PHILOSOPHY: “PHILOS” LOVE

“SOPHIA” WISDOM

---LOVE OF WISDOM

----A science of all things in their ultimate cause and principles known through the light of human reason
alone.

OBJECTS OF PHILOSPHY:

1. Material Object: ALL THINGS

2. Formal Object: in their ultimate cause and principle.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSPHY:

1. LOGIC—science of correct thinking

2. COSMOLOGY—Study of the universe/world
3. EPISTEMOLOGY---Study of knowledge..
4. METAPHYSICS---Study of Being/beings.
5. RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY—Study of the rational souls.
6. THEODICY—Study of God
7. ETHICS

ETHICS AND MORALITY: NATURE OF THE SUBJECT ETHICS

ETYMOLOGICAL DEVFINITION:

ETHICS IS From the Greek word “ETHOS” which means CUSTOM OR A MANNER OF ACTING OR
BEHAVING..

MORALITY..”MOS” or “MORES” which means CUSTOM OR PRACTICE.

ETHICS is focused on the general principles, rules and theories on determining what is right and wrong..

ETHICS IS THE SCIENCE OF THE MORALITY OF HUMAN CONDUCT., while

MORALITY IS THE PRAXIS, the application of those principles..

---ETHICS AS A SCIENCE: Ethics is a complete and systematically arranged body of data which relate to
the morality of HUMAN CONDUCT.

---AS A SCIENCE OF HUMAN CONDUCT: That ethics treats of human act. An act which is deliberate and
free act, an act performed with advertence and determined by the FREE WILL.

ETHICS DEALS WITH THE GOODNESS AND BADNESS OF HUMAN ACTIONS.

OBJECT OF ETHICS:

1. MATERTIAL object…The subject matter of the study.

….HUMAN conduct or HUMAN ACT
2. Formal object…The especial way, aim, or point of view that the science employs in studying its
material object.
……morality of human act

WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY ETHICS?

IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS:
1. For us to understand our moral compass and develop our moral judgment and decisions
especially in difficult cases.
2. For us to become a person who make sound judgmenta and sensitive to the common good.
3. Ethics guides us on how TO LIVE AN UPRIGHT LIFE.

THE SUBJECT MATTER OF ETHICS IS HUMAN CONDUCT.

HUMAN ACTIVITY WHICH IS DELIBERATE AND FREE.

HUMAN CONDUCT CAN BE:

A. HUMAN ACT….an act which proceeds from the deliberate free will of man.
…..an act proper to man as man
Example: dancing, walking, studying, stealing, attending Sunday mass

B. ACT OF MAN….An act perform indeliberately or an act without the exercise of free choice..
Example: urinating, snoring, breathing, sleeping, dreaming

But an Act of man may become human acts by the advertence and consent of the human agent..
Example: Urinating, eating, farting

CONSTITUENTS OF HUMAN ACTS:

1. KNOWLEDGE—knowing act, knowledge of what one is doing..
Example: hunting
2. FREEDOM---An act determined by the will, an act that is under the control of the will..
----FREE ACT
That the agent is free in doing the hunting..
3. VOLUNTARINESS---from latin word “voluntas”,
---it must be a will act, the action is voluntarily performed by the agent.
Example: --Roman Catholic to attend mass on Sunday.
--He eats meat on ash Wednesday

KINDS OF VOLUNTARINESS:
1. PERFECT VOLUNTARINESS: All elements of human acts are present..knowledge and
freedom.
2. IMPERFECT VOLUNTARINESS: KNOWLEDGE IS ABSENT.
Meaning you do not know or you don’t have enough knowledge about the action.
Example: You gave a box of chocolate to your teacher, and you do not know that it was
with poison .
3. SIMPLE VOLUNTARINESS: It is simply doing or not doing the act.
Example: to ride or walk in going to school
4. CONDITIONAL VOLUNTARINESS: When a person is forced to do an action.
 Example: giving your cellphone to the robber.

