Re-arranging the torsion equation results in:

WA
Tȡ
pn
¦ yi  ¦ x i
n n (10.8)
2 2
i 1 i 1

The critical nail force will occur on the nail which has:

x components of p in, i.e.p inx and p iny additive to the components of P, in this case P/n

Hence, nail 2 in Figure 10.5 will be the worst loaded nail. The components of nail load will
be:

Ty
p2 x
Ip
where:
Tx
p2 y
Ip

p 2r (p 2 x ) 2  (p 2 y  Py /n) 2

(10.9)

There is no reason why this approach cannot be used in practice provided a suitable
computer program was developed.

Alternative Methods are available for determining the moment capacity of rotational
joints such as that shown in FIGURE 10.6.

FIGURE 10.6: Typical nailing pattern and an idealised line representation

AS1720.1-1997 suggests the application of the relationship:

ªn § r ·
3/2 º
ijN 1k 13 k 14 k 16 k 17 rmax Q k « ¦ ¨¨ i ¸
¸
»
«i 1© rmax »
ij0 j
¹
(10.10)
¬ ¼
127
An alternative, simpler but more conservative method of determining the moment
capacity of a nail group is that recommended by Hutchings, as described below. This
procedure assumes the nails to be smeared as lines whose width (w) is proportional to the
nailing density.

FIGURE 10.7: Nails smeared as a continuous line

To determine the polar moment of area of a line of width w and length " about a point O as
shown in FIGURE 10.8 can be shown by application of the parallel axes theorem, to be given
by:
w "3
Ipo = + w "r2
12

FIGURE 10.8: Polar moment of a line width w

For each nail ring, assume the width w of the line of nails parallel to the grain is unity,
then the width, w of the vertical line becomes:

nail spacing parallel to grain

wv = cos Į
nail spacing perpendicular to grain
where: D = the angle of the roof pitch.

128
The polar moment of area (I p ) of each of the nail rings with respect to the nail group
centroid may then be calculated by substituting appropriate values of ", d and w v into the
following equation.

2 ª"3 w vd
2º
§d· §"·
«   "¨  w v d¨ »
3 2

s «¬ 12 © 2 ¹̧ © 2 ¹̧ »¼
Ip (10.11)
12
where: s = nail spacing along the grain.

The polar moment (I p ) for the joint group will then be the sum of the polar moments of the
individual rings of nails.

10.4 Plywood / LVL Gusseted Joints – Methodology

The steps involved in the design of a plywood / LVL gusseted joint, (for the nomenclature
refer Figues 10.2 and 10.3) are as follows:

i. Determine the portal frame moments, shears and axial forces from a rigid frame
analysis. Obtain a preliminary size of the column / rafter by application of the
flexure formula:
Z = M/f b

For portals spans to about 20m, assume a member breadth of b = 60 to 100mm

ii. Determine the length of the gusset which should be 1.5 to 2 times depth of the
column / rafter.

iii. Determine the effective depth h for a mitred internal knee or ridge gusset or d e
for an internal or external haunch gusset at the critical stress line.

h 2D or
L D
 D or
§ D ·
de
1  ¨1  tan v
© 2L ¹̧
de Ly
where v roof slope

Depth of Rafter Pitch in degrees

rafter/ 5 10 15 20
column d e (mm) d e (mm) d e (mm) d e (mm)
D (mm) L=1.5D L=2D L=1.5D L=2D L=1.5D L=2D L=1.5D L=2D
200 295 390 290 380 285 370 280 360
300 445 585 435 565 430 550 425 540
400 590 776 580 755 570 735 565 715
600 885 1165 870 1130 855 1100 845 1075
800 1180 1555 1160 1510 1140 1470 1130 1430
1000 1475 1940 1450 1885 1425 1835 1405 1790
1200 1770 2330 1740 2260 1710 2200 1685 2145
TABLE 10.1: Effective depths (d e ) for internal haunch gussets

iv. Determine a preliminary thickness for the plywood or LVL gusset. The thickness
of parallel plies (t) required each side of the joint is:

tt
6 M*p
2(ĭ k19 g19 )fb' d2
e

I
where: M* p = design in-plane moment on joint
= capacity factor for plywood / LVL
k1 = duration of load strength modification factor
k 19 = moisture condition strength modification factor

129
 g 19 = plywood assembly modification factor
fb' = characteristic bending strength
de = effective depth of gusset at critical section

v. Determine I p , the polar moment of area for each ring of nails, and sum to find
I p(total) .

The procedure followed herein is that proposed by Hutchings and described in the
Nail Joint Action section.

vi. Determine the moment capacity of the joint such that:

IMtM*

AS1720.1-1997 approach for determining rotational joint capacity requires application of

Equation 10.10:

The Hutching Method, which applies the classical torsion equation in which nail force is
directly proportional to distance from the nail group centroid, will be used. That is:

IM = I.k 1 .k 13 .k 14 .k 16 .k 17 .Q k [l p / r m ] (10.12)

I
where: M* = design action effect on joint (in-plane moment)
= capacity factor for a nailed joint AS1720.1-1997
Clause 2.3
k1 = the factor for duration of load for joints AS1720.1-1997,
Clause 2.4.1.1
k 13 = 1.0 for nails in side grain
= 0.6 for nails in end grain

k 14 = 1.0 for nails in single shear

= 2.0 for nails in double shear

k 16 = 1.2 for nails driven through close fitting holes in

metal side plates
= 1.1 for nails driven through plywood gussets
= 1.0 otherwise

k 17 =factor for multiple nailed joints given in

AS1720.1-1997 Table 4.3(B) forType 1 joints to
resist in-plane moments
rm = the maximum value of r I
rI = the distance from the ith nail to the centroid of
the nail group
Qk = characteristic capacity given in AS1720.1-1997
Table 4.1(A)
and 4.1(B)
Ip = polar moment of inertia

vii. Check capacity of worst loaded nail.

130
Design Example – Plywood Gusseted Portals

Assume the materials to be used to be:

x
x
Gusset: F11 structural pine 2400 x 1200mm plywood panels;

x
2.9mm diameter machine driven nails;
600 x 63mm LVL for columns and rafters with a joint strength group JD3

FIGURE 10.9: Defines the major dimensions of the knee joint

Gusseted Joints – Worked Example

1. Loading

Assume the worst loading condition on the gusset to be due to a combination of wind and dead load
resulting in:
column moment, M* = 144kNm;
column axial force = 55kN;
column shear force = 20kN

NOTE:

at 6m spacing, a roof slope v = 10q and a wind speed of 41m/s.

