.4 Grammar in the Mathematical Language

Grammar is the set of structural rules governing the use of symbols

representing mathematical objects.

Observe that in mathematics, we follow rules in translating from English

language to the mathematical language. Like any translation, this one is not
without problems.

There are certain difficulties in the mathematical language. Here are

some.

1. The word “is” could mean equality, inequality, or membership in a set

depending on how they are used in a sentence.

Consider the sentences below:

1. 5 is the square root of 25.

2. 5 is less than 10.

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 3. 5 is a prime number.

In the first of these sentences, is could be replaced by equals: it

says that two objects, 5 and the square root of 25, are in fact one and
the same object. This is similar in use to the English sentence Ilagan
City is the capital of Isabela.

In the second sentence, is plays a completely different role. The

words less than 10 form an adjectival phrase, specifying a property that
numbers may or may not have. This is similar in use to the English
sentence Grass is green.

As for the third sentence, the word is there means is an example

of, as it does in the English sentence Isabela is a province. This could
also be a membership property meaning Isabela belongs to the set of
provinces.

These differences are reflected in the fact that the sentences do not
resemble each other when they are written in a more symbolic way.
Thus, we give the corresponding sentences in symbols below.

Sentence Sentence in symbol

5 is the square root of 25
5 is less than 10
5 𝜖 𝑃 where 𝑃 is the set of all
5 is a prime number prime numbers

The third sentence used the symbol ϵ which indicates membership

to a set (the concept of sets will be discussed in detail in the succeeding
topics). The sentence would normally not be written symbolically
because the concept of a prime number is not quite basic enough to
have universally recognized symbols associated with it. However, it is
sometimes useful to do so which means we need to invent a suitable
symbol. In this case, we may use the letter 𝑃 to denote the set of all
primes.

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 Start Here:

1.

3.

10. 3 times 7 plus 3 divided by 3 is 22.

2. A number in a sentence may be of cardinal, ordinal, or nominal type.

Numbers in mathematics are treated differently based on how we

use them. Here are some examples:

I saw the road sign AH26 when I travelled from Manila to Isabela.
Jonathan is number 26 in the Mathematics class. I
gained 26 points from my recent purchase.

All three sentences used the number 26 in different contexts. Can

you tell the difference?

The first sentence talks about a road sign AH26 (Pan-Philippine

Highway) which means Asian Highway 26 of the Asian Highway

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Network. In this case, the number 26 was used to describe and
distinguish the highway from other Asian highways. It does not tell
that AH26 is a better highway than other Asian Highways. This means
that the number 26 in the first sentence is of nominal type.

The second sentence tells us that the number 26 is used to identify

Jonathan’s standing in the Mathematics class relative to his
classmates. In this case, an order or rank is considered and one can
compare the number 26 from the other numbers. Thus, for example,
Liza is number 13 in this class, then we can say that Liza performs
better than Jonathan. This the number 26 is of the ordinal type.

The third sentence tells us that the number 26 is used to describe

the literal number of points gained in a recent purchase. Here we
observe the use of a unit of measure which is points. Thus, if one gains
30 points from a recent purchase, we can say that this value is larger
than 26 points by 4 points. Thus, the number 26 in the third sentence
is of cardinal type.

With the given examples, it must be clear to use that we need to

have the skill of identifying the type of number that is being used in as
sentence.

Learning Activity 5

Direction. Identify the type of number used in each of the following

sentences: nominal (N), ordinal (O), cardinal (C)

Examples:

Chanda is the 4th child in the family. O

Gino has student number 2020-3214 N

Start Here:

1. His situation is a catch-22. 2.

I have 5 pesos left in my wallet. 3.
Myla has an overload of 4 teaching units.
4. William is 2nd in line to the throne.
5. I could not tell him that my mobile number is
09021112222.
6. Cromwell is so near to being top 2 in the
Regional Statistics Quiz.
7. Sheila is on her 5th month of pregnancy.
8. Jacky sold 21 tubs of pansit Cabagan.

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 9. Lessons become harder once you reach 3rd year in this
program.
10. Sunday is the 1st day of the week.

3. The words “and” and “or” mean differently in mathematics from its
English use.

Let us consider the mathematical sentence

Two plus two equals four.

as a sentence of English rather than of mathematics, and try to analyze

it grammatically. The sentence contains three nouns two, two, and four,
a verb equals, and a conjunction plus. Here we observe that the word
plus resembles the word and, the standard example of a conjunction.
However, we also observe that it does not behave in the same manner,
as is shown by the sentence,

Mario and Dana love Mathematics.