MODEFIERS OF HUMAN ACTS:

1. IGNORANCE—lack of knowledge about the actions.

Example: The hunter is not sure of his target if it is really a bird or his neighbor’s chicken.
2. Concupiscence---are bodily appetites or tendencies which are called PASSIONS.
Example: crime of passion
3. FEAR---shrinking back of the mind from danger.
Action done with fear is less voluntary.
Example: crime committed for self-defense
4. Violence—external force applied by a free cause..
Example: You killed somebody because it was only your choice or option.
5. HABIT---a lasting readiness or facility born of frequently repeated acts.
Example: uttering harsh or bad words because it is your habbit.

DIVISIONS OF ETHICS:
A. GENERAL ETHICS---focuses on the basic concepts of morality..
B. SPECIAL ETHICS—refers to the application of the moral principles, standards and
norms in various areas of human life.

DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY:
1. THE OBJECT OR ACT ITSELF---refers to the action perform by the doer or agent. It
is good or bad…example: giving, killing
2. MOTIVE OR INTENTION---the purpose or reason of doing the action.. example:
you kill somebody.
3. CIRCUMSTANCES---involves the situations that surrounds the commission of the
act. A. who—refers to the persons involved in the act committed.
Example: priest…..committing adultery
b. why---refers to the reason or intention of doing the act.
c. BY WHAT MEANS---though the intention is good but attaining the end is
unlawful…THE ACT IS STILL IMMORAL.
---THE END DOES NOT JUSTIFY THE MEANS---
d.where—refers to the setting of the action..
Example: church
e.when---refers to the time of the commission of the act.
f. how---refers to the way the act is performed..

NORMS OF MORALITY:
1. LAWE
2. CONSCIENCE
 NORMS OF MORALITY ARE THE DIRECTIVES OR NORMS OF HUMAN ACTS.

1. LAW: As an ordinance of reason, promulgated for the common good by one who has charge of
society.
CHARACTERISTICS:
1.1 ORDINANCE: LAW is directing/ ordering of human acts towards an end.
1.2 ORDINANCE OF REASON: LAW must be reasonable, it must be just, honest and possible of
fulfillment, useful and permanent.
1.3 PROMULGATED FOR THE COMMON GOOD:
LAW is territorial and applies to subjects.
LAW is for COMMON GOOD of all its subjects.
BECAUSE the purpose of LAW is to PROTECT AND PROMOTE THE FREEDOM AMONG
MEMBERS OF A SOCIETY AND WILL CARRY MAN FORWARD TO HIS PROPER END.

1.4 BY ONE WHO HAS CHARGE OF A SOCIETY:

Refers to a person or body who is the author of the law..
LAWGIVER OR LEGISLATOR

CLASSIFICATION OF LAWS:
ACCORDING TO AUTHOR:
A. DIVINE LAW—come from God (ten Commandments)
B. HUMAN LAW---Laws created by the church or state
ACCORDING TO DURATION:
C. ETERNAL LAW---God’s plan and providence for the universe
D. TEMPORAL LAW—earthly law and human law..
E. NATURAL LAW---laws that directs creatures to their end in accordance with their nature.

2. CONSCIENCE
IS THE PRACTICAL JUDGMENT OF RESON UPON AN INDIVIDUAL ACT AS GOOD AND TO
BE PERFORMED OR AS EVIL AND TO BE AVOIDED.
JUDGMENT OF REASON…Is the reasoning out with certainty, the rightness and
wrongness of a situation.
---the application or materialization of one’s principle in life.

KINDS OF CONSCIENCE:
A. CORRECT AND CERTAIN CONSCIENCE: When it is in accordance with the fact. When
it is sure that the action is morally good or bad.
B. DOUBTFUL CONSCIENCE: When conscience is not certain, that is hesitant, and the
agent is aware of the possibility of error.
C. SCRUPULOUS CONSCIENCE: Very cautious or extremely fearful that the person do
not want to make any action.
D. LAX OR CALOUS CONSCIENCE: The person always takes for granted when it comes to
grave importance.
THE person is insensitive and negligent.
MORALITY: IS THE APPLICATION OF THOSE PRINCIPLES IN ETHICS..PRAXIS..