These member forces are typical for a portal span of 18m, an eaves height of 6m, frames

2. Sizing of Gusset:

The length (L) of the gusset should be 1.5 to 2 times the depth of the column/rafter.
Choose L = 2D, hence for 600mm deep column/rafter members:

L = 1200mm

131
 L D
3. Determine the effective depth (d e ) of the internal gusset:
D
de 1  (1  D/ 2 L) tan v
1200  600
 600
1  (1  600 / 2.1200) tan 10q
= 1130mm

4. Determine required gusset thickness:

6 M*p
d2
(I k1k19 g19 ) fb’
t • e

For F11 structural plywood:

f’ b = 35 MPa (F11 structural plywood) Table 5.1
M* = design action effect

I
= 144 kNm
= capacity factor for plywood = 0.8 Table 2.6
k1 = 1.15 (wind gust) Table 2.7
k 13 = 1.0 (moisture content <15%) Table 5.2(A)
g 19 = 1.0 Table 5.3

Required thickness of parallel plies per side:

1 §¨ 6 x 144 x 10 6 ·
¸
2 ¨ 0.8 x 1.15 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 35 x 1130 2 ¸
© ¹
t

10.5 mm

Choose 18-30-7 (t II = 10.8mm) F11 DD 2400 x 1200 structural plywood

5. Nail Joint Design

The most important, and time consuming task associated with the design of the nailed joint, is the
determination of the polar moment of area (I p ) of the nail group.

For economy of calculation it is usual to have the same nailing pattern for both the rafter and column
connections to the gussets. The design moment used in the joint design is conservatively taken as the
moment determined at the rafter/column centre lines intersection. The actual design moment effective at
the nail group centroid is typically smaller than that determined by the computer analysis which is at the
rafter/column centre lines intersection.

For convenience of reference, restating Equation 10.11 allows the determination of (I P ) for a smeared
single ring (rectangle) of nails as shown in Figure 10.7 and results in:

ª 3 2º
2 « "1 wd3 § d· §" ·
  "1¨  wd¨ 1 »
2

SII « 12 © 2 ¹̧ © 2 ¹̧ »
Ip
¬ ¼
12

In this example the nail centres for the LVL will be:

x edge distance – 5D
= 5 x 2.9 # 15 say 20 mm.

x parallel to grain – 20D

= 20 x 2.9 # 60 mm.

x perpendicular to grain – 10D

= 10 x 2.9 # 30 mm.

132
x assuming width of lines parallel to grain is unity,
then width of lines perpendicular to grain will be:

60
wv cos 10 $
30
1.97

The dimensions of the first ring of nails are shown in FIGURE 10.10 as being 2(Ɛ 1 +d 1 ) and can be
evaluated from:
1200
"1 – 60 – 20
cos10 $
plywood edge distance
LVL edge distance

"1 = 1140 (which is equally divisible by 60)

 2 x 20
D
d1
cos 10 $

d1 570 (which is equally divisible by 30)

Therefore for the first ring of nails:

2 ª 1140 3 1.97 x 570 3

2º
§ 570 · § 1140 ·
«   1140¨  1.97 x 570¨ »
2

60 «¬ 12 © ¹̧ © 2 ¹̧ »¼
Ip 1
12 2

Ip 1 20.38 x 10 6 mm 2

For the second and third rings of nails:

"2 = 1140 – 60
= 1080;

d2 = 570 – 60
= 510

"3 = 1080 – 60
= 1020;

d3 = 510 – 60
= 450

2 ª 1080 3 1.97 x 510 3

2º
§ 510 · § 1080 ·
«   1080¨  1.97 x 510¨ »
2

60 « 12
¬ © 2 ¹̧ © 2 ¹̧ »¼
Ip 2
12

Ip 2 16.33 x 10 6 mm 2

2 ª 1020 3 1.97 x 450 3

2º
§ 450 · § 1020 ·
«   1020¨  1.97 x 450¨ »
2

60 «¬ 12 © 2 ¹̧ © 2 ¹̧ »¼
Ip 3
12

Ip 3 11.13 x 10 6 mm 2

To determine the number of nails per ring:

2 §¨ ·
" n  II dn ¸
s
sII ¨ sA ¸
© ¹
n

where:
s II = Nail spacing parallel to the grain;
sA = Nail spacing perpendicular to grain;
133
 "n = Length of the nth nail ring;
dn = Height of the nth nail ring.

4
Nail Ring Number I p (mm ) Nails/ring Total nails/gusset
6
1 20.38 x 10 76 76
6
2 16.33 x 10 70 146
6
3 11.13 x 10 64 210
6
I p (total) 47.84 x 10

Co-ordinates of extreme nail from the centroid as defined by x m and y m in Figure 10.10.
 60
L
Xm

600  60
2

Xm 540 mm


d1 " 1
Ym sin 10 $

285  99
2 2

Ym 384 mm
ȡ (540) 2  (384) 2
ȡ 663 mm

6. Joint Capacity – Moment Joint Design

From AS1720.1-1997 the capacity of the nailed moment joint is given by:
ª Ip º
ij0 j ij . k 1 . k 13 . k 14 . k 16 . k 17 . Q k « » t M*
¬ rm ¼

I = capacity factor = 0.8

where:

M j = moment capacity of the nailed joint

M* = design action effect on the joint, i.e the
calculated moment to be resisted
k 1 = duration of load factor for joints
= 1.3 in this case

k 13 = 1.0 for nails in side grain

= 0.6 for nails in end grain
= 1.0 in this case

k 14 = 1.0 for nails in single shear

= 2.0 for nails in double shear
= 1.0 in this case

k 16 = 1.2 for nails driven through close fitting holes in

metal side plates
= 1.1 for nails driven through plywood gussets
= 1.0 otherwise
= 1.1 in this case

k 17 = factor for multiple nailed joints for Type 1 joints

resisting in-plane moments
= 1.2 in this case

134
hence:
ª Ip º
ĭ0 j (0.8 x 1.3 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.1x 1.2 x 706)« »
¬ rm ¼
ª Ip º
962 « » 2 (gusset each side)
¬ rm ¼
where:
6 2
Ip = 47.84 x 10 mm

rm = 637 mm

§ 962.2 x 47.84 ·
¨
© ¹̧
ĭ0 j x 2 kN m
637
145 kNm
Design Action Effect

IM j
From the relationship:
• M*
145 kNm > 144 kNm, hence the joint is OK

FIGURE 10.10: Shows nailing pattern for nail group in column or rafter

7. Worst Loaded Nail

The nailing pattern has been determined for the rafter member in this instance. The maximum forces
acting on the worst loaded nail however, are given as being developed in the column element. Since
the nailing pattern for each primary structural member is identical the co-ordinates of the worst loaded nail
will be the same. More precisely, (U) will be the same, rather than x m and y m .