The verb in this sentence, love, is plural, while the verb in the
previous sentence, equals was singular. So the word plus seems to take
two objects and produce out of them a new, single object four, while
and conjoins Mario and Dana in a looser way, leaving them as distinct
people.

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 We found out that the conjunction and has two very different uses.
One is to link two nouns whereas the other is to join two whole
sentences together, as in

Mario loves Mathematics and Dana loves English.

If we want our language to be absolutely clear, then it is important

to be aware of this distinction. Thus, the sentence

Two and five are prime numbers.

may be paraphrased to

Two is a prime number and five is a prime number.

4. Mathematical objects may be represented in many ways such as sets

and functions.

Representations using sets and functions will be discussed in

detail in the succeeding topics.

2.3.5 Four Basic Concepts

The four basic concepts to be discussed include sets, relations, functions,

and binary operations. It is important to be familiar with these basic concepts
and understand how they are used.

2.3.5.1 Sets

A set is a collection of objects, mostly mathematical objects such as

numbers, points in space, or other sets. We denote a set using capital letters
of the English alphabet and the symbol ϵ for set membership. Thus, if 𝐴 is a
set and 3 is an element of this set, we may write it in the symbol as 3 ϵ 𝐴 which
is read 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 or 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐴.

A set may also be empty, that is, it has no elements. We call this set the empty
set or the null set. The symbols used to denote the empty set are ∅ and
{ }.
There are three common ways to denote a specific set.

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 1. Roster method. Some sets have few elements which makes it possible
to provide a list of its members. One way of denoting a set is by the
roster method where we list its elements inside curly brackets: {2, 3, 5,
7, 11, 13, 17, 19}, for example, is the set whose elements are the eight
numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, and 19.

2. Use of dots. Most sets are too large and they are often infinite. A second
way to denote sets is to use three dots to imply a list that is too long to
write down: for example, the expressions {1, 2, 3, … , 100} and {2, 4, 6, 8, …
} represent the set of all positive integers up to 100 and the set of all
positive even numbers, respectively. The three dots are collectively
called ellipsis.

3. Rule method. A third way is to define a set using a property or a

description. An example that shows how this is done is the expression
{𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 < 20}. To read this expression, we first say, The set
of, because of the curly brackets. Next, we read the symbol that occurs
before the colon. The colon itself we read as such that. Finally, we read
what comes after the colon, which is the property that determines the
elements of the set. In this example, we say, The set of all x such that x
is prime and x is less than 20, which is equal to the set
{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}.

Many sentences of mathematics can be written in set-theoretic terms.

For example, the sentence 5 < 10 could be written as 5 ϵ {𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 < 10}. Why is there a need for such if it is easier to understand 5
< 10? In some instances, doing so would be convenient.

An example of this is when we translate geometry to algebra using

Cartesian coordinates. Geometric objects were defined as sets of points,
where points were expressed as pairs or triples of numbers. For example, the
set {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∶ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1} represents a circle of radius 1 about the origin (0, 0).
This was based on Pythagorean theorem which says that the square of the
distance from (0, 0) to (𝑥, 𝑦) is 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 so the sentence 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1 can be re-

expressed geometrically as the distance from (0, 0) to (𝑥, 𝑦) is √1 = 1.

Sets allow one to reduce the number of parts of speech that one needs,
turning almost all of them into nouns. For example, with the help of the
membership symbol ϵ one can do without adjectives. The translation of 5 is a
prime number (where “prime” functions as an adjective) will simply be 5 ϵ 𝑃.

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 Given two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, it is possible to “multiply” them to produce a new
set denoted as 𝐴 × 𝐵. This operation is called the Cartesian product. To
understand it, we must first understand the idea of an ordered pair.

DEFINITION 2.3 (ordered pair)

An ordered pair is a list (𝑥, 𝑦) of two things 𝑥 and 𝑦, enclosed in parentheses and
separated by a comma.

We take note that (2,4) is an ordered pair different from another ordered
pair (4,2). We write (2,4) ≠ (4,2). Right away you can see that ordered pairs can
be used to describe points on the plane, as was done in calculus, but they are
not limited to just that. Letters, for example, may be expressed as ordered
pairs like (𝑚, 𝑙). Now we are ready to define the Cartesian product.

DEFINITION 2.4 (Cartesian product)

The Cartesian product of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is another set, denoted as 𝐴 × 𝐵 and defined
as 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎,𝑏) ∶ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵} .

The set 𝐴 × 𝐵 is a set of ordered pairs of elements from 𝐴 and 𝐵. For

example, if 𝐴 = {𝑘, 𝑙, 𝑚} and 𝐵 = {1,2},then

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑘, 1), (𝑘, 2), (𝑙, 1), (𝑙, 2), (𝑚, 1), (𝑚, 2)}

Learning Activity 6

Direction. Write the following sets using the rule method.

Example

{2,4,6,8,10} {2𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 ϵ ℤ , 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 5}

Start Here:

1. The first 12 natural numbers.

2. {3,6,9,12,15, … }
3. {1,4,9,16,25,36, … }
4. {… , −15, −10, −5,0,5,10,15, …}
5. {… , −45, −30, −15,0,15,30,45, … }

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 Sets have other properties. It can happen that all elements of some set 𝐴
are also elements of another set 𝐵. For example, each element of 𝐴 = {1,3,4} is
also an element of 𝐵 = {0,1,2,3,4}. When 𝐴 and 𝐵 are related this way we say
that 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐵.

DEFINITION 2.5 (subset)

Suppose 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets. If every element of 𝐴 is also an element of 𝐵, then we say 𝐴 is
a subset of 𝐵, and we denote this as 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵.

We write 𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵 if 𝐴 is not a subset of 𝐵, that is, if it is not true that every element of 𝐴 is
also an element of 𝐵. Thus 𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵 means that there is at least one element of 𝐴 that is
not an element of 𝐵.

Just as numbers are combined with operations such as addition,

subtraction and multiplication, there are various operations that can be
applied to sets. The Cartesian product is one such operation; given sets 𝐴 and
𝐵, we can combine them with × to get a new set 𝐴 × 𝐵. Here are three
operations called union, intersection and difference.

DEFINITION 2.6 (set union, intersection, and difference)

Suppose 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets.

• The union of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = { 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 }.

• The intersection of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = { 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 }.
• The difference of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set 𝐴 − 𝐵 = { 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵} .

In words, the union 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the set of all things that are in 𝐴 or in 𝐵 (or in both).
The intersection 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is the set of all things in both 𝐴 and 𝐵. The difference 𝐴 − 𝐵
is the set of all things that are in 𝐴 but not in 𝐵.

2.3.5.2 Relations

Mathematical phrases such as “equals”, “is less than”, and “is an element
of” are some examples of relationships in mathematics. It is important, when
specifying a relationship, to be careful about which objects are to be related.
The term relation is used to describe a relationship between two mathematical
objects. Usually a relation comes with a set 𝐴 of objects that may or may not
be related to each other. For example, the relation < might be defined on the

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set of all positive integers. In this case, we say 5 < 10, which satisfy the defined
relationship.

Sometimes relations are defined with reference to two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵. For
example, if the relation is ϵ, then 𝐴 might be the set of all positive integers and
𝐵 the set of all sets of positive integers as well. The formal definition of relation
follows.

DEFINITION 2.7 (relation)

A relation on a set 𝐴 is a subset 𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐴. We often abbreviate the statement (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅

as 𝑥𝑅𝑦. The statement (𝑥, 𝑦) ∉ 𝑅 means 𝑥 is not related to 𝑦.

A relational expression 𝑥𝑅𝑦 is a sentence which is either true or false. For

example, 5 < 10 is true, and 10 < 5 is false. Thus an operation like “+” is not a
relation, because, for instance, 5 + 10 has a numeric value, not a True or False
value.

Since relational expressions have true or false values, we can combine

them and form the sentence “If 𝑥𝑅𝑦, then 𝑦𝑅𝑥”. This is a sentence whose truth
or falsity may depend on 𝑥 and 𝑦. With this, we take note that some relations
have properties that others do not have. For example, the relation ≤ on the
set of integers (ℤ) satisfies 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ϵ ℤ. But this is not the case for <
because 𝑥 < 𝑥 is never true.

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 Learning Activity 7

Directions. Write out the defined relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 as a set of ordered pairs.
Example

Let 𝐴 = {0,1,2,3,4,5} and 𝑅 expresses

on 𝐴.

Note: (1,0) is in 𝑅 because 1 > 0.

Start Here:

1. Consider the set 𝐴 in the example.

Write out 𝑅 which expresses = on 𝐴.

2. Still on 𝐴 in the example, write out 𝑅 which expresses ≤ on

𝐴.

