78 1/ The Foundations: Logic and Proofs ‘combines universal instantiation and modus tollens and can be expressed in the following way: Vx(P(x) > OG) O(a), where a isa particular clement in the domain =P@) ‘The verification of universal modus tollens is left as Exercise Exercises 26-29 develop additional combinations of rules of inference in propositional logic and quantified statements. Exercises 1. Find the argument form forthe following argument and determine whether it is valid, Can we conclude that the conclusion is tue if the premises are true? Socrates is human, then Socrates it mortal Socrates is human, Socrates is mortal 2. Find the argument form forthe following argument and determine whether it is valid, Can we conclude that the conclusion is tue if the premises are true? Ur George does not have eight legs, then he is nota spider George is George has eight legs. spider. 3. What rule of inference is used in each of these argu- ments? A) Alice is a mathematics major. Therefore, Alice is ei- thera mathematics majoror acomputer science major, b) Jenry is a mathematics major and a computer science ‘major. Therefore, Jerry is a mathematics major. ©) itis rainy then the pool will be closed. I is rainy. ‘Therefore, the poo is closed, 4) If i snows today, the university will close. The uni- versity is not closed today. Therefore, it did not snow today. ©) IfT go swimming, then I will stay inthe sun to Tong. {Tsay inthe sun too long, then Iwill sunburn. There- fore, if] go swimming, then I will sunburn 4, What rule of inference is usedin each ofthese arguments? 8) Kangaroos liven Australia and are marsupials, There- fore, kangaroos are marsupials. 1b) Itis either hotter than 100 degrees today ot the pollu tion is dangerous. Is less than 100 degrees outside today. Therefore, the pollution is dangerous, ©) Linda is an excellent swimmer Linda s an excellent swinamer, then she can work as lifeguard, Therefore, Linda can work as a lifeguard. 4) Steve will work ata computer company this summer ‘Therefore, this summer Steve will work ata computer ‘company or he willbe a beach bum, ©) Wl work al night on this homework, then I ean an ser all the exercises, If answer all the exercises, 1 ‘wll understand the material. Therefore iT work all night on this homework, then I will understand the material 5. Userules of inference to show thatthe hypotheses “Randy works hard," “If Randy works hard, then he isd boy,” and" Randy is dll boy, then he wall not get the job” imply the conclusion "Randy will not get the job @ Use rules of inference to show that the hypotheses “If it does not rain or iftis not foggy, then the sailing race wil be held and the lifesaving demonstration wil go on,” "If the sing race i held, ten te trophy will be awarded,” anid "The top was not awarded” imply the conclusion “Trained 7. What rules of inference ae ese in thi famous azo Inet? "Allene mwa Socrates is nan There, Secrates is mortal 8. What sof inference are we inthis argument? “No tnanifaniand Masbatanisaniland Thevefoe, Man. Deva sot an For each ofthese collections of premises, what lean Concluseneeencluions tan be daw? Began he tues ef nfcrence used Wo obtain each conclusion om the premises 2) “Take the ay of itch ains o snows“ took Tecaay offer ok Thusy oll as sanyo Tocsdy® Ted et soe 08 "Thrsday by “I eat pc foo then have seange dreams" have stage deans ifthe tune Wl Llep Tuner have somge eas” 6) “Tam ether lover or hey "Tam nots” a ky then Tw in ie otery very somputer science major asa prtnsl con pce "Ralph doc not havea personal computer "pth seal computes" ©) “Whois good for conratins it good forthe United States “Whats good fer he Ute Sates is good for you" "What oo for corprains is fr yout ay es of aa {) “All rodents gnaw thei food" "Mie are rodents “Rabble do ae pw thet fod "Dats ae nt das"id) For each ofthese sts of premises, what relevent coneli- 4. sion of conclusions can be drawn? Explain the rules of in- {erence used to abrain each conclusion from the premises ) “IFT play hockey, then I am sore the next day” “I use the whirlpool if I am sore.” “T did not use the whitlpoo.” ) “IfTworkitiseither sunny orpartly sunny” “worked last Monday or] worked last Friday.” “Itwasnot sunny fon Tuesday.” “It was not partly sunny on Friday.” ©) “All insects have six legs.” “Dragoniies are insects” "Spiders do not have six legs.” “Spiders eat dragon- flies 4) “Every student has