To evaluate the force on the worst loaded nail:

135
 
T x Ym S
p ix
2 x Ip n


144 x 10 6 x 384 20 x 10 3
2 x 47.84 x 10 6 2 x 210
578  48
p ix 626 N


T x Xm P
p iy
2 x Ip n


144 x 10 6 x 540 55 x 10 3
2 x 47.84 x 10 6 2 x 210
813  131
p iy 944 N

p ir 626 2
 944 2

p ir 1132 N

8. Nail Capacity

The design capacity (IN j ) of a 2.9 I nail driven into seasoned timber of strength group JD3 is:

IN j = I.k 1 .k 13 .k 14 .k 16 .k 17 .n.Q k

where:

Q k from interpolation = 989N

elements other than houses I

For nails in primary structural
= 0.8

For wind gusts k1 = 1.14

For nails inside grain k 13 = 1.0

For nails in single shear k 14 = 1.0

For nails through plywood gussets

k 16 = 1.1

For multiple nailed joints k 17 = 1.0

Number of nails n = 1.0

Hence:

IN j
IN j
= (0.8 x 1.14 x 1 x 1 x 1.1 x 1 x 989)N
= 983 N <1132N so not OK.

Since the nail capacity is less than required a design decision has to be made. This will not be pursued
further herein. However, the example does demonstrate, yet again, the iterative nature of the design process,
leaving the designer needing to assess the options available. The obvious ones in this instance are:

x to add an extra ring of nails;

x increase the nail diameter

10.5 Photograhs
Appendix A10 provides some examples of portal frames, moment joints and pin joints.
136
A10 Chapter 10 Appendix

Photographs of Portals, Moment and Pin Joints

Plate 1

Plate 2

Plate 3

137
Plate 4

Plate 5

Plate 6

138
 MOMENT JOINTS

Plate 7

Plate 8

Plate 9(a) Plate 9(b)

139
 Plate 10

Plate 11 Plate 12

140
REFERENCES CITED:

1. Investigation of Plywood Gussets in Timber Portal Frames, D. McKay, 4th Year Civil
Engineering Project Report, Central Queensland University (CIAE), 1974.

2. Investigation of Plywood Gusseted Joints, 4th Year Civil engineering Project Report, Central
Queensland University (CIAE), 1983.

3. A Study of the Structural Behaviour and Performance of Pitched Timber Portals, A. Kermani,
Second International Workshop on Full Scale Behaviour of Low Rise Buildings, James Cook
Cyclone structural Testing Station, Townsville, July, 1994.

4. Portal Frames, B. Walford, Section B-2, Timber Use Manual, New Zealand Timber Industry
Federation Incorporated.

5. Portal Frame Design Example, B. Hutchings, TRADAC Timber Engineering Workshop, Brisbane,
April, 1989.

6. Glue Laminated Timber Portal Framed Industrial Warehouse Building, D. Wheeler, Paper
prepared for National Association of Forest Industries.

7. AS1720.1-1997 – Timber Structures, Part 1 : Design Methods.

141
11 Plywood Stressed Skin Panels
11.1 Introduction
Because of its lightness, directional strength properties and inherent stiffness plywood is an excellent
material to fix to timber beam (stringer) elements to produce a composite construction. Such a structural
system can have the plywood skins affixed to one or both sides of the stringers. Structurally, the function
of the plywood skins is to develop the flexure stresses as in-plane tension and compressive stresses as a
result of loading the panel perpendicular to its surface.

To be categorised as a stressed skin panel as shown in FIGURE 11.1 the plywood sheathing must be
glued to the stringers. The necessary pressure required to effect curing of the adhesive can be applied by
nailing, screwing or stapling. If plywood/stringer interconnection is sought through mechanical fasteners
only (no adhesive) full composite action will not be attained and a stressed skin system as referred to herein
will not result.

FIGURE 11.1: Component parts of a stressed skin panel

The plywood skins of roof, wall or floor panels fulfil a number of important functions, e.g. they:

x
x
develop I or tee beam action thus minimising stringer size for a given span;
provide a trafficable surface for floors or roofs which can be covered by other materials such as tiles,

x
vinyl, etc. or sanded and suitably coated to provide an aesthetically pleasing floor;

x
provide a feature ceiling;

x
develop diaphragm action to resist in-plane horizontal wind or earthquake loads;
provide a void between skins which can be filled with insulation.

The plywood stressed skin panel is also highly amenable to prefabrication thus allowing process control
procedures to be implemented therefore ensuring the quality of the glue bonds.

Maximum spans of simple stringer members is generally constrained to the 7 to 9m range, however with the
availability of LVL this range can now be extended.

142
11.2 Materials
Plywood
Plywood used in the construction of stressed skin panels designed to the specifications stated herein, shall be
EWPAA product certified structural plywood, manufactured to AS/NZS 2269-2004 : Plywood - Structural.

Plywood panels can be joined by scarf jointing provided: the scarf is;

x
x
not steeper than 1 in 8 in the tension skin;
not steeper than 1 in 5 in the compression skin.

Butt joints in the plywood skins shall be backed with plywood splice plates centred over the joint and glued
over the full contact area. The width of splice plates shall be 25 x thickness of the plywood skin.

At the time of gluing the plywood moisture content must be within the limits specified by the glue
manufacturer.

Stringers
Stringers of LVL must be EWPAA stamped with a stress grade or an identification mark associated with a
defined mechanical property.

At the time of gluing the moisture content of the stringers must be within the limits specified by the glue
manufacturer. Stringer surfaces to be glued must be clean and free from oil and other foreign matter likely
to inhibit the gluing process.

Glue
Stress skin plywood systems in which the components have been interconnected using thermo-setting
resins, the shear resistance is fully dependent upon the adhesive, the nail contribution being discounted.
The reason for this is attributed to the greater rigidity of the adhesive compared to the nails whose main
function is to apply the necessary pressure to effect curing.

Adhesives used in this application must be room temperature setting with a modicum of gap filling
properties in the event mating surfaces are not smooth and even. The preferred adhesive for this application
will therefore be of the resorcinol family, unless otherwise specified by the designer. Because nailing
applies permanent pressure to the glueline curing time is not critical.

Nails
Nails should be minimum of 2.8mm diameter for all thicknesses of plywood with a depth of penetration into
the stringers of not less than 2.5 x plywood thickness or 20mm. Nail spacing should be:

x
x
not greater than 100mm along the framing members,
a single row on stringers up to 50mm thick and two rows on stringers greater than 50mm wide up to
100mm wide.

Nailing may commence at any point but must progress to an end or ends.

Unless otherwise stated panel edge straightness, squareness, width and length shall not vary outside the
limits set for these parameters for a plywood panel.

Insulation and/or Vapour-Barrier Material

Insulation and vapour-barrier material must be securely fastened to the structural assembly in such a
manner as to not interfere with the gluing of the plywood skins to the stringers. Ventilation requirements
should be incorporated as seen necessary by the designer.

11.3 Application
Although only the design of flat panels will be considered in this Manual curved panels for roof construction
are also a viable proposition. Uses for plywood stressed skin panels can be found in:

143
 x
x
prefabricated housing for walls, floors and roofs;

x
folded plate roofs;

x
curved roofs for domestic, commercial and industrial buildings;

x
concrete formwork
a range of applications dependent upon the designers ingenuity.