2.3.5.3 Functions

One of the most basic activities of mathematics is to take a mathematical

object and transform it into another one, sometimes of the same kind and
sometimes not. “The square root of” transforms numbers into numbers, as do
“four plus”, “two times”, “the cosine of” and “the logarithm of”. A non-numeric
example is “the center of gravity of”, which transforms geometrical shapes into
points - meaning that if S stands for a shape, then “the center of gravity of S”
stands for a point. A function is a mathematical transformation of such a
kind. More generally, functions can have properties and in order to discuss
those properties one needs to think of functions as things.

Consider the function 𝑓(𝑛) = |𝑛| + 2 that converts integers 𝑛 into natural
numbers |𝑛| + 2. Its graph is 𝑅 = {(𝑛, |𝑛| + 2) ∶ 𝑛 ϵ ℤ} ⊆ ℤ × ℕ.

Page 18 of 33
 Figure 1
The function 𝑓(𝑛) = |𝑛| + 2

A function may be viewed as:

1. sending elements from one set 𝐴 to another set 𝐵. In the case of 𝑓 in

Figure 1, 𝐴 = ℤ and 𝐵 = ℕ.
2. a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵.
3. for every input value 𝑛, there is exactly one output value 𝑓(𝑛).

Some of you may have used the vertical line test: Any vertical line
intersects a function’s graph at most once. It means that for any input value
𝑥, the graph contains exactly one point of form (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)). The formal definition
that follows captures all these ideas.

DEFINITION 2.8 (function)

Suppose 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets. A function 𝑓 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 (denoted as 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵) is a relation 𝑓

⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐵 from 𝐴 to 𝐵, satisfying the property that for each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 the relation 𝑓 contains
exactly one ordered pair of form (𝑎, 𝑏). The statement (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓 is abbreviated 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.

Consider the function 𝑓 graphed in Figure 1. According to the definition,

we regard 𝑓 as the set of points in its graph, that is, 𝑓 = {(𝑛, |𝑛| + 2) ∶ 𝑛 ∈ ℤ} ⊆
ℤ × ℕ. This is a relation from ℤ to ℕ, and indeed given any 𝑎 ϵ ℤ the set 𝑓
contains exactly one ordered pair (𝑎, |𝑎| + 2) whose first coordinate is 𝑎. Since
(3,5) ϵ 𝑓, we write 𝑓 (3) = 5; and since (−3,5) ϵ 𝑓 we write 𝑓 (−3) = 5, etc. In
general, (𝑎, 𝑏) ϵ 𝑓 means that 𝑓 sends the input value 𝑎 to the output value 𝑏,
and we express this as 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏. This function can be expressed by a formula:
For each input value 𝑛, the output value is |𝑛| + 2, so we may write 𝑓 (𝑛) = |𝑛|
+ 2.

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 Learning Activity 8

Directions. Write out the defined function 𝑓 on the given sets as a set of ordered
pairs.
Example

There are four different functions 𝑓 = {(𝑎, 0), (𝑏, 0)}

𝑓: {𝑎, 𝑏} → {0,1}. List them all. 𝑓 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑏, 1)}
𝑓 = {(𝑎, 0), (𝑏, 1)}
𝑓 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑏, 0)}

There are eight different functions

𝑓: {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} → {0,1}. List them all.

Some important concepts of functions include domain, codomain, and

range. Their definitions are given below.

DEFINITION 2.9 (domain and range)

For a function 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵, the set 𝐴 is called the domain of 𝑓 . The set 𝐵 is called the
codomain of 𝑓 . The range of 𝑓 is the set {𝑓 (𝑎): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴} = {𝑏 ∶ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓} .

• Think of the domain as the set of possible “input values” for 𝑓.

• Think of the codomain as a sort of “target” for the outputs.
• Think of the range as the set of all possible “output values” for 𝑓.

Continuing the domain of 𝑓 is ℤ and its codomain is ℕ. Its range is {𝑓(𝑎):

𝑎 ∈ ℤ} = {|𝑎| + 2: 𝑎 ∈ ℤ} = {2, 3, 4, 5, … }. Notice that the range is inside the
codomain, but in this case, it is not equal to the codomain. In the example,
the domain and codomain are sets of numbers, but this need not be the case
in general.

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 Learning Activity 9

Directions. Write the domain and range of the given functions in set
notation.
Example

Suppose 𝐴 = { 0,1,2,3,4 }, 𝐵 = {2,3,4,5} Domain of 𝑓 = {0,1,2,3,4} and

𝑓 = {(0,3), (1,3), (2,4),(3,2), (4,2)}. Range of 𝑓 = {2,3,4} State
the domain and range of 𝑓.

Start Here:

Suppose 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} , 𝐵 = {2,3,4,5,6},

and 𝑓 = {(𝑎, 2), (𝑏, 3), (𝑐, 4), (𝑑, 5)} . State
the domain and range of 𝑓.