an Internet account” “Homer does nothave an Internet account." Maggie has an Internet account.” (©) “All foods that are healthy to eat do not taste good. “Tofu is healthy to eat.” “You only eat what tastes good.” "You do not eat tofu." “Cheesehurgers are not healthy to eat” 1) “Tam either dreaming or hallucinating.” “I am not dreaming.” “IfTam hallucinating, I see elephants run- ning down the road” Show that the argument form with premises Pi, Passos. Py and conclusion q — r is valid if the argument form with premises pt, p2,-, Pag, and cconelusion ris valid 12, Show that the argument form with premises (p A 2) > M4. (V8), ¢-> Wt), wp, ands and conclusion qr is valid by frst using Exercise 11 and then us- ing rales of inference from Table 1. For cach of these arguments, ference are used for each step, ) "Doug, a student in this class, knows how to write programs in JAVA. Everyone who knows how to write programs in JAVA can get a high-paying job, There- fore, someone inthis class can get a high-paying jo: ) “Somebody in this class enjoys whale watching. Ev- ery person who enjoys whale watching cares about ‘ocean pollution, Therefore, there is a person in this class who cares about ocean pollution” sxplain which rules of in- ©) “Each ofthe 93 students inthis class owns a personal comptter. Everyone who owns a personal computer ean use a word processing program. Therefore, Zeke, a student in this class, can use a word processing pro- gram” 4) “Everyone in New Jersey lives within 50 miles of the ‘ocean. Someone in New Jersey has never seen the ‘ocean, Therefore, someone who lives within 50 miles of the ocean has never seen the ocean.” For each of these arguments, explain which rules of in- Terence are used for each step, a) “Linda a student in this class, owas aed convertible. Everyone who owns a red convertible has gotten at least one speeding ticket. Therefore, someone in this class has gotten a speeding ticket.” 15. 16, ¥. 18, 1.6Roles of Inference 79 1b) “Bach of five roommates, Melissa, Aaron, Ralph, V. neesha, and Keeshassn, ha taken a course in discrete mathematics. Every student who has taken a course in discrete mathematics can ake a course in algorithms, Therefore, all five roommates can take a course in algorithms next year” ©) “AIL movies produced by John Sayles are wonder ful John Sayles produced a movie about coal miners, Therefore, there isa wonderful movie about coal min- ‘There is someone in this class who has been to France. Everyone who goes 0 France visits the Louvre, Therefore, someone in this class has visited the Louvre.” a For each ofthese arguments determine whether the argu- ‘meat is correct or incorrect snd explain why. 4) All students in this class understand logic. Xavier is student in this class, Therefore, Xavier understands logic 1) Every computer science major takes discrete math- ematics. Natasha is taking discrete mathematics, Therefore, Natasha is a computer science major ©) Allparrots lke fruit. My pet birdis nota patra, There- fore, my pet bird does not like fruit 4) Everyone who eats granola every day is healthy. Linda {snot healthy, Therefore, Linda does not eat granola every day. For each ofthese arguments determine whether the argu- ‘ment is correct or incorrect and explain why. 48) Everyone enrolled in the university has lived in a dor- smitory, Mia has never lived ina dormitory. Therefor, ‘Mia is not enrolled in the university. 1) A convertible car is fun to drive. Isae’s ear is not a convertible, Therefore, Isaac's car is not fun to drive, ©) Quincy likes all action movies. Quincy likes the movie Eight Men Out. Therefore, Eight Men Our isan action 4) Alllobstermen set atleast a dozen rape. Hamilton isa lobsterman, Therefore, Hamilton sets a least a dozen traps What is wrong with this argument? Let H(x) be “x is happy” Given the premise 3x/f(x), we conclude that H(Lola). Therefore, Lola is happy. ‘What is wrong with this argument? Let S(x, y) be “x is shorter than y.” Given the premise 375(s, Max), itfollows that S(Max, Max). Then by existential generalization it follows that 4rS(x, x), so that someone is shorter than. himself @ Dewrmine whethereach of hese agumensis valid an szgument is correct, what rue of infezence is being used? It itis not, what logical error occurs? 4) If mis «teal number such that x > 1, then n? > 1 Suppose that n? > 1. Then n > 1 Dy IF mis a seal aumber with n> 3, then nt > 9 Suppose that n? <9, Then m = 3 : © Wm is a real sumber with m > 2, then n® > 4 Suppose that n = 2.Thean? <40 20. a. 22. 