11.4 Stressed Skin Panel Design – Panel Action

Simplistically, the flat panel with plywood skins rigidly fixed to either side of timber stringers, performs
structurally as a series of composite I-beams. The plywood skins develop most of the normal stress due
to bending of the panel whilst the shear stresses are taken by the stringers.

Shear Lag
A stress resultant phenomena resulting from loading thin walled structures, and to which the elementary
flexure theory does not directly apply due to the influence of shear deformations, is termed shear lag.

The normal stress distribution across the flange of a stressed skin panel subjected to bending is non-
uniform as shown in FIGURE 11.2.

FIGURE 11.2: Distribution of flange stresses

Therefore, to apply the simple flexure formula to this non-uniform stress distribution requires using a
reduced or effective flange width (b e ) rather than the actual width (2b). This reduced width can be
evaluated if the stress distribution shown in FIGURE 11.2 by the broken lines is known. To determine b e then
becomes a matter of making the area of the rectangle defined by the solid lines equal to the area of the
actual stress distribution.

North American approach is to use the basic spacing (b) shown in FIGURE 11.3 as the design parameter.

144
 FIGURE 11.3: Effective widths of plywood

By choosing the clear spacing (") between stringers to be less than (b), for which values have been
determined for a range of plywood thicknesses and surface smoothness’s, no reductions are necessary
to compensate for:

x
x
shear lag;

x
buckling of the compressions skin;
dishing of thin plywood skins between stringers, towards the panel neutral axis

Choosing a value of (b) equal to 45 times the plywood thickness, and ensuring (") less than (b) will satisfy
the above requirements for plywood face grain parallel to the longitudinal members.

If (") is less than (b) in either skin, then a correspondingly reduced length of skin as shown for the bottom
skin in FIGURE 11.3, is effective in resisting the applied bending moment.

NOTE:
The full length of both skins are included in determining the panel section properties for
deflection calculations.

For the case where the face grain direction of the plywood is perpendicular to the longitudinal members
make (b) equal to 50 times the plywood thickness. To determine the effective width of the plywood skins
follow the same procedure as described for face grain parallel to longitudinal members.

Rolling Shear
Rolling Shear is a structural response in which shearing forces tend to roll the wood fibres across the
grain and is of particular significance in certain plywood applications. One such instance occurs with stressed
skin panels in which full surface contact of a stringer, with the face/back veneer of the plywood skins, is
effected by rigid gluing of the interfaces.

FIGURE 11.4shows the location of the critical plane for the case of the face grain of the plywood panel
parallel to the direction of spanning of the stringers which is the generally preferred option.

145
 FIGURE 11.4: Position of critical plane for rolling shear

To determine the magnitude of the rolling shear at the critical interface requires
application of the formula:

W
SQ s
(11.1)
1. b s

where:
S = applied shear force in Newtons;
Qs = first moment of the area of the parallel to stringer plies
outside the critical plane as shown in FIGURE 11.4;
4
I = gross second moment of area of the panel in mm ;
bs = sum of widths of stringer glued surfaces in mm;

11.5 Panel Design – Methodology

The design method presented in this Manual is based on the approach given by the Engineered Wood
Products Association of USA (formerly APA).

Trial Section
Choose a trial section based on experience or by taking a single beam element as a model. If the latter
method is chosen keep in mind the final element will be 1200 mm wide and stiffened by top and bottom skins.
Be mindful of the following design parameters when choosing the trial section:

x
x
maximum stringer spacing 600mm;

x
minimum thickness of tension skin 7mm;

x for effective width of plywood to be full width (b) t ("), the clear spacing between stringers
basic spacing (b) between stringers should be equal to 45 or 50 x plywood thickness;

146
Transformed Section
Since the plywood skins and the timber stringers will generally be of different species it is
necessary to reduce them to a common basis by computing the transformed section. This
procedure entails:

x transforming the actual stringer widths to an equivalent width of a skin through the
ratio:

stringerMoE
x stringer width
skinMoE

x for skins of differing species, performing a similar transformation to the above, on

the skin not initially chosen.

Panel Deflection – Section Properties

To determine the relevant panel section properties, i.e the neutral axis and the panel
flexural rigidity (EI g ) is best done using the tabular layouts shown in TABLE 11.1 and TABLE
11.2.

MoE A II A II E y A II Ey
Element 2 6 6
(N/mm) (mm ) (N x 10 ) (mm) (N.mm x 10 )
Top Skin
Stringers

¦A 11 E= ¦A 11 Ey=
Bottom Skin

TABLE 11.1: Layout to determine neutral axis

¦ A IIEy
¦ A IIE
y

The EI o values for the top and bottom skins about their own neutral axes is very small
compared with the other values and can therefore be disregarded without undue effect on the
accuracy of (EI g ).
2 2
A II E EI o d A II Ed EI o + A II Ed
Item 6 Io 2 6 2 2 6
(N x 10 ) (N.mm x 10 ) (mm) (N.mm x 10 6 ) (N.mm x 10 )
Top Skin
Stringers

¦EI g =
Bottom Skin

TABLE 11.2: Layout to determine panel flexural rigidity

Flexural deflection can be determined from the familiar relationship:

5 wL 4
¨E (11.3)
384 EIg

where w = panel load in kPa

L = panel span in mm
EI g = flexural rigidity of the panel in N-mm2

Shear deflection can be determined from the less familiar relationship for uniform or quarter-
point loading:
1.8 PL
¨S (11.4)
AG

where P = total load on panel (N)

147
 L = panel span (mm)
= cross-sectional area of all stringers and T flanges
A 2
(mm )
2
G = modulus of rigidity of stringers (N/mm )

Top skin deflection for plywood panels with skins each side, resulting in the top skin
functioning as a fixed ended beam when spanning across stringers:
4 w "4
¨ (11.5)
384 E t I

where = panel load in kPa

w
" = clear span between stringers (mm);
I = second moment of area of a unit width of top
skin perpendicular to the direction of spanning
of the stringers;
Et = modulus of elasticity for top skin (MPa).
Bending Stresses
To check the bending capacity of the panel may require:

re-evaluation of panels section properties if the clear distance (") between stringers is
>b (see FIGURE 11.3) for either or both skins thus requiring a reduction in the effective
width of skin/s;

for single skin/panels, if ">b the effective width will be the sum of the stringer widths
plus 0.25b on each side.
MyE
Fb,a (11.6)
EI g

where M = the bending moment on the panel at the section

considered;
y = the distance from the neutral axis to the fibre
under consideration;
E = MoE of the element being considered;
EI g = the flexural rigidity of the panel.

Where such information is available, and if it is applicable, the necessary increase in maximum stress in the
stringers and plywood skins should be made to account for shear lag.

FIGURE 11.5 shows a typical stress distribution for the plywood skins and stringers of a stressed skin panel.

148
 FIGURE 11.5: Bending stresses in stressed skin panel

The values of y and the y’s shown in FIGURE 11.5, when substituted in Equation 11.6 for y, will on solution
result in the evaluation of extreme fibre stresses f b,a .