2.3.5.4 Binary Operations

Consider the sentence “two plus two equals four”. It was clear to us that
the word “equals” indicates a relation and it sits between the noun phrases
“two plus two” and “four” which then forms a sentence. But what about
“plus”? This word also sits between two nouns. However, the result, “two plus
two” is not a sentence but a noun phrase. This pattern is characteristic of
binary operations. Some familiar examples of binary operations are “plus”,
“minus”, “times”, and “divided by”.
As with functions, it is customary, and convenient, to be careful about
the set to which a binary operation is applied. A binary operation on a set 𝐴
is a function that takes pairs of elements of 𝐴 and produces elements of 𝐴
from them. It is a function with the set of all pairs (𝑥, 𝑦) of elements of 𝐴 as its
domain and with 𝐴 as its range. The symbol for the operation comes between
𝑥 and 𝑦 rather than before them: we write 𝑥 + 𝑦 rather than +(𝑥, 𝑦).
Now that we have discussed some conventions in mathematics, it is
essential to also acquire the skill of translating phrases and sentences to
mathematical notations.

2.3.6 Translating Expressions and Sentences

The use of symbols in mathematics is essential in stating complex

thoughts and ideas with simplicity. In this way, some of the mathematical

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problems are easily analyzed and solved. This makes translation to
mathematical symbols and notations a required skill in understanding and
studying mathematics.
In translating phrases and sentences to mathematical symbols, we follow
the given steps below:

Step 1: Identify the variable/s and constant/s

Step 2: Determine the connectors.

Step 3: Perform the translation of the phrase or sentence into symbols.

An example is the sentence “Seven and a number is fifteen.”

Seven And a number is fifteen

7 + 𝑥 = 15

We must be familiar with the keywords to proceed with translation. The

table below shows some key words and phrases that are used to describe
common mathematical operations. To write mathematical expressions and
sentences, we assign a variable to represent the unknown number. Common
representation of the unknown number is the letter 𝑥. However, other letters
and characters may also be used.

Operation or
Keyword/Phrase Example Translation
Connector
Plus A number plus seven 𝑥+7

More than Five more than a number 𝑥+5

Addition The sum of The sum of a number and six 𝑥+6

The total of The total of ten and a number 10 + 𝑥

(+)
Increased by A number increased by two 𝑥+2

Added to Eleven added to a number 𝑥 + 11

Minus A number minus eight 𝑥−8

Subtraction
Less than Four less than a number 𝑥−4
(−)
The difference of The difference of a number and ten 𝑥 − 10

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 Less Nine less a number 9−𝑥

Decreased by A number decreased by eight 𝑥−8

Subtracted from Six subtracted from a number 𝑥−6

Times Five times a number 5𝑥

The product of The product of five and a number 5𝑥

Multiplication
Twice; double Twice a number; double a number 2𝑥
(×)
Multiplied by A number multiplied by negative two −2𝑥
3
Of Three-fifths of a number

The quotient of The quotient of a number and nine

Division
Divided by Twenty divided by a number
(÷,/)
The ratio of The ratio of a number and twelve

The square;
Powers squared The square of a number; a number squared 𝑥2

The cube of;

(𝑥𝑛)
cubed The cube of a number; a number cubed 𝑥3

Equals Ten less than a number equals one. 𝑥 − 10 = 1

Is Three times a number is negative five. 3𝑥 = −5

Equals
Is the same as Eighteen is the same as twice the number. 18 = 2𝑥
(=)
Yields Twelve added to a number yields eleven. 𝑥 + 12 = 11
Nine less than a number amounts to
Amounts to 𝑥 − 9 = 25
twenty-five.

In translation problems, the words sum, total, difference, product and

quotient imply at least two parts – use parentheses when a sum or difference
is multiplied. For example, the phrase "the sum of three times a number and
five" translates to " ," while the phrase "three times the sum of a number
and five" translates to " ."
Other common issues in converting English phrases and sentences to
mathematical expressions and sentences are summarized in the following
table.

Issues Incorrect Process Correct Process

Using the wrong key word for the One half of

problem twenty

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Incorrect word order with subtraction Five less than two
times a number

Not validating by translating from Twice the sum of three

symbols back to words. and a number

Use of punctuation Three times a number,

plus four.

Redundancy Twice a number is

Twice the product of two
twelve.
and x is twelve.

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Here are more examples of translations to mathematical symbols.

Example Translation

One-half is a rational number.