23. 25. 26. 2, 28, 1) The Foundations: Logie and Proofs Determine whether these are valid arguments 2) If isa postive real number, then xis a positive eal number. Therefore, if is positive, where a is areal number then a isa positive eal namber by Ins? 0, where x so afeal number then x #0. Let 4 beaeal number with a” #0; then a 0 Which rules of inference are used to establish the conclusion of Lewis Carroll's argument described in Example 26 of Section 147 Which rules of inference are used to establish the conclusion of Lewis Carroll's argument described in Example 27 of Section 14? entity the emor or ercors in this argument that sup- posedly shows that f 3x P(x) A3xQ(4) is true then 3e(PUx) A O(a) is tue 3xP(x) V3xQ(@) Premise 2PQ) ‘Simplification from (1) PO Existential instantiation from (2) ‘Simplification from (1) Existential instantiation from (4) Conjunction from (3) and (5) Existential generalization 20 PO AOE 1 3 4. 3x0) 5 6 7. 3x(PQ) 4 OD) J. Identity the error or errors in this argument that sup- posedly shows that if Vi(P(x) v Q(4)) is tue then VPC) V Vx (0) is tue. L Ye(PQ)¥ OG) Premise 2 POV oe Universal instantiation from (1) 3. PO ‘Simplification from (2) 4. xP a) Universal generalization from (3) 5. OC) Simplification from (2) 6. YxQ) Universal generalization from (5) 7. ¥x(P() v ¥xQ(2)) Conjunction from (4) and (6) Iustity the rule of universal modus tllens by showing thatthe premises We(P(X) —+ Q(3)) and O(a) for & particule clement a in the domain, ioply +P (a). Justify the ule of universal transitivity, which ties that if Ve(P(s) > O(a) and ¥s(O() —> RG) ate tre, thea Vi(P(@) —> R()) iste, where the domains ofall quantifiers ae the same Use mules of inference to show that if ¥x(P(s) = (Qa) A S(a))) and Ve(PQ) ARE) ate true, then a(R) A S(a) is tue. Use rules of infrence to show that if Wx(P(Q) v (20) and Va (PC) A OC) > RCA) ate tre, then Ye(OR() — P(X) i also te, where the domains of all quantifiers ae the same. Introduction to Proofs GD Use rules of inference to show that if Ve(P (x) ¥ O@)), VWxQU) V SQ), ¥e(RG) > SQ), and IPC) are true, then 3K (2x) is true 30. Use resolution to show the hypotheses “Allen is a bad boy or Hillary isa good giz!” and “Allen is a good boy or David is happy” imply the conclusion "Hillary is a good girl or David is happy.” 31, Use resolution o show thatthe hypotheses “It is not rain- ing ot Yvette has her umbrella” "Yvette does not have her umbrella or she does not get wet” and “Tis raining or Yvette does not get wet” imply that "Yvette does not get wet” 32. Show that the equivalence p A =p =F can be derived using resolution together with the fact that a condi- tional statement with afalse hypothesis is true, [Hint: Let =r = Fin resolution.) 33. Use resolution to show that the compound propo- sition (pV g) 4 (ap ¥ g) A (pv =g) 0 (=p V9) is not satistiable 34, The Logic Problem, taken from WEF PROOF The Game of Logi, has these two assumptions: 1 “Logie is difficult or not many students like logic.” 2. "Tf mathematics is easy then logic is not difficult.” By translating these assumptions into statements involv- ing propositional variables and logical eonnectives, deter~ ‘mine whether each ofthe following ae valid conclusions ofthese assumptions 8) That mathematics is not easy if many students like lege. 'b) That not many students like logic, if mathematics is not easy, ©) That mathematics is not easy or logic is dificult. 4) That logic is not difficult or mathematics is not easy. ©) Thatif not many students like logic, then either math- cematice is not easy of logic isnot diffcul. 35. Determine whether this argument, taken from Kalish and Montague [KaMo64], is valid If Superman were able and willing to prevent evil, hhe would do so, If Superman were unable to prevent evil, he would be impotent; if he were unwilling to provent evil, he would be malevolent, Superman does not prevent evil. If Superman exists, he is nei- ther impotent nor malevolent, Therefore, Superman does not exist Introduction In this section we introduce the notion of a proof and describe methods for constructing proofs. A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of a mathematical statement. A proof can use the hypotheses of the theorem, if any, axioms assumed to be true, and previously proven