UNDERSTANDING THE SELF REVIEWER

The commonly accepted definition of

personality is that it is a relatively
Week 2 permanent traits and unique
characteristics that give both consistency
Introduction to Self Understanding and individuality to a person’s behavior
(Roberts & Mroczek, 2008).
Understanding oneself is essential to
understand behavior and beliefs that affects Personality plays a key role in affecting how
ourselves and others specifically in people shape their lives. It involves the
becoming effective and successful person in complex relationship of people with their
life, work and relationship. environment, how they cope and adjust
through life, and how they respond to
Self-understanding . . . demands of physical and social challenges
● provides a sense of purpose
● leads to healthier relationships Personality is the overall pattern or
● harness your natural strength integration of a person’s structure, modes of
● promotes confidence behavior, attitudes, aptitudes, interests,
intellectual abilities, and many other
People have different ideas about distinguishable personality traits.
themselves. These ideas represent the
SELF of the person. Personality is the conglomeration of the
following components: physical self,
Moreover, we behave in different ways in a intelligence, character traits, attitudes,
given situation, but people also behave habits, interest, personal discipline, moral
fairly in different circumstances. values, principles and philosophies of life.

PERSONALITY Determinants of Personality

The relatively permanent pattern of behavior Personality refers to the total person in
represents PERSONALITY of the person. his/her overt and covert
behavior.
Comes from the word “persona”, the
theatrical masks worn by Romans in Greek ● Overt Behavior - behavior that is
and Latin drama. explicit, that is, observable without
instruments or expertise.
Also comes from two Latin words “per” and Examples: walking, talking, facial
“sonare”, which literally means “to sound expression, bodily gestures like
through” nail-biting, slouching, etc.

Personality have no single definition since ● Covert Behavior - behavior that is

different personality theories have different not directly observable and can only
views on how to define it.
 be inferred by the observer or personality and behavior might come
reported by the subject. from the study of the brain.
Examples: thinking, reasoning,
dreaming, retrieving memories, and Situational Factors of Personality
glandular responses
➢ These factors do not literally create
Determinants of Factors of and shape up an individual’s
Personality personality, situational factors do
alter a person’s behavior and
● Environmental Factors of response from time to time.
Personality. - The surroundings of
an individual compose the Cultural Factors
environmental factors of personality.
● These includes: Culture is traditionally considered as the
- the neighborhood, social circle, major determinants of an individual’s
bosses, his school, friends, college, personality.
parents, university, colleagues,
workplace, co-workers The culture largely determinants what a
person is and what a person will learn.
Biological Factors of Personality
The culture within a person is brought up, is
1. hereditary factors or genetic a very important determinant of behavior of
make-up of the person that inherited a person.
from their parents. This describes
the tendency of the person to appear Culture is complex of these belief, values,
and behave the way their parents and techniques for dealing with the
are. environment which are shared among
contemporaries and transmitted by one
2. physical features include the generation to the next.
overall physical structure of a
person: height, weight, color, sex, Personality Traits
beauty and body language, etc.
Most of the physical structures ● Personality traits reflect people’s
change from time to time, and so characteristic patterns of thoughts,
does the personality. With exercises, feelings, and behaviors.
cosmetics and surgeries, many ● Personality traits imply consistency
physical features are changed, and and stability—someone who scores
therefore, the personality of the high on a specific trait like
individual also evolves; Extraversion is expected to be
sociable in different situations and
3. brain. The preliminary results from over time.
the electrical stimulation of the brain ● Thus, trait psychology rests on the
(ESB) research gives indication that idea that people differ from one
better understanding of human another in terms of where they stand
 on a set of basic trait dimensions WHO AM I?
that persist over time and across
Self-Concept - Understanding of who you
situations.
are as a person

Five-Factor Model
Self-Understanding - Understanding what
your motives are when you act is
O - Openness: The tendency to appreciate
new art, ideas, values, feelings, and
According to the book Essential Social
behaviors.
Psychology by Richard Crisp and
Rhiannon Turner
C - Conscientiousness: The tendency to
be careful, on-time for appointments, to
The individual self consists of attributes and
follow rules, and to be hard working.
personality traits that differentiate us from
other individuals. Examples include
E - Extraversion: The tendency to be
introversion or extroversion.
talkative, sociable, and to enjoy others; the
tendency to have a dominant style.
The relational self is defined by our
relationships with significant others.
A - Agreeableness:The tendency to agree
Examples include siblings, friends, and
and go along with others rather than to
spouses.
assert one owns opinions and choices
The collective self reflects our membership
N - Neuroticism: The tendency to be
in social groups. Examples include British,
frequently experience negative emotions
Republican, African-American, or gay.
such as anger, worry, and sadness, as well
as being interpersonally sensitive

● Traits are important and interesting

because they describe stable
WEEK 3
patterns of behavior that persist for
long periods of time THE SELF ACCORDING TO
● These stable patterns can have PHILOSOPHY
broad ranging consequences for
many areas of our life.
PHILOSOPHY
● Personality traits are not just a
➢ Derived from two Greek words, philo
useful way to describe people you
(love) and Sophia (wisdom), so
know; they actually help
Philosophy means the Love of
psychologists predict how good a
Wisdom
worker someone will be, how long
➢ This field is also considered as “The
he or she will live, and the types of
Queen of All Sciences” because
jobs and activities the person will
every scientific discipline has
enjoy.
philosophical foundations
➢ The Greek philosophers were the
ones who seriously questioned
 myths and moved away from them in physical realm is the physical world.
attempting to understand reality by The physical world is consisting of
exercising the art of questioning that anything we sense – see, smell, feel,
satisfies their curiosity, including the hear, and taste.
questions about self.
B. The ideal realm is the one that is
SOCRATES imperfect and unchanging, eternal,
and immortal. This includes the
► A philosopher from Athens, Greece and intellectual essences of the universe
said to have the greatest influence on like the concept of beauty, truth, and
European thought. According to the history goodness.
he was not able to write any of his teachings
and life’s account instead, he is known from ►For Socrates, a human is composed of
the writings of his student Plato who body and soul, the first belongs to the
became one of the greatest philosophers of physical realm because it changed, it is
his time. Socrates had a unique style of imperfect, and it dies, and the latter belongs
asking questions called Socratic Method. to ideal realm for it survives the death.

► Socratic Method or dialectic method ►Socrates also used the term soul to
involves the search for the correct/proper identify self.
definition of a thing. In this method,
Socrates did not lecture, he instead would ► The self, according to Socrates is the
ask questions and engage the person in a immortal and unified entity that is consistent
discussion. He would begin by acting as if over time.
he did not know anything and would get the
other person to clarify their ideas and PLATO
resolve logical inconsistencies (Price,
2000). A student of Socrates, who introduced the
idea of a three part soul/self that is
► The foundation of Socrates philosophy composed of reason, physical appetite and
was the Delphic Oracle’s that command to spirit or passion
“Know ThThyself”. The Reason enables human to think deeply,
make wise choices and achieve a true
►Here, Socrates would like to emphasize understanding of eternal truths.
that knowing or understanding oneself Plato also called this as divine essence.
should be more than the physical self, or the The physical Appetite is the basic biological
body. needs of human being such as hunger,
thirst, and sexual desire.
► According to Socrates, self is And the spirit or passion is the basic
dichotomous which means composed of two emotions of human being such as love,
things: anger, ambition, aggressiveness and
A. The physical realm or the one empathy
that is changeable, temporal, and
imperfect. The best example of the
► Plato also illustrated his view of the ► According to St. Augustine, the human
soul/self in “Phaedrus” in his metaphor: the nature is composed of two
soul is like a winged chariot drawn by two realms
powerful horses: a white horse, 1. God as the source of all reality and
representing Spirit, and a black truth. Through mystical experience, man is
horse, embodying appetite. capable of knowing eternal truths. This is
► The charioteer is reason, whose task is made possible through the existence of the
to guide the chariot to the eternal realm by one eternal truth which is God. He further
controlling the two independent-minded added that without God as the source of all
horses. truth, man could never understand eternal
►Those charioteers who are successful in truth. This relationship with God means that
setting a true course and ensuring that the those who know most about God will come
two steeds work together in harmonious closest to understanding the true nature of
unity achieve true wisdom and banquet with the world.
the gods.
► However, those charioteers who are 2. The sinfulness of man. The cause of sin
unable to control their horses and keep their or evil is an act of mans’ freewill. Moral
chariot on track are destined to experience goodness can only be achieved through the
personal, intellectual, and spiritual failure. grace of God.

ST. AUGUSTINE ► He also stated that real happiness can

only be found in God. For God is love and
► He is considered as the last of the great he created humans for them to also love.
ancient philosophers whose ideas were Problems arise because of the objects
greatly Platonic. In melding philosophy and humans choose to love. Disordered love
religious beliefs together, Augustine has results when man loves the wrong things
been characterized as Christianity’s first which he believes will give him happiness.
theologian. Furthermore, he said that if man loves God
first and everything else to a lesser
► Like Plato, Augustine believed that the degree,then all will fall into its rightful place.
physical body is different from the immortal
soul. Early in his philosophical development RENE DESCARTES
he described body as “snare” or “cage” of
the soul and said that the body is a “slave” ► A French philosopher, mathematician,
of the soul he even characterized that “the and considered the founder of modern
soul makes war with the body”. Later on he philosophy.
came to view the body as “spouse” of the
soul, with both attached to one another by a ► Descartes, famous principle the “cogito,
“natural appetite.” He concluded, “That the ergo sum—“I think, therefore I exist”
body is united with the established his philosophical views on “true
soul, so that man may be entire and knowledge” and concept of self.
complete, is a fact we recognize on the
evidence of our own nature. ► He explained that in order to gain true
knowledge, one must doubt everything even
own existence. Doubting makes someone (mind, soul) is a part of the spiritual realm,
aware that they are thinking being thus, they independent of the physical laws of the
exist. universe, governed only by the laws of
reason and God’s will. And because it exists
► The essence of existing as a human outside of the natural world of
identity is the possibility of being aware of cause-and-effect, the conscious self is able
our selves: being self-conscious in this way to exercise free will in the choices it makes.
is integral to having a personal identity.
Conversely, it would be impossible to be JOHN LOCKE
self-conscious if we did not have a personal
identity of which to be conscious. In other ► An English philosopher and physician
words, the essence of self is being a and famous in his concept of “Tabula Rasa”
thinking thing. or Blank Slate that assumes the nurture
side of human development.
► The self is a dynamic entity that engages
in metal operations – thinking, reasoning, ► The self, according to Locke is
and perceiving processes. In addition to consciousness. In his essay entitled On
this, self-identity is dependent on the Personal Identity (from his most famous
awareness in engaging with those mental work, Essay Concerning Human
operations. Understanding) he discussed the reflective
analysis of how an individual may
► He declared that the essential self or the experience the self in everyday living.
self as the thinking entity is radically
different from the physical body. The He provided the following key points:
thinking self or soul is a non-material, 1. To discover the nature of personal
immortal, conscious being, independent of identity, it is important to find out what it
the physical laws of the universe while the means to be a person.
physical body is a material, mortal, 2. A person is a thinking, intelligent being
non-thinking entity, fully governed by the who has the abilities to reason and to
physical laws of nature. reflect.
3. A person is also someone who considers
► He also maintained that the soul and the themself to be the same thing in different
body are independent of one another and times and different places.
each can exist and function without the 4. Consciousness as being aware that we
other. In cases in which people are sleeping are thinking— always accompanies thinking
or comatose, their bodies continue to and is an essential part of the thinking
function even though their minds are not process.
thinking, much like the mechanisms of a 5. Consciousness makes possible our belief
clock that we are the same identity in different
times and different places.
►He identified the physical self as part of
nature, governed by the physical laws of the Although Locke and Descartes believed that
universe, and available to scientific analysis a person or the self is a thinking intelligent
and experimentation, and the conscious self being who has the abilities to reflect and to
reason, Locke was not convinced with the when someone died all empirical senses
assumptions of Plato, St. Augustine and end and according to him, it makes no
Descartes that the individual self sense to believe that self exists in other
necessarily exists in a single soul or forms. As an empiricist,
substance. Hume provide an honest description and
analysis of his own experience, within which
DAVID HUME there is no self to be found.