MORALS VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS

MORAL STANDARDS:
#A code of what is right and wrong without reference to specific behaviors or beliefs.
#Deal with matter that person thinks have serious consequence.
#Based on good reason and impartial considerations overriding self-interest AND NOT on
external authority or rules.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL STANDARDS:

1. Moral standards Involve behaviors that seriously affect other people’s well-being.
Examples: lying, killing, stealing..
while treating people with respect and kindness uplifts them.
2. Moral standards take a more important consideration than other standards, including
self-interest.
Example: Because trust is important to you, you refuse to expose your friend’s secret
even though she offended you.
3. Moral standards Do not depend on any external authority but in how the person
perceives the reasonableness of the action.
Example: You will not cheat because you know that it is wrong, not because your teacher
will fail you if you do.
4. Moral standards Believed to be UNIVERSAL.
Applicable to anybody, any place, etc.
Example: If you believe an action is morally right, you will support other people doing
such an act.
5. Moral standards ARE based on objectivity.
It depends on universal standpoint.
What is proven and accepted wrong is wrong.
6. Moral standards are associated with vocabulary that depicts emotions and feelings.
Example: When you go against your moral standards you will say you are guilty.
You are indignant and disgusted when people go against your moral standards.

NON-MORAL STANDARDS:
Violating non-moral actions
A relative standards by which something or someone is judged as either good or bad…
something subjective..
Rules depend on the guidelines agreed by a particular group..

Example: error on grammar, fashion, wearing sleeveless.., smoking..

------wearing sleeveless in a very formal occasion.
----------pirating movies from the internet
------Wrong use or application of techniques or formula
 MORAL DILEMMA:
--It is a situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two or more
alternatives, especially equally undesirable ones.
--It is like you are doing something morally wrong, but at the same time you are also
doing something right.
--It is like you are facing a problem but the solutions available to you will only create
another problem..

CHARACTERISTICS OF DILEMMA:
1. There are two or more actions that you can possibly do.
2. There is a moral reason(s) for doing such actions.
3. You cannot do all possible actions presented to you. You only need to choose one.

THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA:

1. PERSONAL MORAL DILEMMA—when there is moral conflict between individual
persons. Example: conflict between jane and eva.
2. ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMA—WHEN member or members of the organization
is in a situation where there is moral conflict, and the decision will potentially
harm some members of the organization.
Example: a garments factory is not hitting its target profit..the company will
adjust in order to survive… COST CUTTING
3. STRUCTURAL MORAL DILEMMA—When a person or group of persons holding a
high level positions in the society faces a morally conflicting situation wherein
the entire social system is affected.
Example: problem at SSS, TCC..

----------ACTIVITY….CASE STUDY------------

FREEDOM…AS THE FOUNDATION OF MORALITY

HUMAN BEING IS THE ONLY ETHICAL BEING.. WHY?

--ONLY HUMAN BEING IS FREE---

HUMAN BEING: THE MORAL AGENT

REASON:
NATURE OF MAN:
The philosophical meaning of man.
Man is a rational animal.
Man is rational because of his two powers, INTELLECT AND WILL.
INTELLECT----TRUTH (ITS OBJECT)
WILL----GOOD (as its object)

MAN---REASON—RATIONAL
ANIMALS----NO REASON--INSTINCT
ONLY HUMAN BEING IS CAPABLE OF THINKING. ONLY HUMAN BEING BEHAVE RATIONALLY. ONLY HUMAN
BEING IS CAPABLE OF MAKING MORAL DECISIONS.

ONLY HUMAN BEINGS HAVE THE CAPACITY FOR FREE MORAL JUDGMENT..HENCE, ONLY HUMAN BEINGS
CAN BE ETHICAL.