• 𝑥 ϵ {7𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 ϵ ℕ}
• 𝑥 ϵ {7𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 ϵ ℤ}
The number 𝑥 is a multiple of seven.
• 𝑥 = 7𝑛 for some 𝑛 ϵ ℤ
• 𝑥 = 7𝑛, 𝑛 ϵ ℤ
• 𝑥 ϵ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ϵ 𝐵
The element 𝑥 belongs to both sets 𝐴 and 𝐵. • 𝑥𝜖𝐴∩𝐵

The values of the integer 𝑛 range from • {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

negative three to eight. • {𝑛 ϵ ℤ ∶ −3 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 8}

The values of the real number 𝑛 range from • {𝑛 ϵ ℝ ∶ −3 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 8}

negative three to eight. • [−3,8]

The square of a number is not more than

𝑦2 ≤ 20
twenty.

The square of a number in non-negative. 𝑥2 ≥ 0

𝑥 + 8 = 2𝑦 where
Tina’s age in eight years is twice Gino’s age. 𝑥 is Tina’s present age and
𝑦 is Gino’s present age

Learning Activity 10

Directions. Translate the following sentences to mathematical symbols.

Start Here:

1. The sum of two numbers is seven.

2. Three less than a number is twelve.
3. Four more than a number is fifteen.
4. Five less than twice a number is ten.
5. Five-eighths of a number is twenty.
6. The values of the real number 𝑥 ranges from
negative four to seventeen.
7. Two is a real number.
8. The sum of the squares of two numbers.
9. The square of the sum of two numbers.
10. The cube of thrice a number added to five yields
thirty.

Page 25 of 33
2.3.7 Some Elementary Logic

Essential to the study of mathematics is logic. Aristotle is generally

regarded as the Father of Logic.
Logic started in the late 19th century with the development of axiomatic
frameworks for analysis, geometry and arithmetic. It allows us to determine
the validity of arguments in and out of mathematics. Through logic, the
preciseness and conciseness of mathematics can be illustrated.
2.3.7.1 Statement or Proposition
A statement (or proposition) in logic is a declarative sentence which is
either true or false, but not both. The truth value of the statements is the
truth and falsity of the statement.
Here are some examples to distinguish statements from other sentences.
Sentence Remarks
1. Manila is the capital of the
The sentence is a true statement.
Philippines.
This is not a statement since it is not
2. What day is it?
declarative.
This sentence is not a statement since it
3. Help me, please.
cannot be categorized as true or false.
This sentence is not a statement since it is
4. He is handsome.
neither true nor false.
This is not a statement since it is not
5. Wait!
declarative.
6. All multiples of seven are odd This is a statement. However, this
numbers. statement is false.
This is not a statement since it is not
7. Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2.
declarative.
8. The set of natural numbers is a
This is a true statement.
subset of itself.

Statements are of two types: simple and compound. A simple statement

is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is a
statement composed of two or more simple statements connected by some
words and phrases such as and, or, if … then, and if and only if creates a
compound statement.
For instance, the statement “I will attend the meeting or I will go to
school.” is a compound statement. It is composed of two simple statements,

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“I will attend the meeting.” I will go to school.” The word or connects the two
simple statements. In logic, the word “or” is a logical connective.

Learning Activity 11

Directions. Identify whether or not each of the given sentences is a statement:

statement (S), not a statement (NS)

Start Here:

1. Write the symbol for addition. 2. Two is

an even number.
3. Where is the triangle in the set? 4. Five less
than twice a number is ten.
5. This is how you solve 3𝑥 = 5.

2.3.7.2 Logical Connectives and Symbols

In logic, variables are used to represent statements. A formal
propositional statement is written using propositional logic notations p, q, and
r which are used to represent simple statements and the symbols , , ~, →
and ↔ to represent logical connectives.
The following table summarizes the different symbols logical connectives and
how they are applied to statements.

Type of Symbolic
Statement Connective Truth value
statement form
True if 𝑝 and 𝑞 are both
Conjunction 𝑝 and 𝑞 And 𝑝 𝑞
true
True if either 𝑝 or 𝑞 is
Disjunction 𝑝 or 𝑞 Or 𝑝 𝑞
true
True except when 𝑝 is
Conditional If 𝑝, then 𝑞 if … then 𝑝→𝑞
true and 𝑞 is false.
True if 𝑝 and 𝑞 are both
Biconditional 𝑝 if and only if 𝑞 if and only if 𝑝↔𝑞 true of if 𝑝 and 𝑞 are
both false

2.3.7.3 Negation

The negation of the statement is its opposite. For example, the negation
of the statement “Five is a rational number” is the statement “Five is not a
rational number.” The tilde symbol (~) is used to denote the negation of a
statement. If the statement 𝑝 is true, its negation ~𝑝 is false, and if the
statement 𝑝 is false, its negation ~𝑝 is true. Meaning, the truth value of the

Page 27 of 33
negation of a statement is always the reverse of the truth value of the original
statements.