► He was a Scottish philosopher and also Hume explained that the self that is being
an empiricist. experienced by an individual is nothing but
a kind of fictional self. Human created an
► His claim about self is quite controversial imaginary creature which is not real.
because he assumed that there is no self! In
his essay entitled, “On Personal Identity” ► “Fictional self” is created to unify the
(1739) mental events and introduce order into an
he said that, if we carefully examine the individual lives, but this “self” has no real
contents of [our] experience, we find that existence.
there are only two distinct entities,
"impressions" and "ideas". SIGMUND FREUD

► Impressions are the basic sensations of ► A well-known Australian psychologist and

our experience, the elemental data of our considered as the Father and Founder of
minds: pain, pleasure, heat, cold, Psychoanalysis. His influence in Psychology
happiness, grief, fear, exhilaration, and so and therapy is dominant and popular in the
on. 20th to 21st century

► On the other hand, ideas are copies of ► The dualistic view of self by Freud
impressions that include thoughts and involves the conscious self and unconscious
images that are built up from our primary self.
impressions through a variety of
relationships, but because they are ► The conscious self is governed by reality
derivative copies of impressions, they are principle. Here, the self is rational, practical,
once removed from reality. and appropriate to the social environment.
The
Hume considered that the self does not conscious self has the task of controlling the
exist because all of the experiences that a constant pressures of the unconscious self,
person may have are just perceptions and as its primitive impulses continually seek for
this includes the perception of self. None of immediate discharge.
these perceptions resemble a unified and
permanent self-identity that exists over time. ► The unconscious self is governed by
pleasure principle. It is the self that is
► He further added that there are instances aggressive, destructive, unrealistic and
that an individual is limited in experiencing instinctual.
their perception like in sleeping. Similarly,
Both of Freud’s self needs immediate for individual and species survival like thirst,
gratification and reduction of tensions to hunger, and sex. In cases that human
optimal levels and the goal of every behavior is directed towards destruction in
individual is to make unconscious the form of aggression and violence, such
conscious. are the manifestations of thanatos.

► Freud proposed how mind works, he GILBERT RYLE

called this as provinces or structures of the
mind. By illustrating the tip of the iceberg ► A British analytical philosopher. He was
which according to him represents an important figure in the field of Linguistic
conscious awareness which characterizes Analysis which focused on the solving of
the person in dealing with the external philosophical puzzles through an analysis of
world. The observable behavior, however, is language.
further controlled by the workings of the
subconscious/unconscious mind. ► According to Ryle, the self is best
understood as a pattern of behavior, the
► Subconscious serves as the repository of tendency or disposition for a person to
past experiences, repressed memories, behave in a certain way in certain
fantasies, and urges. circumstances.

The three levels of the mind are: ► He opposed the notable ideas of the
previous philosophers and even claimed
1. Id. This is primarily based on the that those were results of confused
pleasure principle. It demands immediate conceptual thinking he termed, category
satisfaction and is not hindered by societal mistake.
expectations.
► The category mistake happens when we
2. Ego. The structure that is primarily based speak about the self as something
on the reality principle. This mediates independent of the physical body: a purely
between the impulses of the id and mental entity existing in time but not space.
restraints of the superego.
IMMANUEL KANT
3. Superego. This is primarily dependent on
learning the difference between right and ► A German Philosopher who made great
wrong, thus it is called moral principle. contribution to the fields of metaphysics,
Morality of actions is largely dependent on epistemology, and ethics. Kant is widely
childhood upbringing particularly on rewards regarded as the greatest philosopher of the
and punishments. modern period.

► According to Freud, there are two kinds ► Kant maintained that an individual self
of instinct that drive individual behavior – makes the experience of the world
the eros or the life instinct and the thanatos comprehensible because it is responsible
or the death instinct. The energy of eros is for synthesizing the discreet data of sense
called libido and includes urges necessary experience into a meaningful whole.
 pain, joy— actually misrepresent the reality
► It is the self that makes consciousness of minds and selves. He claims that the self
for the person to make sense of everything. is a product of brain activity.
It is the one that help every individual gain
insight and knowledge. If the self failed to ► The behavior of the self can be attributed
do this synthesizing function, there would be to the neuropharmacological states, the
a chaotic and insignificant collection of neural activity in specialized anatomical
sensations. areas.

► Additionally, the self is the product of ► Neurophilosopy was coined by Patricia

reason, a regulative principle because the Churchland, the modern scientific inquiry
self regulates experience by making unified looks into the application of neurology to
experience possible and unlike Hume, age-old problems in philosophy. The
Kant’s self is not the object of philosophy of neuroscience is the study of
consciousness, but it makes the the philosophy of science, neuroscience,
consciousness understandable and unique and psychology. It aims to explore the
relevance of neurolinguistic
► Transcendental apperception happens experiments/studies to the philosophy of the
when people do not experience self directly, mind
instead as a unity of all impressions that are
organized by the mind through perceptions. ► Patricia Churchland claimed that man’s
Kant concluded that objects of knowledge, brain is responsible for the identity known
which includes the self, are phenomenal. as self. The biochemical properties of the
That the true nature of things is altogether brain according to this philosophy of
unknown and unknowable (Price, 2000). neuroscience is really responsible for man’s
thoughts, feelings, and behavior.
► For Kant, the kingdom of God is within
man. God is manifested in people’s lives ► Paul Churchland is one of the many
therefore it is man’s duty to move towards philosophers and psychologists that viewed
perfection. Kant emphasized that people the self from a materialistic point of view,
should always see duty as a divine contending that in the final analysis mental
command (Price, 2000). states are identical with, reducible to, or
explainable in terms of physical brain states.
Paul and Patricia Churchland This assumption was made due to the
physiological processes of the body that
► An American philosopher interested in directly affecting the mental state of the
the fields of philosophy of mind, philosophy person. The advent of sophisticated
of science, cognitive neurobiology, technology and scientific research gives
epistemology, and perception. hope to understand the connection between
the physical body and the mind/brain
► Churchlands’ central argument is that the relationship that integrated in the self
concepts and theoretical vocabulary that
people use to think about the selves— using ► Being an eliminative materialist, he
such terms as belief, desire, fear, sensation, believes that there is a need to develop a
new vocabulary and conceptual framework ► Perception is not purely the result of
that is grounded in neuroscience. This new sensations nor it is purely interpretations.
framework will be a more accurate reflection Rather consciousness is a process that
of the human mind and self. includes sensing as well as
interpreting/reasoning.
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY

► A French philosopher and

phenomenologist. Week 4
► He took a very different approach to the
self and the mind/body “problem.” According
THE SELF ACCORDING TO
to him, the division between the “mind” and SOCIOLOGY AND
the “body” is a product of confused thinking. ANTHROPOLOGY
The self is experienced as a unity in which
the mental and
Sociology and Anthropology
physical are seamlessly woven together.
This unity is the primary experience of
selves and begin to doubt it when an • Sociology
individual use their minds to concoct
abstract notions of a separate mind and It is the science that studies the
body. development, structure, interaction, and
collective behavior of human being.
► Developed the concept of self-subject
and contended that perceptions occur Sociology presents the self as a product of
existentially. Thus, the consciousness, the modern society.
world, and the human body are all
interconnected as they mutually perceive • Anthropology
the world.
is the study of humanity.
► According to him, the world and the
sense of self are emergent phenomena in This broad field takes an interdisciplinary
the ongoing process of man’s becoming. approach to looking at human culture, both
past and present.
► Phenomenology provides a direct
description of the human experience which
serves to guide man’s conscious actions. George Herbert Mead and the Social
He further added that, the world is a field of Self
perception, and human consciousness
assigns meaning to the world. Thus man Mead is an American philosopher
cannot separate himself from his sociologist, and psychologist.
perceptions of the world.
He is regarded as one of the founders of
social psychology and the American The play stage is significant in the
sociological tradition in general. development of the self. It is at this stage
where child widens his perspective and
Mead is well-known for his theory of self. realizes that he is not alone and that there
are others around him whose presence he
He postulated that, the self represents the has to consider.
sum total of people’s conscious perception
of their identity as distinct from others. Role-taking mentally assuming the process
of another person to see how this person
Mead argued that the self like the mind is may behave or respond in a given situation.
social emergent.
2. The Game Stage.
He claimed that the self is something
which undergoes development because Here, the child is about eight or nine years
it is not present instantly at birth. of age and now does more than just
role-take.
The self arises in the process of social
experience and activity as a result of their The child begins to consider several tasks
relations to the said process as a whole and and various types of relationships
to other individuals within that process. simultaneously.

The social emergence of self is developed In this final stage of self development, the
due to the three forms of inter-subjective child now has the ability to respond not just
activity: to one but several members of his social
- the language environment.
- play, and
- the game. Generalized other, the person realizes that
people in society have cultural norms,
STAGES OF SELF-FORMATION: beliefs and values which are incorporated
into each self.
1. The Preparatory Stage.
Mead believed that the self did not exist at This realization forms basis of how the
birth. Instead, theself develops over time. Its person
development is dependent on social evaluate themselves.
interaction and social experience. At this
stage, children’s behaviors are primarily The self, according to Mead is not merely a
based on imitation. passive reflection of the generalized other.

1. The Play Stage. Mead identified the two phases of self:

Skills at knowing and understanding the 1. the phase which reflects the attitude
symbols of communication is important for of the generalized other or the “me”;
this constitutes the basis of socialization. and
 ● Simmel as a social thinker made a
2. the phase that responds to the distinction between subjective and
attitude of generalized other or the objective culture.
“I”.
● The individual or subjective culture
In Mead’s words, the "me" is the social self, refers to the ability to embrace, use,
and the "I" is a response to the "me". and feel culture.
● Objective culture is made up of
Mead defines the "me" as "a conventional, elements that become separated
habitual individual and the “I” as the “novel from the individual or group’s control
reply” of the individual to the generalized and identified as separate objects.
other.
There are interrelated forces in modern
Generally, Meads theory sees the self as a society that tend to increase objective
perspective that comes out of interactions, culture according to Simmel.
and he sees the meanings of symbols,
social objects, and the self as emerging These are urbanizations, money, and the
from negotiated interactions. configuration of one’s social network.