THE HUMAN PERSON AS A FREE BEING:

Human person Is a being with inborn properties that he or she uses to direct his or her own
development toward self-fulfillment. AND ONE OF THESE PROPERTIES IS FREEDOM.

PHILOSOPHICAL INSIGHTS ON FREEDOM:

1. It is a gift given to us by God (Gabriel marcel)..Freedom is the ability to make significant choices.
2. Freedom is complementary to reason (Aristotle) For Aristotle , man as moral agent must exercise
practical rationality in order to reach his ULTIMATE END (TELOS)
SELF-DIRECTION IS THE CRUCIAL characteristics of a FREE PERSON. THE NEED OF FREEDOM AND
REASON
3. FREEDOM IS ABSOLUTE (JEAN PAUL SARTRE) IT IS NOT FREEDOM TO DO SOMETHING OR
ANYTHING..FREEDOM SETS THE HUMAN PERSON APART FROM OTHER CREATURES.
FREEDOM is the capacity to choose, that EVEN NOT CHOOSING IS A CHOICE..

MAN IS ABSOLUTELY FREE..THAT EVEN PRISONERS ARE FREE..they are free to think, to change
and become a better person.
BUT SARTRE SAID THAT RESPONSIBILITY FOLLOWS FREEDOM..Because every choice of man has
consequences.. the consequence of freedom are something that the person must endure.

CONCEPT OF CULTURE:

It has the power to over individuals to create beliefs, such as beliefs BELIEF IN GOD.

It is the way of life of a group of people that includes their knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, customs
and the capabilities acquired by man as members of the society.

People naturally are drawn to participate in culture. Because people want to BELONG, they want to be
accepted by peers.

People need protection from danger, hence we learn to modify our behavior to match that which their
cultural group deem acceptable.

ELEMENTS OF CULTURE:

1. SYMBOLS—Anything that a group of people find meaning.

 Example: BAAL in ancient time..god of good harvest
2. LANGUAGE—enable human being to communicate with others. Different group of people have
used different languages.
3. BELIEFS---convictions held to be true by an individual or group of people.. different cultures hold
different beliefs.
4. VALUES---an acceptable standards of behavior.
5. NORMS—informal guidelines by a group of people. Example: PAKIKISAMA—that is relating with
others even to a complete strangers.

HOW DOES CULTURE DEFINE MORAL BEHAVIOR?

PLATO: 3 CRITICAL ELEMENTS THE MORAL PERSON’S DEVELOPMENT:

A. NATIVE TRAITS OR GENETIC CHARACTERISTICS..FROM our genealogy…ATONG MGA

KALIWATAN…HEREDITY
B. EARLY CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES…UPBRINGING OF PARENTS, grandparents, aunties, uncles,
YAYA ETC.
C. CULTURAL SORROUNDINGS:
Our environment, the place we lived.
The image of a noble character, the role model should display the conduct of a proper human
being.
Behavior of the adults serve as the moral foundation of every child.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM:
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES: HOW TO SURVIVE WITH DIFFERENT CULTURES?
That values, knowledge and behavior of people must be understood within its own cultural
context, not by the standards of other cultures.
Example: muslims are allowed to have 5 wives..we should not consider this practice under our
roman catholic belief Because this is not acceptable.

The idea OF right and wrong is only a matter of CULTURAL STANDARDS.

WITH CULTURAL RELATIVISM…
--there is no UNIVERSAL MORAL TRUTHS
--Different societies have different moral codes
--There is no OBJECTIVE MOTAL STANDARDS

CULTURAL RELATIVISM-- warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute rational
standard.
--It teaches us to keep an open mind and to be more amenable in discovering the truth.
 THE NEED OF UNIVERSAL VALUES:

Due to the dangers BROUGHT by CULTURAL RELATIVISM, THAT is cultures are dramatically
different in its views of what is right and wrong, DR. JAMES RACHEL POSTULATED three universal
values:
1. CARING FOR THE YOUNG…we must take care of our young generations..
2. MURDER IS WRONG….WE will be wiped out if people were free to kill other people..
3. TELL THE TRUTH…what reason do you have to pay attention to anyone if all people is not
telling the truth? What is the use of having a teacher in the first place?