A popular theorem facilitates negation of compound statements of the

forms 𝑝 𝑞 and 𝑝 𝑞. It is called De Morgan’s Laws which are stated as follows:

1. ~(𝑝 𝑞) is equivalent to ~𝑝 ~𝑞
2. ~(𝑝 𝑞) is equivalent to ~𝑝 ~𝑞

To get the negation of the statement “A number 𝑥 is greater than or equal

to a number 𝑦.”, we let

𝑝 ∶ A number 𝑥 is greater than a number 𝑦.

𝑞: A number 𝑥 is equals to a number 𝑦.

The statement in symbols is given by 𝑝 𝑞 with negation ~(𝑝 𝑞). By De

Morgan’s law, ~(𝑝 𝑞) is equivalent to ~𝑝 ~𝑞. We have

~𝑝: A number 𝑥 is not greater than a number 𝑦.

~𝑞: A number 𝑥 is not equal to a number 𝑦.
~𝑝 ~𝑞: A number 𝑥 is not greater than a number 𝑦 and
not equal to 𝑦.
~𝑝 ~𝑞: A number 𝑥 is less than a number 𝑦.

The statement ~𝑝: A number 𝑥 is not greater than a number 𝑦 means that
either 𝑥 is less than 𝑦 or 𝑥 equals. However, ~𝑞: A number 𝑥 is not equal to a
number 𝑦 tells us that 𝑥 cannot be equal to 𝑦. Thus, the negation is “ a
number 𝑥 is less than 𝑦.

2.3.7.4 Truth value and truth tables

The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F) but not
both. For compound statements, the truth value depends on the truth values
of its simple statements and connectives.

The truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound
statement for all possible truth values of its simple statements. The following
table gives the truth values of compound statements with two simple
statements 𝑝 and 𝑞.
𝑝 𝑞 p 𝑞 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞 𝑝↔𝑞

T T T T T T

T F F T F F

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 F T F T T F

F F F F T T

2.3.7.5 Writing Compound Statements in symbols

To write a compound statement in symbols, we need to identify its simple

statements and represent them using the symbols 𝑝, 𝑞, and 𝑟.

Consider the compound statement “Two and three are rational zeroes of
the function 𝑓.” Here, the word “and” suggests that the compound statement
may be paraphrased as “Two is a rational zero of 𝑓 and three is a rational zero
of 𝑓.” Thus, we may represent the simple statements as

𝑝: Two is a rational zero of 𝑓.

𝑞: Three is a rational zero of 𝑓.

For the connector “and”, we use the symbol . Thus, the statement in
symbol is given by 𝑝 𝑞.

The compound statement “If an integer is odd, then it is not divisible by

2.” Has simple statements

𝑝 : An integer is odd.
𝑞 : An integer is not divisible by 2.

Since the compound statement is a conditional statement, we use the

logical connective →. Hence, the statement in symbol is given by 𝑝 → 𝑞.

Page 29 of 33
 Learning Activity 12

Directions. Identify the simple statements in each of the following compound

statements. Then write the compound statement in symbols.

Example:

If is an integer, then 𝑛 is an is an integer. 𝑝→𝑞

even integer. 𝑞: 𝑛 is an even integer

Start Here:

1. The numbers 2 and −3 are 𝑝: rational zeros of

the function 𝑓. 𝑞:

2. If 𝑥 is even, then it is a multiple 𝑝:

of 2. 𝑞:

3. Either 𝑓 is an odd or even

function.

2.3.8 Quantifiers

A predicate (or open statement) is a statement whose truth depends on

the value of one or more variables. Predicates become propositions once every
variable is bound by assigning a universal set.

An example is the sentence “𝑥 is an even number”. It is a predicate whose

truth depends on the value of 𝑥. Using the notation 𝑃(𝑥) to represent the “𝑥
is an even number.”, we know that 𝑃(2) is true, and 𝑃(3) is false. Here, 𝑃(𝑥)
is called a propositional function which becomes a statement only when
variable 𝑥 is given particular value. Propositional functions are usually
denoted as 𝑃(𝑥), 𝑄(𝑥), and 𝑅(𝑥).