● Urbanization
The Self as a Product of Modern Society
among other constructions Urbanization is the process that moves
people from country to city living. This result
to the concentration of population in one
place brought about by industrialization.
Georg Simmel
This paved way to the organization of labor
or increased division of labor, which
● Simmel was a German sociologist,
demands specializations wherein this
philosopher, and critic. He was
creates more objective culture. Simmel also
intensely interested in the ways in
stressed that the consumption of products
which modern, objective culture
has an individuating and trivializing effect
impacts the individual’s subjective
because this enables the person to create
experiences
self out of things. By consumption, an
individual able to purchase things that can
● In contrast to Mead, Simmel
easily personalized or express the self.
proposed that there is something
called human nature that is innate to
● Money
the individual. This human nature is
intrinsic to the individual like the
Money creates a universal value system
natural inclination to religious
wherein every commodity can be
impulse or the gender differences.
understood.
He also added that most of our
Money also increases individual freedom by
social interactions are individual
pursuing diverse activities and by increasing
motivations.
the options for self-expression.
 Archeology
Money also discouraged intimate ties with
people. Focus on the study of the past and how it
may have contributed to the present ways of
Because of urbanization, Simmel observed how people conduct their daily lives.
that social networks also changed. Group
affiliations in urban is definitely different Archeologists have so far discovered the
from rural settings wherein the relationship unique ways in which human beings
are strongly influenced by family. adapted to the changes in their environment
in order for them to survive.
An individual tends to seek membership to
the same group which makes the family as Among their discoveries around the world is
basic socialization structure. the species, homo sapiens did not become
extinct because of their ability to think, use
This natural inclination to join groups is tools and learn from experience.
called by Simmel as organic motivation and
the grouping is called primary group. Biological Anthropology

This group is based on ties of affection and Focus on how the human body adapts to
personal loyalty endure over long periods of the different earth environments. Among the
time, and involve multiple aspects of a activities of Anthropologists are
person’s life. identification of probable causes of
diseases, physical mutation, and death,
The modern urban settings, group evolution, and comparison of dead and
membership is due to rational motivation or living primates.
membership due to freedom of choice.
They are interested in explaining how the
This characterized the secondary group biological characteristics of human being
which is goal and utilitarian oriented, with a affects their way of living. Accordingly,
narrow range of activities, over limited time human beings at present still share the
spans. same biological strengths and
vulnerabilities.

The Self and Person in the Linguistic Anthropology

Contemporary Anthropology
Focused on using language as means to
discover a group’s manner of social
The four subfields of anthropology interaction and their worldview.

● Archeology, Anthropologists in this field want to discover

● Biological Anthropology how language is used to create and share
● Linguistics, and meanings, to form ideas and concepts and
● Cultural Anthropology to promote social change.
Furthermore, they also study how language objectives and are concerned to be socially
and modes of communication changes over essential.
time.
Example: Wedding, fiesta, Christmas
celebration, graduation,
Cultural Anthropology etc.

Focused in knowing what makes one Values

group’s manner of living forms an essential
part of the member’s personal and societal These are considered to be the core of
identity. every culture. These are unconscious,
neither discuss or observed, and can only
This encompasses the principles of Theory be inferred from the way people act and
of Cultural Determinism which suggests react to situations.
that the human nature is determined by the
kind of culture he is born and grew up in. Example: hospitality, respect for elders etc.

Cultural diversities are manifested in Rituals

different ways and different levels of dept.
The field of Anthropology offers another way
The following are the ways in which culture by which a person can view themselves.
may manifest itself in people:
As self is formed or determined by the past
Symbols and
present condition, by biological
These are the words, gestures, pictures or characteristics, the communication and
objects that have recognized or accepted language use, and the lifestyle we choose
meaning in a particular culture. to live.

Example: colors have similar meaning

across all cultures
The Self Embedded in the Culture
Heroes
Clifford Geertz
These are persons from the past or present
who have characteristics that are important Clifford Geertz was an Anthropology
in culture. They may be real of work of Professor at the University of Chicago. He
fictions. studied different cultures and explored on
the conception of the self in his writings
Example: Fiction Thor, Captain America; entitled, “The Impact of the Concept of
Real – Jose Rizal, Apolinario Mabini. Culture on the Concept of Man” (1966) in
his fieldwork at Java, Bali and Morrocco.
These are activities participated by a group
of people for the fulfilment of desired
The analysis of Geertz (1966) in his cultural Self-concept is defined as self-knowledge, a
study about the description of self in Bali is cognitive structure that includes beliefs
that the Balinese person is extremely about
concerned not to present anything individual personality traits, physical characteristics,
(distinguishing him or her from others) in abilities, values, goals, and roles, as well as
social life but to enact exclusively a the knowledge that an individual exist as
culturally prescribed role or mask. individuals

6 Specific Domains According to

Psychologist Dr. Bruce A. Bracken in
Week 5 1992

THE SELF ACCORDING TO ● the social domain or the ability of the

PSYCHOLOGY person to interact with others;

● the competence domain or the ability

Psychology to meet the basic needs;

- is a scientific study of mental ● the affect domain or the awareness

processes and human behavior. of the emotional states;

- aims to describe, analyze, predict, ● the physical domain or the feelings

control human behavior in general. about looks, health, physical
condition, and overall appearance;

● academic domain or the success or

Self
failure in the school; and

- is an essential contruct in psychology ● family domain or how well one

because it fulfills the goal of the discipline in function within the family unit.
studying human and the reason for their
action. William James and the Me-Self and
I-Self

Psychological Perspective of Self William James

The Self as Cognitive Construction - who is consider as the founder of

functionalism.
The cognitive aspect of the self is known
as self-concept. - he brought prominence to U.S. psychology
through publication of (The Principles
of Psycho logy 1890). - His therapy aimed to make the person
achieve balance between their self concept
(real-self) and ideal self.

Ways of Approaching Self

the knower (the pure or the I – Self) Real and Ideal Self

The function of the knower (I-Self) Real self

according to James must be the agent of
experience. - includes all those aspects of one's identity
that are perceived in awareness like the
the known (the objective or the Me – Self) attributes that an individual possesses.

Has three different but interrelated aspects Ideal self

of empirical self (known today as self
concept): -defined as one’s view of self as one wishes
to be. This contains all the aspirations or
the Me viewed as material, wishes of an individual for themselves.

the Me viewed as social, and

Multiple versus Unified Self
the Me viewed as spiritual in nature
According to Multiple Selves Theory, there
The material self is consists of everything
are different aspects of the self exist in an
an individual call uniquely as their own,
individual.
such as the body, family, home or style of
dress.
From here, we can say that self is a whole
consist of parts, and these parts manifest
On the other hand, social self refers to the
themselves when need arise.
recognition an individual get from other
people.
Gregg Henriques
Lastly, spiritual self refers to the individual
proposed the Tripartite Model of Human
inner or subjective being.
Consciousness, wherein he described that
self is consist of three related, but also
Carl Rogers the Real and
separable domains these are the:
Ideal Self
● experimental self,
- best known as the founder of ● private self,
client-centered therapy ● and public self.
Experiential Self or the Theater of They are those kinds of person who
Consciousness continually adjust, adapt, evolve and survive
as an individual with integrated, unified,
multiple selves.
It is a domain of self that defined as felt
experience of being.

True versus False Self

It is tightly associated with the memory.

This is a part of self that disappears the Donald Winnicott

moment that an individual enter deep sleep
and comes back when they wake up He was a pediatrician in London who
studied Psychoanalysis with Melanie Klein,
a renowned personality theorist and one of
The Private Self Consciousness System the pioneers in object relations and
or the Narrator/Interpreter development of personality in childhood

According to him, false self is an alternative

It is a portion of self that verbally narrates
personality used to protect an individual’s
what is happening and tries to make sense
true identity or one’s ability to “hide” the real
of what is going on.
self.
The moment that you read this part, there is
The false self is activated to maintain social
somewhat like a “voice” speaking in your
relationship as anticipation of the demands
head trying to understand what this concept
of others.
is all about.

True self has a sense of integrity and

connected wholeness that is rooted in early
The Public Self or Persona
infancy.

The domain of self that an individual shows The baby creates experiences of a sense of
to the public, and this interacts on how reality and sense of life worth living.
others see an individual
Winnicott claimed that true self can be
Henriques’ Tripartite Model attempts to achieved by good parenting that is not
capture the key domains of consciousness, necessarily a perfect parenting.
both within the self and between others.

Unified being is essentially connected to The Self as Proactive and Agentic

consciousness, awareness, and agency.

A well-adjusted person is able to accept and

Albert Bandura
understood the success and failure that they
experienced.
He is a psychologist and Professor Emeritus
of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford Such beliefs produce these diverse effects
University through four major processes.

He is known for his theory of social ➔ Cognitive

learning by means of modeling. ➔ Motivational
➔ Affective and
He is famous for his proposed concept ➔ Selection processes.
of self efficacy.
A strong sense of efficacy enhances human
His personality theory, The Social accomplishment and personal well-being in
Cognitive Theory asserts that a person is many ways
both proactive and agentic, which means
that we have the capacity to exercise In contrast Bandura (1989) said that people
control over our life. who doubt their capabilities shy away from
difficult tasks which they view as personal
This theory emphasized that human beings threats.
are proactive, self-regulating, self-reflective,
and self organizing. They have low aspirations and weak
commitment to the goals they choose to
Self as proactive means an individual have pursue.
control in any situation by making things
happen. When faced with difficult tasks, they dwell
on their personal deficiencies, on the
They act as agent in doing or making obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds
themselves as they are. of adverse outcomes rather than
concentrate on how to perform successfully.
Agency is a defining feature of modern
selfhood They fall easy victim to stress and
depression.
Agents assume some degree of ownership
and control over things, both internally (I
control my own thoughts) and externally (I
make things happen in the environment). Week 5 - B
The ability of an individual to pursue their
THE SELF IN WESTERN AND
goals in life is an example of agentic
approach to self ORIENTAL/EASTERN THOUGHT
Western and Oriental/Eastern
According to Bandura (1989) Thought

Self-efficacy beliefs determine how people Cultural differences and environment

feel, think, motivate themselves and creates different perceptions of the self.
behave.
The most common distinction between conclusions as indicated by his own
people and cultures is the Eastern-Western thought.
distinction.
In general, people tend to distance
- Eastern are known as the Asian countries themselves psychologically and emotionally
from each other. One may choose to join
- Western represents the Europe and groups, but group membership is not
Northern America essential to one’s identity or success.

Individualistic versus Collective Self Individualist characteristics are often

associated with men and people in urban
Individualistic Self settings.

Individualism is not the idea that individuals Western cultures are known to be
should live like isolated entity, nor the idea individualistic.
that they should never get or give help from
others, nor the idea that an individual never
owes anything to other people.

Individualism is the idea that the

fundamental unit of the human species that Collective Self
thinks, lives, and acts toward goals is the
individual. This means that we can form our Collectivism is the idea that the fundamental
own independent judgments, act on our own unit of the human species that thinks, lives,
thoughts, and disagree with others. and acts toward goals is not the individual,
but some group.
❖ Each adult individual can consider
what is in his own best interests. In different variants, this group may be the
family, the city, the economic class, the
❖ Each can decide whether to society, the nation, the race, or the whole
cooperate with others to solve human species.
problems.
The group exists as a super-organism
❖ Each can act on his own private separate from individuals: A group may
motivations and values and can make its own decisions, acts apart from the
judge other people as good people actions of individuals, and has its own
to form relationships with, or as bad interests apart from those of the individuals
people to be avoided. that compose it.