THOSE RULES ARE NECESSARY FOR SOCIETY TO SURVIVE.

FILIPINOS MORAL IDENTITY:

The FILIPINO CULTURE IS A MIX OF BOTH EASTERN AND WESTERN CULTURES.

---MALay heritage, SPANISH, AMERICAN

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE WEAKNESSES AND STRENGTH OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER:

(DR. PATRICIA B. LICUANAN)

1. HOME ENVIRONMENT: We are taught to value our family and give it primary importance.
2. Social environment: characterized by depending on one another to survive. NO MAN IS AN
ISLAND.
3. CULTURAL AND LANGUAGE: OPENNESS TO FOREIGN ELEMENTS AND THE IMPORTANCE OF THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN OUR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.
4. HISTORY: colonial history as the culprit behind our colonial mentality
5. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM: Influences a lot in molding the weaknesses and strengths of the
Filipino character. GOOD STUDENTS ARE PRAISED AND REWARDED.
6. RELIGION: taught us to be optimistic and resilient, being passive and conformist…
GINOO NAY BAHALA…
7. THE ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT: The hard life drove Filipinos to work hard and take risks
8. THE POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT: Political power is mainly in the hands of the elite
9. MASS MEDIA: reinforces our colonial mentality. The superiority of an imported brand or product
through mass media.
10. LEADERS AND ROLE MODELS: Filipinos highly respect authority

STRENGTH OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER:

1. Pakikipagkapwa- Tao.. openness, helpfulness and generosity, bayanihan or mutual assistance,

hospitality.
2. FAMILY ORIENTED
3. JOY AND HUMOR
4. FLEXIBILITY, ADAPTABILITY
5. HARD WORK AND INDUSTRY
6. FAITH AND RELIGIOSITY
7. ABILITY TO SURVIVE
WEAKNESSES OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER:

1. EXTREME PERSONALISM…issues on graft and corruption…inuuna ang SARILI.

2. EXTREME FAMILY CENTEREDNESS…political dynasty, welfare of the country is taken for granted.
3. LACK OF DISCIPLINE..”NINGAS COGON” dali kapuyon, pul-an, walay determination,,filipino time
attitude.
4. PASSIVITY AND LACK OF INITIATIVE
5. KANYA-KANYA SYNDROME
6. LACK OF SELF-REFLECTION

WHAT IS MORAL CHARACTER?

MORAL: is concerned with the principles of right and wrong or the goodness and badness of the human
character.

CHARACTER: As the mental and moral qualities distinct to an individual

------Philosophically, it Refers to the Moral dimensions of a person.

MORAL CHARACTER: Refers to the existence of virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty or
loyalty of a person.

---- It is the tendency to act or think in a particular way for which a person can be held morally
responsible.

------Thus, moral character traits are rational, informed, stable and reliable dispositions.

PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW OF MORAL CHARACTER:

CONFUCIAN TRADITIONS:

MORAL DEVELOPMENT WAS ATTRIBUTED TO FOUR BEGINNINGS.

FOUR BEGINNINGS IS THE SEEDS of human personality that will unfold to become human activities.

THE FOUR BEGINNINGS ARE:

1. The heart of compassion, which leads to Jen. (good will and generosity to others)
2. The heart of righteousness, which leads to Yi. (righteousness and respect to authority)
3. The heart of propriety, which leads to Li (( etiquette, customs, rituals)
4. The heart of wisdom, which leads to zhi.( wisdom, product of practicing jen, li and yi.

FOR ARISTOTLE:

IT IS THWE QUALITY OF A PERSON.