Splice Plate Check

From Equation 11.6 :
MyE
fb for the full panel width;
EI g
wL2
M for maximum moment under u.d. loading;
8
F sp = splice force
ª Wsp º
fb « » A sp
«¬ Wp »¼
where:

W sp
= total width of splice plate / total panel width
Wp
ª wl 2 E sp º
« x 10 3 » MPa
Fsp Wsp

¬« 8 ¼»
f sp x xyx (11.7)
A sp EI g Wp
where f sp = splice stress
w = uniformly distributed load (kN/m)
E sp = modulus of elasticity of splice material
EI g = stiffness factor (N-mm2) from TABLE 11.2
y = distance from neutral axis to the extreme tension
or compression fibre (mm)

NOTE:
The above f sp is for the splice plate at the point of maximum moment. If this controls the
design the splice can be relocated in a new area of lower moment.

Rolling Shear Stress

From FIGURE 11.4:

ds = c-y’
Qs = A.d s
where:

149
 A = area of plywood veneers parallel to the stringers
and outside the critical zone.

The rolling shear stress will be, from Equation 11.1:

Wr
SQ s
Ib

Horizontal Shear Stress

Q H will not be the same as Q s because it will be the first moment of all veneers parallel to
the stringers above (or below) the neutral axis.

To account for differences in modulus of elasticity a transformed section is required thus:

Q stringer 
E skin
QH xQ skin (11.8)
E stringers
Hence

WH
S . Q H . E ST
(11.9)
(EI g ) b

where
S = total shear force
QH = as defined
E ST = modulus of elasticity of stringers (N/mm2)
EI g = stiffness factor (N-mm2)
b = total width of stringers intersected by the neutral
axis (mm).

11.6 Design Example – Stressed Skin Panels

Design a floor panel to span 5m for the following unfactored loading and deflection requirements:

Uniformly distributed live load = 2kPa

Uniformly distributed dead load = 0.5kPa
Deflection limitation for live load = span/360
Deflection limitation for dead and live load = span/240

Stressed Skin Panel – Worked Example

The solution will follow the Design Methodology previously discussed in Section 11.5 of this chapter.

Trial Section
Assume as a trial section the panel having the material specifications and dimensions shown in
FIGURE 11.6.

150
 FIGURE 11.6: Stressed skin panel trial section

Design data for the structural components is:

4
F11 x 17 – 24 – 7 plywood I II = 285mm /mm;
IA
4
= 120mm /mm;
-3
A II = (4x2.4x10 x1)
2 2
= 0.0096 m /m or 9600mm /m
E = 10,500MPa

4
F11 x 9 – 30 – 3 plywood I II = 60mm /mm;
IA
4
= 4mm /mm;
-3
A II = (2x3x10 x1)
2 2
= 0.006 m /m or 6000mm /m
E = 10,500MPa

Laminated Veneer Lumber - 45 x 150mm;

3 6 4
I = bd /12 = 12.66 x 10 mm ;
E = 13,200MPa
2
A = 6750mm
G = 880MPa

Basic Spacing
Clear distance between stringers (") = (1200 – (2x22.5)-(3x45)) / 3
" = 340mm
Total splice plate width (S w ) = 3(340 – 12)
Sw = 984mm
For 17mm thick plywood (b) = (17 x 45)mm
b = 765mm >" = 340mm

151
 For 9mm thick plywood (b) = (9 x 45)mm
b = 405mm >" = 340mm

Deflection - Section Properties

Element MoE A II A II E Y A II Ey
6 9
Top Skin 10500 1.2 x 9600 = 11520 121 x 10 167.5 20.3 x 10
6 9
Stringer 13200 4 x 6750 x 1.26 = 34020 449 x 10 84 37.7 x 10
6 9

6 6
Bottom Skin 10500 1.2 x 6000 = 7200 75.6 x 10 4.5 0.34 x 10
6 9
645.6 x 10 58.34 x 10
TABLE 11.3: Gives procedure for determining section centroid

ȈAD xE xy 58.34 x 109

y = =
ȈAD xE 645.6 x 106
y = 90.4mm

FIGURE 11.7: Shows the neutral axis and “b” relative to “"”

2 2
Element A II E Io EI o d
A II Ed EI o + A II Ed
6 6 9 10 10
Top Skin 121 x 10 285 x 1200 = 0.34 x 10 3.57 x 10 77.1
72.5 x 10 72.9 x 10
6 6 6 9 10 10
Stringer 449 x 10 12.66 x 10 = 50.6 x 10 667.9 x 10 6.4
1.84 x 10 68.6 x 10
6 6 9 10 10

6EI g
Bottom Skin 75.6 x 10 60 x 1200 = 0.07 x 10 0.74 x 10 85.9
55.8 x 10 55.9 x 10
10
197.4 x 10
TABLE 11.4: Gives procedure for determining (EI g )

Hence EI g is:
10 2
EI g = 197.4 x 10 N-mm /1200 width

FIGURE 11.8: Shows relevant panel cross-section dimensions

152
Flexural Deflection Long Term Serviceability Requirements

G + <1Q
Flexural Deflection:
= G + 0.4Q
G + 0.4Q = (0.5 + 0.4 x 2)kPa
G + 0.4Q = 1.3kPa

J2 5 wL4
ǻb ,where J2 2
384 EIg
2 x 5 x 1.3 x 1.2 x (5)4 x 1012
384 x 197.4 x 1010
ǻb 12.9 mm

Shear Deflection:
J 2 1.8 PL
ǻs
AG
21.8 x 1.3 x 1.2 x 5 x 5 x 10 6
4 x 6750 x 880
ǻs 6 mm

' b + ' s = 12.9 + 6 = 18.9mm

'b + 's = 18.9mm < 20.8mm, i.e. span/240 so OK

Top Skin Deflection:

For two-sided panels the skin will function as a fixed-ended beam for which the equation is:
J2 wL4
ǻts
384 EI
2 x 0.31 x (340) 4 x 1
384 x 10500 x 120 x 240
ǻ ts 0.28 mm  1.4 mm, i . e .span/ 240
where:
L = clear span between stringers (mm);
E = top skin modulus of elasticity (MPa)
I = I A for top skin of width 240mm;
w = load in kN/m

Bending Moment
Member Design Capacity: Strength Limit State

IM = I x k 1 x k 4 x k 6 x k 9 x k 11 x k 12 ( f b' x Z)
Note:
Because "<b, i.e. 405 and 765 >340, for both the top and bottom skins a re-evaluation of the
panel section properties is not required.