❖ Each can choose to think for himself Under collectivism, individuals are
about the conclusions that the analogous to ants in the protection of their
majority of others in a group come queen ant. The individual ant doesn’t have
to, accepting or rejecting their minds of their own, and generally cannot
disagree with the hive.
Any ant that acts in a way contrary to the ❖ Descartes in 17th century
interests of the group is a malfunctioning emphasized the self in his dictum “I
ant. If an ant does not follow the certain think therefore I am” which claims
pattern of how they protect their queen, it that cognitive basis of the person’s
will be entirely unable to support itself, find thoughts is proof for the existence of
other ants that support other queen ant and the self.
will surely die in short order.
❖ Kant believed that the self is capable
If the malfunctioning ant stays within the of actions that entitles it to have
group, it will be a threat to the line rights as an autonomous agent.
appropriate to protecting the queen ant.
● Here are some qualities imparted to
● Examples of the collectivist thinking the Western subjective self. It
is when our identity is in large part, a sketches some features on
function of our membership and role subjectivity and ways of thinking of
in a group, e.g., the family or work western persons. This provides an
team. impressionistic profile through the
● The survival and success of the use of a few strokes characterizing
group ensures the well-being of the some ways of being and thinking of
individual, so that by considering the many western persons.
needs and feelings of others, one
protects oneself. ❖ Western self as analytic. Since
● Harmony and the interdependence analytic and inductive modes of
of group members are stressed and thinking were prominent for person
valued. in western cultures, to see objects
● Group members are relatively close as divisible combinations of yet
psychologically and emotionally, but smaller objects. Real things are not
distant toward non-group members. only visualized but immaterial things
● Collectivist characteristics are often like thoughts, ideas and memories
associated with women and people would be given emphasis.
in rural settings.
❖ Western self as monotheistic.
● Asian countries are known to be Monotheism can be known as the
collective in nature. rigid consequence of the doctrine of
normal human being. It is like forcing
the concentration of supernatural
The Social Construction of the Self in capabilities.
Western Thought
❖ Western self as individualistic. The
❖ Self has been an area of interest by
emphasis on individualism has direct
French and English philosophers,
and indirect effects on both the
and evident in the ideas of Greek
presentation of self (in public ways)
philosophers like Socrates and
Plato.
 and the experience of the self (in Ren guides human actions that makes life
private awareness). worth living which can be realized through li,
xiao, and yi.
❖ Western Self as materialistic and
rationalistic. The western Li the propriety
accentuation of rational, scientific
approach to reality has tended to Rules of propriety should be followed to
define spiritual and immaterial guide human actions.
phenomena as potentially
superstitious and dangerous. In any These rules are the customs, ceremonies,
society, belief system is stratified and traditions that forms the basis of li.
and composed of a hierarchy of
interrelated, causal-explanatory According to Confucius, “to master oneself
models. and return to propriety is humanity” (Koller,
2007).
Self mastery involves self development.
Self mastery is characterized by self-control
The Self as Embedded in Relationships and the will to redirect impulses to change
and through Spiritual Development in these to socially accepted expression of
Confucian Thought human nature.

Li conforms to the norms of humanity, thus

Confucius was born in the period of the
one must fulfill their duties and
Zhou Dynasty in 551 BCE in the state of Lu.
responsibilities in this five
(5) relationships:
He grew up poor although he was
descended from scholarly family.
1. Father and son
2. ruler and subject
Confucius philosophy is known as
3. older and younger brothers
humanistic social philosophy which
4. husband and wife
focuses on human beings and the society in
5. friend and friend
general.
Xiao the filiality.
Confucianism is centered on ren which can
be manifested through the li (propriety),
This is the virtue of reverence and respect
xiao (filiality), and yi (rightness).
for the family.
For Confucius, ren reflects the person’s
Parents should be revered for the life they
own understanding of humanity.
and given.
It is found within each person and can be
Children show respect to their parents by
realized in one’s personal life and
exerting efforts to take care of themselves.
relationship.
Reverence for parents and family is further AND SELF ESTEEM
demonstrated by bringing honor to the
family, making something of himself and to Understanding the self in different
earn respect of other. classification of physical aspects is one way
to discover a person’s real self.
If, however, the person is having difficulty
giving his family the honor that they The Concept of Physical Self
deserved, he should just do this best to not
disgrace the family. The understanding of the Physical self is
shaped by biological and environmental
Relationship that exist in the family reflect factors.
hoe the person relates to others in the
community. The Biological blueprint involves Heredity
and its important factors.
The family is the reflection of the person.
How the person interacts socially and the Heredity is defined as the transmission of
values they emulate can all be traced back traits from parents to offspring.
to their family environment.
The traits are made up of specific
This forms the bases of the person’s moral information embedded within one’s gene.
and social virtues (Koller, 2007)
Genotype refers to the specific information
Yi the rightness embedded within one’s genes; not all
genotypes translate to an observed physical
The right way of behaving which is characteristic. Phenotype is the physical
unconditional and absolute. expression of a particular trait.

Right is right, and what is not right is wrong. Each individual carries 23 pairs of
chromosomes, which are threadlike bodies
Actions must be performed and carried out in the nucleus of the cell and the storage
because they are right actions. unit of genes.

Confucius emphasized that actions should The 23rd pair, also known as sex
be performed because they are right and chromosomes, determines the sex of an
not for selfish benefits that they provide individual.

Within each chromosome is the

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is a
Week 6 nucleic acid that contains the genetic
instructions specifying the biological
PHYSICAL SELF development of every individual.

Maturation is known as the completion of

THE PHYSICAL SELF: BODY IMAGE
growth of a genetic character within an
organism or the unfolding of an They encompass everything that one can
individual’s inherent traits or potential describe about a person or group of
people, by just looking.
As you grow up, you are exposed to
environmental influences that shape your Erik Erikson believed in the importance of
physical self, including those from your the body from early development because
social networks, societal expectations, and the physical as well as intellectual skills
cultural practices that will lead a person to will somehow serve as a basis to whether a
understand themselves. person has achieved a sense of
competence and be able to manage and
According to Santrock (2014), face the demands of life complexities.
self-understanding is the individual’s
cognitive representation of self which William James, on the other hand,
consists of substance and the content of considered the body as the initial source of
self-conceptions. sensation and necessary for origin and
maintenance of personality
Self-understanding can be described as
simple to perplex and involve a number of A period of rapid physical changes is in
aspects of the self. Puberty. According to Santrock (2016),
puberty is not the same as adolescence
It also changes throughout the life span as because puberty ends prior to the end of the
the person grows older. adolescent period. But the recognized
puberty as the most essential marker of the
As children advance in age, their interests beginning of adolescence.
change and with these come changes in
their bodies. The changes experienced during puberty
are different from girls and boys.
The changes are rapid and before parents
notice it, they are no longer babies but Girls reach puberty earlier than boys and
teenagers. experience menarche which is her first
menstrual flow.
An obvious change in teenagers are the
changes in Physical Self. Boys, two or three years later, experience
spermarche or semenarche which is his first
The Physical Self refers to the concrete ejaculation or nocturnal emission (wet
dimensions of the body, it is the tangible dreams).
aspect of the person which can be directly
observed and examined. Puberty is a brain neuroendocrine process
occurring primarily in early adolescence that
Physical Characteristics are the defining triggers the rapid physical changes.
traits or features of a person’s body. This is
also the first thing people see when they The Pituitary gland is the master endocrine
look at another person that could include gland that controls growth and regulates
facial features, hairstyle, clothes, or figure.
functions of all the other endocrine glands The body and its evolving mental
including gonads. representations form the basis of a sense of
self (Krueger, 2002).
The chemical substances secreted by the
gonads promotes physical changes such as The development of a body self mainly has
height, widening of the hips and increase in three stages.
fatty tissues in the breast of girls and
responsible for boy’s growth of facial and The early psychic experience of the body in
body hair, muscles, and changes in voice. which sensations like tactile like in infants
enable babies to discriminate bodies from
their surroundings, which contribute to the
sense of self.

THE SELF AS IMPACTED BY THE Next is defining body surface boundaries

BODY which is the stage of being awareness of
body image in contrast to surface
boundaries.
Different levels of connectedness
characterize the relationship between self
Last stage is the distinguishing of the body’s
and body.
internal states which is the stage of having
cohesion of the body
These connectedness may be in a positive
or negative ways, or in helpful or destructive
In these images and experiences of the
ways.
body and the body, surfaces can be
organized into holistic understanding of the
Nevertheless, it is between individuals as
body.
well as across situations.

Theory suggests that Physical body both

The potential of the physical body to be
has objective and subjective components.
regarded as an object introduces the
possibility of trait and state body as well as
Individual’s conception and
the state of the self.
acknowledgment of their physical bodies
substantiate their assessment of the sense
Perspectives in Understanding
of totality which is an integral to his/her
Physical Self
experience of the physical world.

1. Psychodynamic Perspective
Moreover, one’s experience of one’s
physical body may be a key predictor of a
Freud’s theory of the ego was primarily
variety of behaviors.
known as body ego, that solidifies the
importance of body in understanding the
2. Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective
self.
Focuses on perceptual, cognitive, and
affective aspects which is a
multidimensional experience that can aid a As stated by Hewstone and Bem (2015)
more precise Self perception theory explains that since
understanding of the body. one’s internal state is difficult to interpret,
people can infer their inner states by
The cognitive-behavioral perspective makes observing their own behavior – as if they are
multiple distinctions to facilitate precise an outside observer.
conceptual and operational definitions of
body-image related variables. Physical perception includes all aspects of a
person’s perception of his physical self.
3. Feminist Perspective
c. Self-concept
Relies on the social construction in which
there is a possibility of individuals to According to Hewstone, et al., (2015),
experience their bodies in distorted ways self-concept is a cognitive representation of
(especially, women). women’s self-knowledge which includes the sum total
dissatisfaction with their bodies as a of all beliefs that people have about
systematic social phenomenon rather than a themselves.
result of individual pathology (McKinley,
2002). It is a collection of all individual experience
involving one’s characteristics, social roles,
Specifically, the duality established between values, goals and fears. Physical concept is
the mind and body in Western societies and the individual’s perception or description of
the pairing of men with the “mind” and his physical self, including his physical
women with the “body” contribute to women appearance
experiencing their bodies differently than
men. d. Personal Identity

Factors that affect perception of This is the concept a person has about
the Physical Self himself that develops over the years.

1. Personal Factors This includes aspects of his life that he was

born into like family, nationality, gender,
a. Introspection and Self-reflection. physical traits as well as the choices he
makes, such as what he does for living, who
Looking inward is one of the simplest ways his friends are and what he believes in.
to achieve self-knowledge. According to
Hewstone, et al., (2015) Introspection is the 2. Social Factors
process by which one observes and
examines one’s internal state (mental and a. Attachment Process and Social
emotional) after behaving in a certain way. Appraisal

b. Self-Perception Theory. According to Bowlby (1969), people learn

about their value and lovability when they
experience how their mothers or caregivers ● Downward social comparison happens
care for them and respond to their needs. when an individual compares themselves to
someone who is in a worse situation than
b. Maintaining, Regulating and they are in especially when they are feeling
expanding the self in interpersonal low
relationships .
e. Social Identity Theory (Collective
c. The Looking-glass Self Theory. Identity).

Charles Horton Cooley stated that a This was formulated by Tajfel and Turner
person’s self grows out of society’s 1973 which provides a framework about
interpersonal interactions and the how people achieve understanding about
perception of others. themselves by being a member of their
group.
The view of oneself comes from a
compilation of personal qualities and This idea assumes that as a member of the
impressions of how others perceive the group they will not be discriminated against
individual. by an out-group.