ON HOW A PERSON ACT IN A PARTICULAR SITUATION. THUS, if a person is virtuous he focused on the
right actions EFFORTLESSLY…

GOOD PERSON…IS A PROPER FUNCTIONING INDIVIDUAL..his action is always proper to his nature as
human person. GOOD PERSON IS ONE WHO FULFILLS ALL HIS FUNCTIONS.

STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF A HUMAN BEING: (BY KOHLBERG)

LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY.

Judgment at this level is solely focused on the self. The child based his judgment on the external
consequences of his actions.

STAGE A: REWARD AND PUNISHMENT-OBEDIENCE ORIENTATION. This is the PRE-MORAL STAGE.. WHERE
decisions and actions are determined by physical consequences and not the TRUE MORAL VALUE.

Example: I am going to study my lesson because my mom will get mad at me if I do not pass this test.

LEVEL II: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY:

This means decisions and the morality of his actions are based on society’s view and expectations.

We consider the significant others, tyranny of the THEY…THEY SAY THIS, THEY SAY THAY..THEY SAY I
SHOULD…

STAGE B: GOOD BOY/ GOOD GIRL ORIENTATION…CHILDREN try to seek the approval from other people
by living up to their expectations.

STAGE C: AUTHORITY ORIENTATION:..The focus at this stage is following the rules, maintaining law and
order, doing one’s duty and respecting authority.

LEVEL III: POST CONVENTIONAL.. THIS IS THE PRINCIPLED LEVEL

Realization that people are unique and are independent part of the society. Individual’s perfective is
more significant over what the society thinks.

STAGE D. SOCIAL CONTRACT ORIENTATION

What is morally good is based on personal beliefs as well as on the social group they belong to..and that
very few of the known fundamental values are actually universal.

STAGE E.ETHICAL-PRINCIPLE ORIENTATION

An individual has already a principled conscience and will follow universal, ethical principles regardless
of what the laws or the rules say.

MIDTERM: ETHICS
 Feelings and emotions:

- An emotional state or reaction

- A natural instinctive state of mind deriving from one’s circumstances or mood.

Philosophical insights of feelings and the importance of feelings in moral decision making.

David Hume – an empiricist thinker

- He opposer the idea of the rationalist thinkers who said that Reason has dominion over
Feelings Or emotions.
his theses.
1. Reason alone cannot be the motive to the will, but rather is the slave of the passions."
2. moral distinctions are not derived from reason,
- that even if we know west that it is wrong. we still continue performing the action.
3) Moral distinctions are derived from moral sentiment, a feeling of approval - praise
disapproval – blame
Example: Teacher announcing an exam. One of your class was absent.
Reason alone is insufficient to yield judgement.

- A person gains awareness of moral good or evil by experiencing the pleasure.

Example: Kindness: you felt good in kindness showed.

It is because Humans have passions that he called emotions or feelings.

Max Ferdinand Scheler:

Emotions = is the most important aspect of human existence.

- Are inherent in man.

- Objective
- It exists even if you did not experience it before.
- It is independent of the mind.
- It corresponds to the divine plan

He rejected that feelings are in the subconscious and asserted that it is the purest sphere of human
consciousness.

Levels / state of feelings.

1. Sensual feelings – involves bodily pleasure or pain.

2. Vital feelings – the life functions such as health, sickness, energy.
3. Psychic feelings – about aesthetic, justice, knowledge.
4. Spiritual feelings – Deal w/ the divine
- Is the most important of all levels.
- It is the highest value.
-values of the holy is the highest values because it has the ability to endure through
time.

Reason and impartiality as requirements for ethics.

Kant: Reason alone is the basis of morality

- Acting morally is the same as acting rationally.

Impartiality: As principle of justice

-that decision should be based on objective criteria rather than on the basis of bias,
prejudice or preferring to benefit one person over another for improper reasons.