For long term, i.e. 5 month loading, for dead and live load:

k1 = 0.8 ; f b' = 35MPa for F11

k4 = 1.0 ; k 6 = 1.0

I
k 11 = 1.0 ; k 12 = 1.0

IM
= 0.8
= [0.9 x 0.8 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.0 (35 x Z)]N-m

153
Determination of Z is most conveniently done through TABLE 11.5 :
2 2
Element Io A II d I o + A II d
6 2 6
Top skin 0.34 x 10 11520 77.1 68.5 x 10
6 2 6
Stringer 50.6 x 10 34020 6.4 52.0 x 10
6 2 6

6I g =
Bottom skin 0.07 x 10 7200 85.9 53.2 x 10
6
173.7 x 10
TABLE 11.5: Layout to determine the gross second moment of area

Hence I g is:
6 4
Ig = 173.7 x 10 mm for 1200 wide panel
For the top skin:
I Ig 173.7 x 10 6
Zt
y 76.2 85.6
6 3

IM
Zt = 2.03 x 10 mm
6

IM
= (0.72 x 35 x 2.03 x 10 )N-mm
= 51.1 kN-m
For bottom skin:

Ig 173.7 x 10 6
Zb =
91.3 91.3
6 3

IM
Zb = 2.02 x 10 mm
6

IM
= (0.72 x 35 x 2.02 x 10 )N-mm
= 50.9 kN-m

Design Action Effect

TABLE 11.6 gives the relevant loading combinations and the associated duration of load parameter D L which
shows the critical load case.

Load Effect + wL2 M*

Load Combinations Calculation k1 M = DL =
(kN/m) 8 k1

Permanent 1.25G + < c Q (1.25 x 0.5) + (0.4 x 2) = 1.43kPa 1.43 x 1.2 -= 1.72
(kNm)
0.57 5.38 9.43
Long term 1.25G + 1.5Q (1.25 x 0.5) + (1.25 x 2) = 3.63kPa 3.63 x 1.2 -= 4.36 0.8 13.63 17
TABLE 11.6: Design action effect

For the strength limit state:

D L from TABLE 11.6 shows the worst loading case to result in a moment of 13.63kNm which is much less
than 30kNm moment capacity for the bottom skin.

Splice Plate Check

Tension Splice
The relationship for a splice plate stress check given in Section 11.5 of Design Methodology is:

ª wL2 º
« x 10 6 »MPa
Es Ws
«¬ 8 »¼
fst x xy x
(EIg) Wp

ª 2 x 1.2 x 5 2 º
« x 10 6 »
10500 984
«¬ »¼
x x 90.4 x
8 197.4 x 1010 1200
fst 2.95 MPa

If the splice plate was 17mm F11 structural plywood with its face grain parallel to the direction of
spanning then:

f’ t = 20MPa which, without further consideration would therefore obviously be satisfactory.

154
Compression Splice
Using 17mm F11 structural plywood the compression splice will be satisfactory by inspection, i.e.
because of the smaller y.

Rolling Shear

FIGURE 11.9: Shows dimensions for obtaining Q s

Wr
Sx Qs
Ixb
ª§ w x L x B · º
«¨ x x 103 » MPa
E 1
«¬© ¹̧ »¼
x Qs x
2 (EIg ) b

The statical moment Qs is obtained thus:

Qs = A II x d s
= 3(2.4 x 1200)79.6
3
Qs = 6877448mm

From FIGURE 11.6:

bs = 3 x stringer width + 0.5 x stringer width
= (3 x 45) + (0.5 x 45)
bs = 157.5mm

Writing (W r x b sf ) = q, a shear flow,

where:
b sf = 45 + (0.5 x 45)
= 67½mm for edge stringers
b sf = (2 x 45)
= 90mm for internal stringers.

The strength limit states values for rolling shear (W r ) can be obtained from the relationship:

Wr = I x k 1 x k 19 x g 19 x f’ s

W re
For edge stringers:
2

W re
= (0.8 x 0.8 x 1.0 x 0.2 x 5.3)N/mm
= 0.68MPa

W ri
For internal stringers:
2

W ri
= (0.8 x 0.8 x 1.0 x 0.4 x 5.3)N/mm
= 1.36MPa

155
Shear Flow:
q = (0.66 x 6.75) + (1.36 x 90)
q = 168.2N/mm

Rewriting the rolling shear equation in terms of w (kN/m):

ª q x 2 x (EIg ) x 1º
« »
¬« L x E x Qs ¼»
1.2 w

ª168.2 x (197.4 x 1010 ) x 1 1 º

« » kN/m
«¬ 1 x 5 x 10500 x 687744 103 »¼
1.2 w x

1.2 w 9.2 kN/m

or

w = 7.7kPa, >2kPa, ?O.K.

Horizontal Shear
From Equations 11.8 and 11.9 and FIGURE 11.8:

Q stringer 
Eskin
QH x Qskin
Estringer

)(
68.6 10500
4 (45 x68.6 x x 1.2 x 9600 x 77.1)
2 13200
3
QH = 1130053mm

WH
S x QH x E ST
=
(EI g ) b
§ 10.9 x 103 x 1130053 x 13200 ·
= ¨ ¸ MPa
¨ ¸
© ¹
197 . 4 x 1010 x 4 x 45

WH = 0.46MPa <1.7MPa. O.K.

DISCUSSION

The stressed skin panel with the stringer and sheathing dimensions and properties chosen easily satisfies all
of the strength criteria.

However, with a floor panel, satisfying deflection (stiffness) criteria is of equal importance if a habitable floor is
3
to result. A check on panel stiffness (k) obtained by evaluating the relationship 48(EI g )/L shows k =
0.7kN/mm, which in a normal bearer/joist floor system, would be more than adequate to ensure a sufficiently
vibration insensitive floor.

156
REFERENCES CITED:

1. Design & Fabrication of Plywood Stressed Skin Panels, Supplement 3, American Plywood
Association, Revised May, 1980.

2. Mechanics of Elastic Structures, John T. Oden, McGraw-Hill, 1967.

3. Strength of Materials, Part II : Advance Theory & Problems, Stephen Timoshenko, D. Van
Nostrand Co. Inc., 1956.

4. Plywood, Nelson S. Perkins

5. Timber Designers’ Manual, J.A., Baird & E.C. Ozelton, 2nd Edition, Granada, 1984.

6. The Effective Width of Plywood Flanges in Stressed Skin Construction, H. Tottenham,

published by The Timber Development Association Ltd, London, March, 1958.

7. Theoretical & Experimental Studies on Nailed & Glued Plywood Stressed Skin Components:
Part I. Theoretical Study, E.J. Amana & L.G. Booth, Institute of Wood Science Journal, Vol. 4(1),
1967.

8. Structural Glued Joints in Timber, TRADA Wood Information Section 2/3, Sheet 31, March, 1991.

9. The Bonding Process; James T. Rice, from Adhesive Bonding of Wood & Other Structural
Materials, Volume III, Clark C. Heritage Memorial Series on Wood, 1983.

10. Design Methodology for Adhesives, Gordon P. Kruger, Volume III Clark C. Heritage Memorial
Series on Wood, 1983.

11. Applications of Wood Bonding, Alan A. Mara, Volume III, Clark C. Heritage Memorial Series on
Wood, 1983.

12. Structural Wood Panels, Thomas E. McLain, from Wood Engineering & Construction Handbook,
Keith F. Faherty & Thomas G. Williamson, McGraw-Hill, 1989.