Therefore, in a looking-glass self, the It will enhance their self-esteem because

self-image is shaped and reflected from the they feel secured with the shield of group
social world. membership where they belong.

Other people’s reactions would serve as a Social groups include gender, ethnicity,
mirror in which people see themselves religion, profession, political membership
particularly the way in which they are and business organizations.
perceived and judged by others

d. Social Comparison
Week 6 - B
The work of Leon Festinger in 1954
introduced another way of understanding
THE PHYSICAL SELF: BODY
oneself by comparing one’s traits, abilities,
or opinions to that of others. IMAGE AND SELF ESTEEM

Social Comparison is a process of ❖ Understanding the self includes

comparing oneself with others in order to understanding the surroundings and
evaluate one’s own abilities and opinions. what influences our outlook in our
There are two types of social comparison: beauty.

● Upward social comparison happens when ❖ Culture may seem to have an effect
an individual compares themselves to also on how people view themselves
others who are better than them. and how they construct their images
and boost their self-esteem.
 This is what is called the social
❖ Physical aspect of the self may also constructionist approach to
provide understanding and the understanding the physical self.
importance of beauty.
A person may have a certain set of facial
The Impact of Culture on Body Image features, or weigh a certain number of
and Self-Esteem: The Importance of pounds and attractiveness will come from
Beauty the time and place in which they live.

These meanings occur within a set of

After going through all the concepts and
culturally constructed power relations which
theories that may affect the person’s view of
suggest that, for example, women must be
his physical self, there’s another factor that
attractive in order to be valuable.
strongly impacts this perception, his cultural
milieu.
What occurs is that once something comes
to take on cultural meaning, it becomes
Culture is defined as a social system that is
naturalized: people think that things are the
characterized by the shared meanings that
way that they are because they have always
are attributed to people and events by its
been that way.
members
These meanings have been created, and
The makeup of a body is a collection of
that they can change, and that there’s
cells, combined into organs, which
nothing natural at all. Even something that
themselves operate in systems.
seems to be rooted in the body as disability
is partially socially constructed.
In humans, that body typically takes on a
form with two arms, two legs, a torso, and a
This differs from what might be called an
head.
essentialist view of the body.
It can be assumed that the body is
Essentialism means that bodies are
contingent – meaning molded by factors
defined entirely by their biological make-up
outside the body, and internalized into the
– bones, muscles, hormones, and the like.
physical being itself
Much of human behavior can also be
A significant aspect of culture that strongly
reduced to many of those biological
influences adolescents who are in a
functions, it is referred to by social scientists
face-to-face encounter with their physical
call a reductionist idea that complex
selves is how their culture conceptualizes
human behaviors can be reduced to
beauty.
something as simple as, for example,
hormones.
Young adolescents are forced to adhere to
society’s definition of beauty lest they be
Another example of how norms of
labelled ugly or “pangit” in local dialect.
masculinity and femininity shape not just
behavior, but public perceptions are those
people who did activities of the other The theory suggests that we are all actors
gender. on a stage, and much of what we do is
engage in impression management during
They were praised at the same time and which we must monitor and adjust our own
criticized just by doing what is not expected behavior in accordance with how people
to their gender. want others to perceive them.

With this, the idea that the body is marked

with culture and society is the term social
skin to refer to the ways in which social
categories become inscribed onto physical A woman is what she wears – this
body. statement is from the work of Janes Gaines
on fashion (1990) which implies that
Through the social skin, the body becomes women are often defined completely by their
the symbolic stage on which dramas of clothing –.
society are enacted. This idea is from the
anthropologist Terence Turner (1980). In this study, it suggests that people have
body images. Body image can be
Another anthropologist, Mary Douglas described as a representation of how
(1973) said that the body is the most natural individuals think and feel about their
symbol for and medium of classification, own physical attributes.
and thus rules associated with controlling
the body and its processes emerge as a Body image is both internal (personal) and
powerful means of social control. external (society).

She is the one who centralized the analysis This includes . . .

of the body focused on traditional societies.
(1) how a person perceives his body
Therefore, the physical body is a threat to
the social body. (2) how a person feels about their physical
appearance
Further, she finds that societies with strict
social limits would regard boundaries with (3) how a person thinks and talks to
caution including bodily boundaries. themselves about their bodies,
and
In sociology, how the body operates as a
focus and symbol has been understood as (4) a sense of how other people view their
well. bodies.

This control of behavior from within was Though sometimes how a person looks has
made as theory by Erving Goffman (1982) possibly never held as much as societal
which is called the Dramaturgical theory. importance or reflected so significantly on
our perceived self-worth.
Body image is the mental representation social standard. It is a global evaluative
one creates, but it may or may not bear dimension of the self.
close relation to how others actually see
you. Needless to say, people with positive or
high self-esteem are happier, have a sense
Body image is subject to all kinds of of accomplishment and purpose and relate
distortion from internal elements like our well with others.
emotions, moods, early experiences,
attitudes of our parents, and much more. The impact of culture on body image and
self-esteem has been very crucial for
The mass media has increasingly become a sometimes people depend on this as when
platform that reinforce cultural beliefs and they define beautiful.
projects strong views on how we should
look, that we as individuals often It has been assumed that preferences for
unknowingly validate. With such strong beauty are gradually learned through
societal scrutiny, it is easy to see how the cultural transmission and exposure to
focus is on negative body image. contemporary media.

Nevertheless, it strongly influences Charles Darwin in 1871 became one of the

behavior. Preoccupation with and distortions first persons, if not the first, to think and
of body image are widespread among write extensively about human beauty from
American women (and to a lesser extent, a biological point of view, concluding that
among males), but they are driving forces in there is no universal standard of beauty
eating disorders, feeding severe anxiety with respect to the human body and
than can be assuaged only by dieting. attempts to determine underlying
dimensions of beauty are futile.
Having a sense of understanding that
healthy attractive bodies come in many However, in 1985, contrary to Darwin’s
shapes and sizes, and that physical beliefs, Samuels and Ewy showed that
appearance says very little about the both 3-month-old and 6-month-old
character or value of a person, a person can infants looked longer at male and female
have a positive body image. faces previously rated as attractive by
adults, suggesting that infants have the
How to get to this point depends on the cognitive ability to discriminate
acceptance and esteem that a person has attractiveness.
for himself. This can be related to the
meaning of self-esteem. These findings have been further supported,
and it has even been shown that young
Self-esteem is the overall evaluation that infants show preferences for attractive
a person has of himself which can be faces, measured by looking time, that
positive or negative, high or low. transcends gender, race, and age.

Self esteem is a measure of the person’s

self-worth based on some personal or
Problems and other issues will arise when a ● Defined as how one thinksabout
person’s definition of body image is different himself or herself as a sexual
from the understanding of beauty. individual. Human sexuality is a topic
that just like beauty is culturally
Young people put so much pressure on diverse. This should be understood
themselves to attain unrealistic ideals to the in varied ways.
point of risking mental and physical health is
unacceptable. Historical

The following are some aspects in culture ● Ancient Greece, it is the male that
that may have led to some misconceptions: assumes the dominant role. The
male symbol, the penis, was viewed
Society’s ideal for the perfect physical form as the symbol of fertility and how the
for men and women. male body was structured and was
greatly admired. Their wives were
Images of perfection brought by all types of considered as objects to be
media i.e print, television, film, and internet. possessed just like property.
Women, on the other hand, were
Since a standard has been set by society forbidden to own property and had
and reinforced by the media, any no legal and only function was to
characteristic that does not conform to the bear children. The Greek word for
standard is labelled as ugly. Body diversity woman is “gyne” means – bearer of
in size and structure due to genetic children.
heritability isnot tolerated.
● Middle Ages (476-1450), bore
Yes, beauty is important. But being witness to the strong influence of
beautiful still depends how a person church particularly in matters of
defines beauty and the standards he sets sexuality. The church decreed that
to meet this definition. It is a big mistake all sexual acts that do not lead to
to base beauty on some else’s standard. procreation were considered evil.
People are different and each one is Women were labelled as either
uniquely beautiful. temptress (like Eve) or a woman of
virtue (like Virgin Mary)

● 16th century (1483-1546) Martin

Week 7 Luther, John Calvin and other
Protestant leaders initiated a
THE SEXUAL SELF movement against the Roman
Catholic Church. Protestantism
believed that sexuality is a natural
Sexual Selfhood
part of life and that priests should be
able to marry and have families.
 ● Victorian Era (1837-1901), human sexual behavior, it all begins with
homosexuality and prostitution were physical attraction.
rampant and considered to be
threats to social order. People in this Beauty is more than just cultural standard. It
era were not comfortable in is primarily an evolutionary standard for
discussing breast or buttocks, they attracting the best male or female in the lot
used other terms instead. to ensure that one’s genetic characteristics
will be passed on to the next generation
● 20th century, interest in sexuality
became more evident and accepted Although survival is the goal of the
in society. The separation of church evolutionary perspective, physical attraction
and state reduced the influence the which ends in sex does not mean that the
church had over sexual mores. Also, attraction will be lasting. For what is really
the rise of feminism allowed for important in human sexual relationships is
changes in employment, home life, the love, care, and responsibility each
and sexual standards for women. gender has for the other.

Biological
Psychological
Knowing the structures and functions of the Rosenthal (2013) also explained that
reproductive system is essential to the sexuality is not a mere physical response.
understanding of sexuality. In the nervous Rather, it also involves emotions, thoughts
system, it is the brain that initiates and and beliefs.
organizes sexual behavior. Through the
process of sexual reproduction, the next Sigmund Freud was one of the most
generation of human beings are created by prominent people to explain sexuality,
the fusion of the egg cell and sperm cell. through his theories. According to him,
This will be discussed further in the next human beings are faces with two forces –
pages. sex instinct and libido (pleasure) and death
or aggressive instinct (harm toward oneself
or towards others).
Sociobiological/Evolutionary
This perspective studies how evolutionary Sex instinct does not only pertain to the
forces affect sexual behavior. According to sexual act rather it could also mean
sociobiological theory, natural selection is a anything that could give pleasure to the
process by which organisms that are best person. Thus, human behavior is geared
suited to their environment are most likely to towards satisfying the sex instinct and/or
survive. Traits that lead to reproductive death instinct. A person’s libido or sexual
advantage tend to be passed on, whereas energy is located in an area of the body at
maladaptive traits are lost. On the basis of different psychosexual stages. These areas
of pleasure are called erogenous zones.
These will be discussed further in the According to Taoism, which originated in
following pages China, sex is not only natural and healthy,
but a sacred union necessary to people’s
Freud also regarded personality as physical, mental, and spiritual being. The
composed of three structures: the id, the sexual union is a way to balance male and
Ego and the Superego. female energy.

The id is the part which always seeks for In Hinduism, sexuality is seen as
pleasure and aggression. It follows the spiritual force, and the act of ritual
pleasure principle because it wants the lovemaking is a means of both celebrating
person to attain gratification immediately. It and transcending the physical
is unconsciously saying “I want it now!”.
For the Roman Catholic Church, marriage
The Superego is the person’s sense of is purely for intercourse and procreation.
morality; it follows the moral principle Pope John Paul II confirmed the idea that
whose role is to restrict demands of the married couples should engage in
id. It is developed when children are taught intercourse only for the purpose of
the difference between right and wrong. procreation. They further believed that
homosexual orientation, in itself is not sinful,
The ego follows the analytical principle. It but homosexual acts are immoral and sinful.
analyses the need of the id and its The use of birth control is strongly
consequences as dictated by the opposed but they agree to natural family
superego and thinks of ways to satisfy the planning and prohibit abortion.
need in an acceptable manner.