-it stresses that everyone ought to be given equal importance.

at the very leant is the effort to guide oner action based on the mort logical choice (Reason) while giving
equal importance to the interests of each person affected by your decisions. (Impartiality)

7 step moral Reasoning Model:

1) Gather the Facts = Do not jump into conclusions, Ask questions
2) Identify the stakeholders = Identify the person involved. and will be affected in on ethical situation.
3) Articulate the dilemmas what are the competing values? Moral issues / concerns.
4) list the alternatives.
- think /consider possible options
5.) Compare the alternative with the principles.
- consider your values.
6) Weigh the consequences - How all the people concern will be affected be your decision.
7) Make a decision
make sure that the decision yon make reflects on the values you want to uphold.
do not compromise your values.

Emotions sense as red flag – helps us in making better decision.

Negative Feelings - are integral to man’s ability to learn.

-it triggers our counterfactual thinking.
Counterfactual thinking – a psychological concept about the ability to create possible
alternatives other than what had actually happened.

Bad experiences & Negative feelings – will lead us for a better choice and a better decision.
Negative Feelings – because of these, we will become cautious in all our actions.

Why feelings can be obstacles to making right decisions?

1. Its non-deliberate nature

- Are no different from mindless automatic reflex
- It is like doing something without thinking and if not deliberate so we are not responsible of
our action/ decision.
- But decision making is a free act/ choice it entails responsibility.
2. Its partial nature
- Emotion operate on a principle called the Law of concern
o Emotion focus on matter of personal interest
 o Emotions are quiet when it is of no personal concern
o The levels of concern are not the same,
o We show more concern if duol sa atong heart.
3. Capricious nature of feelings
We suspend our good action because the recipient did something bad or unpleasant to us, to
our friends, relatives.
And when are interested if they do something good to us. Suburno…

HOW EMOTIONS HELP IN MAKING THE RIGHT DECISIONS

- Experience is the best teacher
- The wounded/ the experienced people are the good counselors

NEGATIVE FEELINGS HELPS IN MAKING THE RIGHT DECISION, WHY?

1. It signals the need to adjust behavior

2. It can help us learn from our mistakes.
3. Emotional responses can be reshaped as time pass by.

ETHICS

VIRTUETHICS- General term for theories that put emphasis on the role of character and virtue in living
ones life rather than is doing ones duty for good consequences

- A virtuitous man is someone who has ideal character traits. (Aristotle)

- No human act is morally good unless it is inline with the love of self and neighbor. (St.
Thomas Aquinas)

QUESTION: WHY DO WE MAKE PREPARATION IF THERE IS SOMETHING THAT WE WANT TO DO? LIKE
GOING TO SCHOOL (EAT, TAKING A BATH), HAVING AN EXAM (STUDY)

Aristotle: All those preparations entails (DIRECTION)

- Under ethical Framework of Aristotle, we need all those preparation have FOCUS to be
DIRECTED on the things that we are planning to perform.

DIRECTION = is what we foresee as the outcome of our act.

ACT – and we act in order to get us to the intended direction. Otherwise, we could not reach our
direction if we do not act

TELOS – This is what telos means

END – That all human actions would lead to our desired end

THE END OF HUMAN ACT IS EITHER GOOD OR BAD

- But for Aristotle, the end is something that is good.

And in real life we always pursue the GOOD because it makes us feel GOOD.
NO ONE PURSUES A BAD END.
Achieving good - is always a RATIONAL ACTIVITY
- Therefore, GOOD END is always achievable by human action.
(We have reason)
- Epistemologically, only human beings are capable of seeing the good in all things
GOOD - Our notion of GOOD may not be necessarily good to other,

HOW DO WE KNOW THAT THE RESULT IS GOOD?

From the perfective of FINALITY and SELF SUFFICIENCY (criteria in determining the GOOD)

FINALITY = example, none are planning to go to Baguio cIty

Self Sufficiency- That the object of the act must be something that will make life worthwhile.
- That after achieving that good. there is nothing move to desire.
The object lacks nothing.