157
 Part Four
E x o t i c S t r u c t ur e s & C o nn e c t i o n D e s i gn
Exotic Structural Forms

Connection Design – Plywood and LVL

158
12 Exotic Structural Forms
12.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate the flexibility of plywood and LVL as a building construction
medium. It provides basic design information to allow the designer the opportunity to investigate the
feasibility of the chosen structural form as a viable solution at the preliminary design stage.

If this preliminary investigation proves the structural form to be a viable design solution a rigorous analysis
may be required. The availability of sophisticated finite element computer programs will facilitate this need.

An appealing feature of plywood and LVL when used as constructional materials is their ability to be easily
worked into a multiplicity of simple or complex shapes. By taking advantage of this ease of working and
inherent manoeuvrability it is possible to produce highly efficient and aesthetically pleasing structural
systems capable of spanning large column free spaces.

Many exotic timber structures have been designed and built throughout the world, in particular, in North
America and the United Kingdom. The Tacoma Dome, completed in 1983, and having a clear spanning
diameter of 162 m, is worthy of mention.

The structural forms considered in this chapter are:

x
x
folded plates;

x
arches;

x
hyperbolic paraboloids (hypars);
domes

It is hoped by including these more exotic structural forms in the Manual will provide architects and
designers with the incentive to expand their creative skills beyond the pedestrian into the exciting.

12.2 Folded Plates

Introduction
Folded plate plywood and LVL structural systems, using stressed skin construction, offer the designer a
wide range of aesthetically pleasing solutions.

FIGURE 12.1 illustrates some interesting structural forms capable of being produced through the
interconnection of folded plates.

159
 FIGURE 12.1: Various types folded plate structures

12.3 Folded Plate Design - Structural Action

A flat sheet of paper placed over supports cannot sustain its own weight and will collapse.

However, by placing folds in the flat sheet of paper, as shown in FIGURE 12.2, dramatically increases its
flexural stiffness and hence its spanning capability.

FIGURE 12.2: Sheet of paper with folds supporting a load

The load carrying capacity of the folded plate will be further enhanced by fixing transverse stiffeners along
the ends as shown dotted in FIGURE 12.2.

Transverse action is a consequence of loads being applied normal to areas defined by AB on the
diaphragm surface. These loads cause one way bending along the width AB.

Longitudinal action results in the in-plane components of load being transferred to the folds and then via
beam action to the supports.

12.4 Folded Plate Design- Methodology

The two actions mentioned above, i.e. transverse and longitudinal will now be considered in
some detail. Transverse action due to uniform vertical loading resulting in components
acting perpendicular to, and in the plane of the diaphragm will result in each diaphragm
deforming identically if extreme edges are fully constrained. Because there is no relative

160
displacement between diaphragms each strip of width (b) will behave as a fixed ended
beam under the normal component of load as shown in FIGURE 12.3.

FIGURE 12.3: Load components on a transverse strip

For diaphragms arranged symmetrically the folds will not rotate DQG DQJOH ȕ ZLOO EH
maintained due to continuity. This will result in the moments at the folds being equal to the
fixed-end moments for a beam of unit width (b = 1) and length (a). Isolating unit width of
the diaphragm AB as shown in FIGURE 12.4 results in:
(wcos v) a 2
MA 
12
(wcos v) a 2
MB
12
The mid-span moment will be:
(wcos v) a 2
Mms
24

FIGURE 12.4: Isolated transverse element under load

The corresponding stresses at A, B or C in a homogenous diaphragm having a section

modulus:

Z = 1. t 2 / 6 will be :
M
ı A/B = ± A/B
Z
(wcos ฀) a 2
=±
12(t 2 / 6)
wcos ฀ a 2
ı A/B =± ( )
2 t
(12.1)
wcos ฀ a 2
ıc = ( )
4 t

161
normal component p n = w x a x cos v to the folds. Simultaneously, the tangential component p t = w x a
Longitudinal action results from the bending action of the diaphragms transferring reactions R due to the

x sinv is transferred to the folds by direct stress along the diaphragm as shown in FIGURE 12.5 (a).

FIGURE 12.5: Determination of longitudinal load on the system

The total load p divides into two components at the folds, these components being in the plane of the
diaphragms as shown in FIGURE 12.5(b). These loads are then transferred, by longitudinal beam action of
each diaphragm to the end supports.

Hence, each sloping diaphragm of FIGURE 12.5 (b) spans longitudinally as a beam of:

x length L;
x depth h;
x width b = t/sinv

FIGURE 12.6 shows such a sloping section.

FIGURE 12.6: Inclined diaphragm

The second moment of area of the sloping section is given by:

bh 3
I 12
)(asin v) 3
1 t
12 sin v
(

. ta 3 . sin 2 v
I 1
12 (12.2)

162
The section modulus (Z) is:
I
Z
y

)(asin v) 3 .
1 t 1
12 sin v
(
h/ 2
. ta . sin v
1 2 (12.3)
Z
6

For a uniform load p = (wa) kN/m, the maximum bending stress in an isotropic diaphragm is given by:
pL2 / 8
ı max
Z
p . L2 / 8
t . a 2 sin v / 6
6. w . a . L2
8. t . a 2 . sin v (12.4)
ı 3 wL2
max .
4 th
12.5 Arches
Introduction
The arch and the portal frame are closely related and as such the arch can be rigid, two or
three hinged as shown in FIGURE 12.7 (a), (b) and (c). FIGURE 12.7 (d), (e), (f) show some
variations of the portal frame.

FIGURE 12.7: Basic arches and some portal derivatives

The arch provides a very versatile structural form fulfilling many structural roles in both two and three
dimensional configurations, e.g. as a:

x
x
two dimensional idealisation of the singly curved cylindrical shell or barrel vault;

x
two dimensional idealisation of the doubly curved shell or dome;

x
two dimensional idealisation of saddle shells (hypars) in one direction;

x
a support for roofs of structures;
a support for bridge decks and in dam walls.

FIGURE 12.8 shows examples of arches being utilised in a range of construction situations.

163
 Arches to suspend a roof Arches supporting a bridge deck
(a) (b)

Converging arches
(c)

FIGURE 12.8: Uses of arches

12.6 Arch Design - Arch Action

The arch can assume a range of geometric shapes. However, for various reasons it is usual for the designer
to choose one of the following forms, i.e.:

x parabola;
x arc of a circle;
x ellipse

A parabolic arch, uniformly loaded along its length will result in its cross-section being subjected to
uniaxial compression only (no bending or shear) at all sections along its length. This is because the thrust
line follows the parabolic profile of cross-section centroids.

Because of the reduced influence of bending the structural efficiency of the arch exceeds that of the
beam for certain load cases.