Religion
DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY
Judaism holds a positive and natural SEX and REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
outlook toward marital sex which they
consider as blessed by God and
pleasurable for both men and women. From a purely physical standpoint, our
Sexual connection provides an bodies are made mainly of water. We are
opportunity for spirituality and also made of many minerals, including
transcendence. calcium, phosphorous, potassium, sulfur,
sodium, chlorine, magnesium, and iron.
In Islam, family is considered of utmost
importance, and celibacy within marriage is In order of size, the elements of the body
prohibited. Muslim men are allowed to have are organized into cells, tissues, and
up to four wives but Muslim women can only organs. Related organs are combined into
have one husband. Sex is permitted only systems, including the musculoskeletal,
within marriage and extramarital sex is cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory,
penalized. gastrointestinal, endocrine, and
reproductive systems
 ❖ There are two kinds of reproduction: (4) implantation of the blastocyst, the early
asexual and sexual. Many embryo developed from the fertilized ovum,
biochemical events must occur in the wall of the uterus;
before an organism can reproduce
either way (5) formation of a placenta and maintenance
of the unborn child during the entire
1. Asexual reproduction period of gestation;
The simplest form of reproduction
that literally means without sex. A (6) birth of the child and expulsion of the
single celled animal grows to a placenta; and
certain stage or size and divides into
two identical organisms. Multi-celled (7) suckling and care of the child, with an
asexual organisms have developed eventual return of the maternal organs to
several unique reproductive virtually their original state
strategies. For example, the jellyfish
reproduces by budding, a process Male reproductive system essential parts
where a new individual begins to are as follows:
grow (bud) from the original
organism and is eventually released Penis – a male sexual organ consisting of
as a small, free swimming organism. the internal root and external shaft and
glans.
2. Sexual reproduction
In organisms that reproduce Root – the portion of the penis that extends
sexually, there are males and internally into the pelvic cavity.
females and reproduction occurs
when partners come together. This Shaft – the length of the penis between the
also involves reproductive cells, glans and the body.
including a female ovum (egg) and a
male’s sperm. Glans – the head of the penis; richly
endowed with nerve endings.
Provided all organs are present, normally
constructed, and functioning properly, the Cavernous bodies – the structures in the
seven essential features of human shaft of the penis that engorge with blood
reproduction are: during sexual arousal.

(1) liberation of an ovum, or egg, at a Foreskin – a covering of skin over the penile
specific time in the reproductive cycle; glans.

(2) internal fertilization of the ovum by Corona – the rim of the penile glans. 8.
spermatozoa, or sperm cells; Frenulum – a highly sensitive, thin strip of
skin that connects the glans to the shaft on
(3) transport of the fertilized ovum to the the underside of the penis.
uterus, or womb;
Frenulum – a highly sensitive, thin strip of Vagina – a stretchable canal in the female
skin that connects the glans to the shaft on that opens at the vulva and extends
the underside of the penis about four inches into the pelvis.

Female reproductive system essential parts Rugae – the folds of tissue in the vagina.
are as follows:
Cervix – the small end of the uterus, located
1. Vulva – encompasses all female external at the back of the vagina.
genital structures – the hairs, fold of skin,
and the urinary and vaginal openings. Uterus – a pear shaped organ inside the
female pelvis, within which the fetus
Mons Veneris – a triangular mound over the develops.
pubic bone above the vulva.
Fallopian tubes – two tubes in which the
Labia majora – the outer lips of the vulva. egg and sperm travel, extending
from the sides of the uterus.
Labia minora – the inner lips of the vulva,
one on each side of the vaginal opening. Ovaries – female gonads that produce ova
and sex hormones
Prepuce – the foreskin or fold of skin over These are the parts of the reproductive
the clitoris. organs that are considered to be
important.
Clitoris – a highly sensitive structure of the
female external genitals, the only function of The primary and secondary characteristics
which is sexual pleasure. refer to specific physical differentiate males
and females in sexually dimorphic species –
Shaft – the length of the clitoris between the species having two forms that are
glans and the body. determined by their sex; that is, species in
which males and females look different from
Glans – the head of the clitoris; richly each other.
endowed with nerve endings.
Primary characteristics are there from
Cruca – the innermost tips of the cavernous birth (for example, penises and vaginas).
bodies that connect to the pubic bones.
Secondary sexual characteristics
Vestibule – the area of the vulva inside the emerge at puberty (such as low voices and
labia minora. beards in men, and high voices and no
facial hair in women). Samples
Urethra – the tube through which urine includes:
passes from the bladder to outside the body
These secondary sexual characteristics are
2. Internal Structure not used in reproduction, but are apparent
in most dimorphic species. Hormones
secreted through the hypothalamus initiate
the development of classically male or
female secondary sexual traits

These secondary sex characteristics can

also be known as some of the first changes
in a boy are the growth of his and growth of
pubic hair. Later, the chest becomes larger,
hair grows in the armpits, muscles grow in
the arms and legs and shoulders become
larger and stronger. PUBERTY

In some males, hair also grows on the Physical maturation in which an individual
chest, but generally, Asian men are less becomes physiologically capable of sexual
hairy and less muscular than Caucasian reproduction. The biological changes
men, and those from Africa have coarser include:
body hair. Facial hair, which usually grows
first above the lips and later grows on the ● neurosecretory factors and/or
cheeks, may grow into a mustache and hormones,
beard unless the boy shaves regularly. The ● modulation of somatic growth, and
larynx (voice box) becomes larger as well, ● initiation of the development of the
resulting in a deeper voice. In girls, pubic sex glands.
hair begins to grow, followed by underarm The physiology of puberty includes also the
hair; breasts develop, with the areola activation of the hypothalamic pituitary
around the nipple becoming darker. Fat gonadal axis which induces and enhances
deposits around the hips and buttocks also the progressive ovarian and testicular sex
contribute to the female's more rounded hormone secretion.
appearance.
Puberty proceeds through five stages from
With girls, the menstrual cycle begins, it childhood to full maturity as described by
may be irregular, with some monthly cycles Marshall and Tanner (2006). In both sexes,
occurring without ovulation. Since 1840, these stages reflect the progressive
menstruation has been beginning a few modifications of the external genitalia and of
months earlier every decade, possibly due sexual hair. Secondary sex characteristics
to better nutrition or to the consumption of appear at a mean age of 10.5 years in girls
meat that contains hormones. In general, and 11.5 to 12 years in boys.
girls gain less height and weight than boys
do during their teenage years.
Puberty Stages (Female )
The list below shows some of these
characteristic differences between
P1 Pre-pubertal
human males and females.
P2 Early development of sub-areolar
breast bud +/- small amounts of pubic hair
and axillary hair
 During puberty, plasma estradiol levels
P3 Increase in size of palpable breast fluctuate widely, probably reflecting
tissue and areolar Increase amount of dark successive waves of follicular development
pubic hair and axillary hair that fail to reach the ovulatory stage. The
uterine endometrium is affected by these
P4 Further increase in breast size and changes and undergoes cycles of
areolae that protrude above breast level proliferation and regression, until a point is
Adult Pubic hair reached when substantial growth occurs so
that withdrawal of estrogen results in the
P5 Adult Stage Pubic hair with extension first menstruation (menarche). Female
to upper thigh secondary sexual characteristics include
breast development, pubic and/or axillary
Puberty Stages (Males) hair, and menses occur earlier than normal
variations from the mean, the terms
P1 Prepubertal Testicular length less than premature.
2.5 cm

P2 Early increase in testicular size, Discussing Erogenous Zones

scrotum slightly pigmented Few long and
dark pubic hair This part could be understanding the sexual
self in a Psychological manner.
P3 Testicular length 3.3-4 cm
Lengthening of the penis, increase of ● Erogenous zones can be
pubic hair understood in a certain way we
understand our body. These are
P4 Testicular length 4.1-4.5 cm, increase areas of the human body that
in length and thickening of the penis have heightened sensitivity. The
Adult amount of pubic hair stimulation of these areas may result
in the foundation and production of
sexual fantasies, sexual arousal,
The rising levels of plasma gonadotropins and orgasm. These are areas that
stimulate the ovary to produce increasing are more sensitive than others all
amounts of estradiol. over the body.

Estradiol is responsible for the development ● Varieties of sexual excitement may

of secondary sexual characteristics, that is, be provoked that will classify the
growth and development of the breasts and erogenous zones. Erogenous zones
reproductive organs, fat redistribution (hips, vary from culture to culture and over
breasts), and bone maturation. The time. Essentially, these parts have
maturation of the ovary at adolescence high concentration of nerve endings,
correlates well with estradiol secretion and that the result is they are particularly
the stages of puberty. sensitive to touch, pressure, or
vibration.
 ● Latency stage, sexual impulses lie
dormant as the child is occupied by
social activities such as going to
school and playing.

● Genital stage, where the erogenous

zone is again the genitals. At this
time, the sexual attraction is directed
towards others, usually one of
opposite sex.

According to his theory, each stage of

psychosexual development must be met
successfully for proper development; if we
lack proper nurturing and parenting during a
stage, we may become stuck in, or fixated
on, that stage. Freud’s psychosexual theory
has been seriously criticized for the past few
decades and is now considered largely
outdated. However, the erogenous zones
were discussed in each of the stages of
psychosexual development, that if not
The five stages of Freud’s psychosexual outgrown will have fixations for that certain
theory of development: stage.