VIRTUE AND HABIT - Human act being carried out frequently.

- Acquisition of CHARACTER EXCELLENCE
- the development of personality that resulted in the application of virtues.
VIRTUES - are good act habitually put into action.
- But once we cease in carrying out or put into disuse, those virtues frequently or
habitually, they will be lost from us.

MORAL VIRTUES OF ARISTOTLE – When put into action observe MODERATION.

- That one has to avoid what is excess or defect in action.
Excess – means too much
Defects – means too little.
Moral Virtues – are in the middle bet, too much and too little. DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN

EXCESS VIRTUES DEFECT

Foolhardiness Bravery Cowardice
Shamelessness Modesty Touchiness
Intemperance Temperance Insensibility

HAPPINESS AS VIRTUE:
- As the supreme Good
- The ultimate end of man’s action.
HAPPINESS; EUDAIMONIA = A pleasant activity
- Excellent rational action
Practicing all virtues in one’s life – When life is successful and worth living
- It is not an emotion or feeling of having money, or health from sickness
Conglomeration of human virtuous acts so as to achieve Eudaemon life.

WHAT MAKES YOU HAPPY IN LIFE?

HOW DO YOU ACHIEVE IT THAT IT WOULD INVOLVE HUMAN ACTS? IS IT IN THE ACCORDANCE
WITH THE IDEA OF ARISTOTLE?
ST. THOMAS:
Natural Law
God = as the highest of all beings and the highest of all goods.
God expresses his self through the EXTERNAL LAW
External Law – GOD
Natural Law – Found within us, has rational creatures
- We can share in the divine providence of God through the natural law
- For us to realize our being
- That we can participate in the divine plan / providence
FOUR CARDINAL VIRTUES:

1. PROVIDENCE – An exercise of understanding that helps us know the best means in

solving moral problems which we encounter in our life. (Conscience)
- When we encounter moral dilemmas
2. JUSTICE – Giving what is due
- Giving the things to anyone who owns it
- Just compensation
- Fair and just grades
3. FORTITUDE – The courage to face challenges and dangers in life.
- Resilience to carry or despite of trials and difficulties.
4. TEMPERANCE – Control in the midst of strong attraction to pleasures
- MODERATION
- Self-discipline (Control)

VIRTUE ETHICS

ARISTOTLE: ST. THOMAS

SUCCESS = HAPPINESS (TELOS) HAPPINESS (TELOS)
↓ - The whole of human beings that
Self-sufficient involves body and soul to be
unified with the highest good
(summum bonum) GOD

HUMAN ACTION
↓
Tends towards something
↓
That something is Good – GOAL
↓
GOOD
↓
That promotes ULTIMATE GOOD
↓
ULTIMATE GOOD
- Something that fulfill his nature (What is his nature)
↓
To live in accordance to his purpose (Divine plan)
↓
FUTURE WITH GOD IS HEAVEN

IMMANUEL KANT:
GOOD WILL = as the highest good since its end will always be good.
↓
Volition - To act morally is to act from no other motive than the
↓ motive of doing what is right.
As rational being - To do right out of principle
↓ ↓
OUGHT to do nature of rational being

- Doing an action in the absence of condition

- ↓
Since every action must be done out of DUTY OUGHT -> Categorical

KINDS OF RIGHTS
1. Legal Rights – Refer to all rights one has by simply being a citizen of a particular country
in Philippines
2. Moral Rights – Rights belong to any moral entities such as human beings.

UTILITARIANISM
- Jeremy Bentham (Hedonist) – Founder (pleasure – happiness)
- Sometimes called CONSEQUENTIALISM.
- Focuses on the effect of a particular end or telos called happiness.
Consequence – It is when there is a presence of happiness
Happiness is the key in determining the morality of an action.

Great happiness
Greater happiness - Felicific calculus
Greatest happiness

Pleasure minus pain = if the happiness is greater than pain the action is morally good

MORAL OR IMMORAL ACT.