In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at least
one are called existential quantifiers. Existential quantifiers are used as
prefixes to assert the existence of something. In a statement, the words none,
no, all, and every are called universal quantifiers. The universal quantifiers
none and no deny the existence of something, whereas the universal
quantifiers all and every are used to assert that every element of a given set

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satisfies some condition. The following table shows the symbols for universal
and existential quantifiers and their translations.

Quantifier Symbol Translation

Existential ∃ There exists
There is some
For some
For which
For at least one
Such that
Satisfying
Universal ∀ For all
For each
For every
For any
Given any

The statement “there exists an 𝑥 such that 𝑃(𝑥),” is symbolized by ∃𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥).
The symbol ∃ is used to denote the existential quantifier. The statement “∃𝑥,
𝑃(𝑥)”is true if there is at least one value of 𝑥 for which 𝑃(𝑥) is true.

The statement “for all 𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥),” is symbolized by ∀𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥). The symbol is
used to denote the universal quantifier. The statement “∀𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥)”is true if only
if 𝑃(𝑥) is true for every value of 𝑥.

The truth values for quantified statements are given in the following table.
Statement Is True when Is False when

There is at least one is false for every .

for which is true.
is true for every . There is at least one for
which is false.

The following English statements are paired with their translations into
symbolic form. Their truth values are also included. It must be clear that
represents the set of even integers and the set of odd integers.
Statement Translation Truth Value

Every integer that is not odd

is even.

There is an integer that is not

even.

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 For every real number , there
is a real number for which
.
Given any two rational
numbers and , it follows
that is rational.
Every integer is even.
There is an integer
for which
.
For every real number , there
is a real number for
which
.
Given any two rational
numbers a and b, it
follows that is
rational.

Given a set , a quantified statement of form ) is understood to

be true if is true for every . If there is at least one for which
is false, then is a false statement. Similarly, is true
provided that is true for at least one element ; otherwise it is false.
We recall that the negation of a false statement is a true statement and
the negation of a true statement is a false statement. We will use this fact to
form the negation of quantified statements.

If we consider the statement, “All dogs are mean.”, we may think that the
negation is “No dogs are mean.”, but this is also a false statement. Thus the
statement “No dogs are mean.” is not the negation of “All dogs are mean.” The
negation of “All dogs are mean,” which is a false statement, is in fact “Some
dogs are not mean,” which is a true statement. The statement “Some dogs are
not mean” can also be stated as “At least one dog is not mean” or “There exists
a dog that is not mean.” What is the negation of the false statement, “No
doctors write in a legible manner”?

When a statement contains two quantifiers, we must consider their order,

for reversing the order can change the meaning. Quantified statements are
often misused in casual conversation. Some would say “All students do not
pay full tuition.” when they mean “Not all students pay full tuition.” This
mistake must never be observed in a mathematical context. Do not say “All
integers are not even.” because that means there are no even integers.
Instead, say “Not all integers are even.”

Page 32 of 33
 Learning Activity 13

Directions. Write the following as English sentences. Say whether they are
true(T) or false(F)

Example:
For all real number 𝑥 , the negative of 𝑥 False
∀ 𝑥 𝜖 ℝ, − 𝑥 < 0 . is less than zero.

Start Here:

1. ∀𝑥 𝜖 ℝ, 𝑥 2 ≥ 0

2. ∀𝑥 𝜖 ℝ, ∃𝑛 𝜖 ℕ, 𝑥 𝑛 ≥ 0

3. ∃𝑎 𝜖 ℝ, ∀𝑥 𝜖 ℝ, 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥

2.4 Recommended learning materials and resources

• Mathematical Notation – Language of Mathematics by Sarada Herke

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y-c_CgxxPF0
• How to Read Math from Domain of Science
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kp2bYWRQylk
• Mathematical symbols
https://www.rapidtables.com/math/symbols/Basic_Math_Symbols.h
tml#basic
2.7 References
Books and Lecture Notes
Aufmann, et. al. 2013. Mathematical Excursions. Third Edition. Cengage
Learning, USA
Fischer, Carol Burns. The Language of Mathematics. One Mathematical Cat
Please.
Hammack, Richard. 2013 Book of Proof. Department of Mathematics and
Applied Mathematics. Virginia Commonwealth University
Jamison, R.E. 2000 Learning the Language of Mathematics. Language and
learning across the disciplines
Sirug, Winston. (2018) Mathematics in the Modern World. Mindshapers Co.,
Inc. Publishing Company
Internet source:
https://www.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/~wtg10/grammar.pdf date:
08-17-2020

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