● Oral stage, the child erogenous Erogenous zones is different from sexual
zone is the mouth which receives fetishes. According to Freud, a fetish is an
gratification through eating and inappropriate object (a shoe for example)
sucking. that is substituted for a woman and used for
sexual gratification. An erogenous zone is
● Anal stage, the erogenous zone is a body part (a foot, for instance) that
the anus in which sexual gratification arouses sexual curiosity and draws a man's
is derived from defecation attention to the whole female body.
Fetishism is an individual personality
● Phallic stage, erogenous zone is disorder, while erogenous zones are
the genitals. Here the child sexual preferences shared by most men at
experiences sexual attraction a given time or place. Fetishes belong to the
towards the opposite sex parent. science of psychopathology while
Oedipus complex (sexual attraction erogenous zones belong to the social world
of the body child toward the mother) of costume and fashion.
and Electra complex (sexual
attraction of the girl child towards the The phrase erogenous zones was coined
father) near the end of the nineteenth century and
used in the early twentieth century by some of behavior as normal or away from normal
psychologists to describe how simple represents culture based rather than
pressure to these parts of the body could scientifically explained.
arouse complete orgasm in what were
defined as hysterical persons (generally As part of the transition from childhood to
understood to be women). adulthood, all adolescents experience
sexual feelings. Some act upon these
For cultural anthropologists, erogenous feelings by having sexual intercourse;
zones are those areas of the female body others don’t have intercourse but engage in
which men find sexually arousing and which behaviors stopping short of penile/vaginal
women alter or adorn to attract the male intercourse; some engage in anal
eye. intercourse or oral sex (Remez, 2000); and
others deny their sexual feelings by
Because of this understanding, it can be focusing intensely on nonsexual pursuits.
noted that culture determines their unique
fixation for erogenous zones. Examples are Other adolescents are able to have socially
Asian men prize the nape of the neck while acceptable intercourse through early,
Europeans are fixated with waist. In sometimes prearranged, marriages. Sexual
defiance of common sense, the genitals behavior among adolescents is not new
rarely become erogenous zones. what is new is the delay in marriage that
attends increasing educational attainment,
Human increases their likeness through and non-agricultural and increasingly
body paint, cosmetics, mutilation or other technological free marketsocieties.
procedures like Western women paint their Individuals become erotically aroused when
lips red, enhancing resemblance to the they observe other individuals engaging in
labia; Aristocratic Chinese women bound sexual activity. The human sexual response
their feet so it would be tiny, curled feet can be understood through a cycle. This is
more closely resembled the vulva. More also called the sexual response cycle. It
societies alter their erogenous zones to refers to the sequence ofphysical and
make them more beautiful or prominent. emotional changes that occur as a person
becomes sexually aroused and participates
Understanding Human Sexual in sexually stimulating activities.
Response
Advantages can be known if a person would
know how their bodies respond during each
One of the great qualities of a human being
cycle. Men and women experience sexual
is its ability to be modified by experiences.
arousal very differently, not only
This process is known as learning and
physiologically but psychologically. For
conditioning, which most of the aspects of
many women, the excitement phase has
human behavior, even sexual behavior
much more of an emotional component.
appear to be a product of it. Like the
Women are motivated to have sexual
preferences people have of type of
responses by a need for emotional intimacy.
individual as partners – tall, short, younger,
It is this motivation that causes them to
or varieties of partners like
heterosexual/homosexual. The classification
react to sexual stimuli and thus enter the
excitement phase. 1. Lust

● Master and Johnson categorized the ❖ When people are in the stage of lust,
human sexual response into four they feel physically attracted and
stages which they called the Human drawn to their object of affection.
Sexual Response Cycle (HSRC); There are elements of mystery that
make things exciting.
Stage Description

Excitement The body’s initial ❖ Lust is driven by the desire for

response to sexual sexual gratification. The
arousal. evolutionary basis for this is from
people’s need to reproduce, a need
Plateau The period of
sexual excitement shared among all living things.
prior to orgasm.
❖ Through reproduction, organisms
Orgasm Characterized by pass on their genes, and contribute
waves of intense to the perpetuation of their species.
pleasure (climax),
The hypothalamus of the brain plays
often associated
with vaginal a big role in this, stimulating the
contractions in production of the sex hormones
females and testosterone and estrogen from the
ejaculation in testes and ovaries.
males.
❖ While these chemicals are often
Resolution The body returns to
its non-excited stereotyped as being male and
stage. female, respectively, both play a role
in men and women. As it turns out,
testosterone increases libido in just
about everyone. The effects are less
Week 7 - B pronounced with estrogen, but some
women report being more sexually
motivated around the time they
THE SEXUAL SELF ovulate, when estrogen levels are
Understanding the Chemistry of Lust, highest.
Love, and Attachment
2. Attraction
According to anthropologist Helen Fisher
(2016) there are three stages of falling in ❖ Attraction is a characteristic that
love. causes pleasure or interest by
appealing to a person’s desires or
In each stage, a different set of brain tastes, and causes one to be drawn
chemicals run the show. These stages are to the other.
lust, attraction, and love.
❖ In this stage, a person may begin to each of us can have “chemistry” with
be obsessed about their object of just about anyone.
affection and crave for his presence.
A person may don’t feel like sleeping 3. Attachment
or eating. People can certainly lust
for someone they are attracted to, ❖ This stage involves wanting to make
and vice versa, one can happen a more lasting commitment to your
without the other. loved one. All the goals are
dedicated to the object of affection
❖ Attraction has brain pathways that being a part of a person’s life.
controls “reward” behavior, which dopamine decreases and attraction
explains the first few months of a goes down.
relationship. Dopamine is the main
player in the brain’s reward pathway. ❖ If things are going well, it gets
When it is released, people feel replaced by the hormones oxytocin
good. In this case, these things and vasopressin, which create the
spending time with loved ones with desire to bond, affiliate with, and
high levels of dopamine and related nurture your partner. You want to
hormones (norepinephrine) are cuddle and be close and share your
released. deepest secrets with her. You plan
and dream together.
❖ These chemicals make people
energetic, and euphoric that can Most romantic relationships begin with two
lead to decreased appetite and individuals falling into love with each other.
insomnia – which actually means a The singer Robert Palmer compares love
person is so “in love” that this person with an addiction.
cannot eat or cannot sleep. In
addition, norepinephrine plays a This was verified in a study in which 17
large role in the fight or flight participants who were madly in love were
response, which has a say when asked to go to the lab and bring a picture of
people are stressed and kept them their loved one. Participants were placed in
alert. a brain scanner (fMRI functional magnetic
resonance imaging) which measures the
❖ Brain scans of people in love have neural activity of the brain. Their brain
actually shown that the primary activity was recorded that when participants
“reward” centers of the brain. Finally, gazed at a photo of their beloved, regions in
attraction seems to lead to a the brain were activated. Those parts are
reduction in serotonin, a hormone closely associated with the anticipation of
that is involved in appetite and reward and with focused attention. This is
mood. In the end, everyone is the dopamine system in the brain which is
capable of defining love for the same system involved in pleasure and
themselves. And, for better or for addiction. Fisher, et al (2006) concluded
worse, if it’s all hormones, maybe that, rather than defining love as an
emotion, “being in love” can be considered
a strong motivation – an addictive craving to
be with the other person (Hewstone et al, 1. Eros (EH-ros)
2015).
Love is based on a strong sexual and
Thus, early passionate love is not an emotional component. This type of love
emotion in and if itself. Rather, it is best creates initial excitement of a new
characterized as a “motivation or goal relationship.
oriented state that leads to various specific
emotions, such as euphoria or anxiety”. A romantic and passionate love which
Unlike many emotions, love is not emphasizes physical attraction and sexual
associated with any specific facial desire. The Eros lover dreams of the ideal
expression, and I am focused on a single characteristics of a partner and usually
reward. The emotions associated with love experiences love at first sight. The
– elation, anxiety, joy, fear – may come and relationship, however, seldom lasts forever
go. But motivation to be with the beloved – because they tend to be quick to fall in and
remains. out of love.

● Love can be characterized by concern for 2. Agape (AH-gah-pay)

other’s well-being, a desire for physical
presence and emotional support. In a study This is altruistic and selfless love. The
of Tennov in 1979, though sex is an person shows his love without expecting to
important component of romantic love, 95% receive the same in return. He considers the
of women and 91% of male respondents did wishes of his partner as more important
not agree with the statement that “the than his own. He may not have a perfect
best thing about love is sex” partner but he will always be there to
support and offer his love.

John Lee’s Love Styles 3. Storge (Store-gay)

This is love related friendship and based on

nonsexual affection.

The person experiences love as a gradual

and slow process. When love is storge, love
takes time.

Storgic lovers do not suddenly fall in love

with an idealized lover. Commitment,
stability and comfort are their goals.

4.Ludus

For ludic lovers, love is just a game,

something for fun or entertainment. They do
not experience jealousy. They do not value to maintain the relationship through
commitment or intimacy. They manipulate good times and bad times.
their partners by lying, cheating and
deceiving. Sternberg also described several types of
love based on the above components.
5. Mania
1. Liking (Intimacy). This only
This is characterized by an intense feeling involves emotional intimacy and has
which may lead to obsessive and no passionate intention for long-term
possessive love towards the loved one. commitment. It is just a friendly
Manic lovers always check the partner’s relationship.
whereabouts. They easily get jealous and
their experience of love is out of control. 2. Infatuation (Passion). This is
They are easily taken advantage of by ludic associated with a high degree of
lovers. physiological arousal. There is only
passion without intimacy or
6. Pragma commitment. It is usually called “love
at first sight” and may fade quickly.
This is a practical and business-like love.
Pragmatic lovers may plan the best time to 3. Empty love (Commitment). This
get married, have children, and other future involves only commitment. A
plans. Love is based on what is appropriate. relationship. With no intimacy and
It is not intense nor out of control. passion. Couples only stay together
for their children or other important
reasons.

The Triangular Theory of Love by 4. Romantic love (Passion and

Robert Sternberg, according to him, Intimacy). It is a combination of both
love is made up of three components: passion and intimacy which may be
present during the first phase of a
relationship. This is characterized by
1. Intimacy. This includes the desire to
emotional intensity and sexual
give and receive emotional
excitement. The experience of
closeness, support, caring and
passionate love may be positive and
sharing.
negative.
2. Passion. This is the hot component
5. Companionate love (Intimacy and
of love which can be described as
Commitment). The components are
intensely romantic or sexual desire
both intimacy and commitment
for another person usually
which is experienced in long deeply
accompanied by physical attraction
committed friendship or marriage
and physiological arousal.
where passion has faded. It is more
durable than romantic love and may
3. Commitment. This is the cold
grow over time.
component of love. It is the decision
 In another situation, a girl who
6. Fatuous love (Passion and happens to see her crush walking by
Commitment). A combination of will have the same experience as
passion and commitment the person who encounters the
experienced by a couple who spent spider (a person might gasp, the
a short time in courtship and heart and respiratory rate would
suddenly decided to get married. elevate): the brain would have
different interpretation in the second
7. Consummate love (Passion, case, a feeling of LOVE
Intimacy, and Commitment). There
exists a healthy balance of passion, 3. Evolutionary Theories. This
intimacy, and commitment shared by explains that love arose due to some
couples considered to be ideal for sociobiological need. Males tend to
each other. look for young, healthy females
mates to carry their offspring.
The psychology of love shows that there are Females prefer males who have the
psychological theories that would explain resources to support them and their
why people fall in love. offspring

1. Behavioral Reinforcement Theory. Based on social psychological data from

When someone received a reward Rosenthal (2013), the factors that would
such as free ride or other favors determine with whom people fall in love are:

✅Physical attractiveness (though beauty

from another, a positive feeling may
be experienced. The better the
feeling associated with the behavior is in the eye of the beholder)

✅Reciprocity
of a person, the more likely it is for
the behavior to be repeated. (people tend to like an
individual who also like them)

✅Proximity
2. Physiological Arousal Theory
This explains the most acceptable (being around anytime
theories about emotions: the bodies physically or virtually)

✅Similarities
experience a physiological change
first, then people assign an emotion (same age, religion,
to that physical sensation. It is based education, race, physical attractiveness,
on the interpretation of the brain. intelligence, and socio-economic class

For instance, when a big spider falls The diversity of sexual behavior: solitary,
in front of an individual, the stress heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual and
reaction would be: the person might transsexual
gasp, the heart would pound faster,
and breathing would quicken. The Human sexual behavior is any activity,
brain would interpret an emotion solitary, by pair or by group which includes
associated with this experience as sexual arousal.
the feeling of FEAR.
Human sexual behavior may conveniently and to achieve some balance between
be classified according to the number and suppression, which can be injurious, and
gender of the participants. free expression, which can lead to social
difficulties. There is great variation among
Not all sexual arousal can lead to sexual individuals in the strength of sex drive and
activity. Humans are constantly exposed to responsiveness, so this necessary exercise
sexual stimuli when seeing attractive of restraint is correspondingly difficult or
persons or seeing advertisement with easy.
sexual themes through mass media
SEXUAL ORIENTATION
There is solitary behavior involving only The phrase “sexual orientation” is
one individual, and there is sociosexual preferred over “sexual preference” which
behavior involving more than one person. implies a conscious or deliberate choice of a
sexual partner. The following are types of
Sociosexual behavior is generally divided sexual orientations:
into heterosexual behavior (male with 1. Heterosexuality – it is the attraction
female) and homosexual behavior (male to members of opposite sex.
with male or female with female). If three or 2. Homosexuality – refers to a person
more individuals are involved it is, of course, whose sexual orientation is toward
possible to have heterosexual and another of the same sex. It is the
homosexual activity simultaneously. attraction to members of the same
sex.
In both solitary and sociosexual behavior a. Lesbian – is the term used
there may be activities that are sufficiently to describe a woman whose
unusual to warrant the label deviant sexual and romantic
behavior. The term deviant should not be attraction toward women.
used as a moral judgment but simply as b. Gay - is a man whose sexual
indicating that such activity is not common and romantic attraction is
in a particular society. Since human towards other men
societies differ in their sexual practices, 3. Bisexual – is a person who may be
what is deviant in one society may be sexually oriented to both men and
normal in another. wome
4. Transsexual – these are people
● Solitary behavior – A behavior with the experience a gender identity that is
intention of stimulating self that caused inconsistent with, or not culturally
arousal usually done in private. This associated with, their assigned
behavior is more common to males. There sex, and desire to permanently
is great individual variation in frequency. transition to the gender with which
Solitary behavior provides pleasure for self they identify, usually seeking
with emotional content with sole control to medical assistance.
the degree of pleasure.
❖ In clinical viewpoint, a person is
One of the necessary tasks of growing up is suffering from gender dysphoria if
learning to cope with one’s sexual arousal there is distress that may
 accompany the incongruence cause can be more severe for women. If a
between one’s expressed gender or pregnant woman has an STD, it can cause
gender identity and one’s assigned serious health problems for the baby.
gender. Antibiotics can treat STDs caused by
bacteria, yeast, or parasites. There is no
❖ Although not all individuals will cure for STDs caused by a virus, but
experience distress as a result of medicines can often help with the symptoms
incongruence, many are distressed if and keep the disease under control.
desired physical interventions by
means of hormones and/or surgery Some causes of STDs are: bacteria,
are not available. parasites, yeast, and viruses. These STDs
can be dangerous, although in today’s
5. Pansexual – is a new sexual generation it can be treated in different
orientation of persons who are ways, but if not it can lead to Human
sexually attracted to people Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) or even
regardless of their sex or gender Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or
identity. The word “pan” is a Greek acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
word for “all r every”. Thus, they may (AIDS).
also be called “gender blind” for
they believe that gender and sex are The following are some examples of
not determining factors for getting Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs):
sexually attracted to both males and
females whereas pansexual is more 1. HIV/AIDS.
fluid. Aside from men and women
they may also be attracted to HIV stands for Human
transgender, transsexual, Immunodeficiency Virus with AIDS
androgynous and other gender stands for Acquired\
categories Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Thus,
HIV is a virus while AIDS is a
condition or syndrome. HIV can
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) lead to infections that attack and
destroy the CD4 (Tcells) of the
Sexually Transmitted Diseases(STD) are immune system which is the body’s
also known as Sexually Transmitted natural defense against such illness
Infections (STI), together with venereal as tuberculosis, pneumonia, and
disease, these are infections that are cancer.
commonly spread by sexual intercourse.
These are infections that are passed from HIV without treatment can lead to
one person to another through sexual AIDS but not all cases of HIV
contact, blood transfusion, breastfeeding, develop AIDS. Only untreated HIV
and a certain amount of saliva. may lead to AIDS. Presently, there is
no effective cure for HIV. But the
Most STD’s affect both men and women, condition can be controlled with
but in many cases the health problems they proper medical care.
 symptoms, but do not eliminate the herpes
The antiretroviral therapy (ART) is a virus from the body.
combination of medications that are used to
prevent HIV from replicating to protect the 3. Genital Warts
body against the virus and infection.
However, ART is not a cure. It helps those Genital warts (also called venereal warts or
with HIV positive to live longer and happier Condylomata Acuminata) are caused by the
and lowers the risk of advancing the human papillomavirus, a virus related to the
condition into AIDS. one that causes common skin warts.
Certain high-risk types of HPV can cause
In the statistics of Philippine Department of cervical cancer and other genital cancers,
Health (DOH), in 2008), there is one (1) but these are different from the types that
newly diagnosed HIV case per day. In 2010, cause genital warts.
it increased to four (4) cases per day. In
2012, it became nine (9) per day. In 2014, it Genital warts usually first appear as small,
has blown to seventeen (17) cases per day hard painless bumps in the vaginal area or
and in 2016, there are twenty-sex (26) around the anus. If untreated, they may
reported daily cases of newly diagnosed grow and develop a fleshy, cauliflower-like
HIV. appearance

2. Genital Herpes 4. Gonorrhea

This is a sexually transmitted infection This a sexually transmitted infection caused

caused by a large family of viruses of by bacterium Neisseria gonorrheoeae which
different strains. These strains produce thrives in the moist mucous membranes
other non-sexually transmitted diseases linings of the mouth, throat, vagina, cervix,
such as chicken pox and mononucleosis. urethra, and the anal tract

Most individuals have no or only minimal Most women who are infected have no
signs or symptoms. When signs do occur, symptoms. Even when a woman has
they typically appear as one or more blisters symptoms, they can be so non-specific as
on or around the genitals or rectum. The to be mistaken for a bladder or vaginal
blisters break, leaving tender sores that may infection. The most common symptoms of
take two to four weeks to heal the first time gonorrhea are a vaginal discharge or
they occur. Typically, another outbreak can vaginal bleeding between periods.
appear weeks or months after the first, but it Untreated cases can lead to serious
almost always is less severe and shorter. complications, including PID, ectopic
pregnancy and infertility. o
The virus remains in the body for life and
the lesions may recur from time to time. Symptoms for males are discharge from the
Severe or frequently recurrent genital penis and burning sensations during
herpes is treated with one of several urination.
antiviral drugs that are available by
prescription. These drugs help control the
5. Syphilis
In general, with the exception of male and
This is a sexually transmitted infection female sterilization, all methods that are
caused by bacterium Treponema palligum, appropriate for healthy adults are also
a spirochete. If left untreated, syphilis may potentially appropriate for healthy,
progress through four phases: post-pubertal adolescents. Once puberty
has been achieved, methods that are
Primary (chancre sores appear), physiologically safe for adults are also
physiologically safe for adolescents.
Secondary (general skin rashes occur),
In reality, contraceptive use entails
Latent (a period that can last for several consideration of more than just medical
years with no overt symptoms), and safety. Before discussing contraceptive
options, a person must be given the
Tertiary (cardiovascular disease, blindness, opportunity to express their needs and to
paralysis, skin ulcers, liver damage, mental decide freely whether they want to protect
problem and even death may occur) against pregnancy or need to protect
against STI/HIV.
6. Chlamydia. This is one of the most
common sexually transmitted infections, Once a decision is made for protection,
named for Chlamydia trachomatis, an sexually active individual should be
organism that spreads through sexual presented with options that, if used
contact and infects the genital organs of consistently and correctly, will prevent
both sexes. pregnancy and, depending upon an
individual’s circumstances, prevent sexually
Many people with chlamydial infection, transmissible diseases.
however, have few or no symptoms of
infection; it often goes undiagnosed and When selecting a method, a person should
untreated. Once diagnosed with chlamydial consider the nature of their sexual
infection, a person can be treated with an relationship, sexual behaviors engaged in,
antibiotic frequency of intercourse, risk of Sexually
Transmitted Infection (STI) or even HIV,
Methods of Contraception (Artificial and ability to comply with the use, ability to
Natural) tolerate side effects, cost, convenience,
religious beliefs and other personal factors
that may affect their decisions.
There are a lot of reasons why people use
contraceptives. Some purposes of birth
Some of the methods of contraception:
control are to prevent pregnancy, many
women choose to use contraception
1. Hormonal method of
because of certain health advantages. For
contraception (prevents the
example, some hormonal birth control
release of an egg or ovulation)
methods may help regulate your period,
reduce acne, and/or lower
endometriosis-related pain.
a. Oral Contraceptives (Pills) – These are A. Diaphragm - A flexible latex
daily oral contraceptives. Some contain (rubber) or silicone device, used with
estrogen and progesterone; others are spermicide, is put into the vagina to
progestin only and are over 99% effective if cover the cervix. Can be put in any
used according to instruction. Often reduces time before sex.
bleeding and period pain, and may help with B. Cervical Caps – These are similar
premenstrual symptoms. Missing pills, to the diaphragm, though they are
vomiting or severe diarrhea can make it less generally always made of silicone.
effective They are put into the vagina to cover
the cervix and are 92 to 96 percent
b. The Patch – It is a small patch you stick effective when used correctly.
on the skin that releases estrogen and C. Male and Female Condoms or
progestogen. It stops ovulation. It can make spermicides
bleeds regular, lighter, and less painful, For Males: A very thin latex (rubber)
however, may be seen and can cause polyurethane (plastic) or synthetic
skin irritation. sheath, put over the erect penis.

c. The ring – The contraceptive vaginal ring For Females: Soft, thin polyurethane
is a small plastic ring a woman inserts into sheath that loosely lines the vagina
her vagina every month and releases and covers the area just outside.
hormones to stop ovulation. One ring stays Condoms are the best way to help
in for three weeks – you don’t have to think protect yourself from sexually
about contraception every day and must be transmitted infections
comfortable with inserting and removing it
3. Behavioral Method
d. Implants - A small, flexible rod put
under the skin of the upper arm releases A. Rhythm or Calendar Method – It is
progestogen. Works for 3 years but can be a way to determine a woman’s most
taken out sooner. It requires a small fertile and interfile times by charting
procedure to fit and remove it. the menstrual cycle. It is also known
as natural family planning or fertility
e. Injectable - An injection of progestogen. awareness.
Works for 8 or 13 weeks – you don’t have to B. Abstinence or celibacy – It refers
think about contraception during this time. to the avoidance of sexual
Can’t be removed from the body so side intercourse.
effects may continue while it works and for C. Outercourse – It is a sexual activity
some time afterwards. that does not include the insertion of
the penis into the vagina
2. Barrier methods (methods that D. Withdrawal – it happens when a
physically or chemically block the sperm man removes his penis from vagina
from reaching an egg and provide a and ejaculate outside of the
barrier between direct skin to skin woman’s body.
contacts)
4. Sterilization (procedures that make an
individual permanently incapable of
conceiving or fertilizing a partner

a. Tubal Ligation /Sterilization – It is

a surgery for women in which
fallopian tubes are tied to prevent
eggs from travelling to the uterus so
a woman cannot get pregnant.
b. Vasectomy – It is an operation in
which the surgeon makes a small
cut in the upper part of the scrotum
then ties or blocks the vas deferens.
Men can still have orgasm or
ejaculation after the operation.

5. Intrauterine Device (IUD) – It is a small

device that is placed in the uterus by a
doctor to prevent pregnancy.

6. Emergency Contraception - It is a
measure that protects against pregnancy
after unprotected sex has already occurred.
It could be through IUD or higher dosage of
pills