Should the arch profile not conform to a parabola bending action will still be much less than that of an
equivalent beam. However, this increased structural efficiency does not come without cost, i.e. large thrusts
are developed at the supports. These can be accommodated by buttresses or a tie between the supports.

The three hinged arch offers certain advantages both analytically and structurally. The three hinges
render the structure statically determinate simplifying any preliminary design calculations. The three hinges
also provide the structural advantage of being highly tolerant to any support settlement.

12.7 Arch Design - Methodology

To be able to determine the internal forces at an interior point of an arch, other than at the
hinge, requires the arch geometry to be specified.

In the case of the parabolic arch shown in FIGURE 12.9 the profile is defined by:
ª § x ·2 º
y h «1  ¨ »
« © L ¹̧ »
¬ ¼

164
 FIGURE 12.9: A parabolic arch (not to scale)

The support reactions can be determined through application of the equilibrium equations:

¦ Fy 0 : VA  VB 2 wL
¦ Fx 0 : HA HB

¦ MCR 0 : HB x h VB x L 
wL2
0
2

¦ MCL 0 : VA x L  HA x h
wL2
0
2
(12.5)
Had the supports been at different levels the procedure would still be the same except two
values of (h) would be required.

12.8 Arches – Design Example

FIGURE 12.10 shows a three hinged parabolic arch for which w = 10kN/m, L = 30m
and h = 10m.

FIGURE 12.10: Symmetrical parabolic arch symmetrically loaded

12.9 Arches - Worked Example

The main objective of this worked example is to show the arch is subjected to zero bending
and shear forces when subjected to uniform loading.

165
The axial force is directed along the tangents to the arch profile whilst the shear force is
perpendicular to the centroidal axis of the arch. Hence, to find the components of H B and
V B in these directions requires determining the slope of the arch at the base. From:

ª 2º
§x· »
h «1  ¨
« © L ¹̧ »
y
¬ ¼
§ x ·
(12.6)

2 ¨ ¸h
¨ 2¸
dy
dx ©L ¹

Arch reactions are determined by application of the equilibrium equations of Equations

12.5. From symmetry:
VA VB wL
VA VB 300 kN

From: ¦M CR =0
10 x 302
0 = 10HB 300 x 30 +
2

9000 4500
HB = kN
10
Hence: HB = 450 kN

HA = 450kN

From Equation 12.6 :

§ x ·
2¨ 2 h
dy
dx © L ¹̧
when:
x = L = 30 gives:
§ 30 ·
2 ¨ 2 10
dy
dx © 30 ¹̧

dy 2
dx 3

FIGURE 12.11 shows the normal (n) and tangential (t) co-ordinates at the base of the arch.

FIGURE 12.11: Components of shear and axial force

Summing the axial (F A ) and shear (F s ) components at B in FIGURE 12.11 gives:

166
 FA = (374.4 + 166.4)kN
FA = 540.8kN (compression)
FS = (+ 249.6 – 249.6)kN
FS = 0 kN

Choosing a point mid-way between C and B on the arch as shown in FIGURE 12.12 (a) results in the slope
being:

dy x
= 2 h
dx L2
2 x 15 x 10
=
302
dy
= 1/ 3
dx

FIGURE 12.12: Exposed cross-section at mid-length and axial and shear force components

From the equilibrium relationships the vertical (F VMS ) and horizontal (F HMS ) forces on the cross-sections of
the free body diagrams are from:

™F =0
= 300 – F VMS – 10x15
F VMS = 150kN
™F HR =0
= -450 + F HMS
F HMS = 450kN

Resolving F vms and F HMS in the (t) and (n) directions results in the axial (F A ) and shear (F s ) components

(426.9  47.4) kN
being:
FA
FA 474.3 kN(compression)
FS (142.3  142.3) kN
FS 0kN

To find the moment at any cross-section x from the arch centre, as shown in the free body diagram in
FIGURE 12.13.

167
 FIGURE 12.13: Free body diagram of part of arch

Taking moments about D:

¦ MD 0

xy L  x 2  wL L  x  M
wL2 w
2h 2
ª § x ·2 º w
M x h«1  ¨ »  §¨ L2  2 xL x 2 ·  wL2  wxL
wL2
« © L ¹̧ » 2 © ¹̧
¬ ¼
2h
 2M
L2  x 2  L2  2 xL x 2  2 L2  2 xL

 2M
w
2 L2  2 L2  x 2  x 2  2 xL 2 xL
w
0 M

Hence, the parabolic profile for the arch is the most efficient obtainable arch wise, but only for the uniformly
distributed load. Bending presents itself for other load cases.

12.10 Hyperbolic Paraboloids (Hypar) Shells

Introduction
Besides offering a roofing solution with many interesting alternatives the hyperbolic paraboloid (hypar) also
makes efficient use of the timber through its shape. The hypar, which is a popular member of the saddle
shell family, can be formed into roof shapes to cover square, rectangular or circular plans.

FIGURE 12.14 shows how hypars can be used in configurations having straight boundaries (a,b,c) or as
saddles (d and e).

FIGURE 12.14: Various hypar configurations

168
12.11 Hypar Design - Geometry
To develop a hypar simply requires fixing the two opposite corners (a and c) of a rectangular
or square plate and raising the other two corners (b and e) as shown in FIGURE 12.14(a).
An interesting phenomena concerning the geometry of the hypar is that it is formed by a
straight line moving over two other straight lines inclined to one another.

A vertical plane penetrating the hypar parallel to the direction of the convex parabola will
result in the roof shape shown in FIGURE 12.14 (d).

Vertical planes penetrating the hypar perpendicular to the directions of the diagonals AC
and BD will expose convex and concave parabolas resulting in the saddle shape of FIGURE
12.14(e).

Horizontal planes, parallel to the dotted outline of FIGURE 12.15(a) penetrating the hypar, will
expose hyperbolas.

With reference to the co-ordinate system (x,y,z) shown in FIGURE 12.15 (a),
mathematically:

z = kxy (12.7)

When k = o the hypar degenerates to a plane surface.

FIGURE 12.15: Two views of a single hyperbolic-paraboloid shell

12.12 Hypar Design - Structural Action

Structurally the hypar consists of a system of intersecting arches and suspension cables,
half the load being carried in tension by the suspension cables and half in compression by
the arches. Since sections taken parallel to both diagonals lead to the same parabola, the
169
force at some point P (see FIGURE 12.15 (a)) on the edge, due to arch action, will be the
same as the force applied by the cable at that point. Also, because they act at equal angles
to the edge, but in opposite senses, there is no force component perpendicular to the
edge member. Therefore, this double system of forces can be resolved into a series of
shear forces along the edge requiring a perimeter beam to carry them as shown in FIGURE
12.15 (c).

Since arching action is associated with compression forces, which in turn relates to
buckling, a limit must be placed on the ratio of the rise of the diagonal / span of the
diagonal.

Single shell support can be effected by providing suitable restraint at two support points,
e.g. A & C in FIGURE 12.15 (a) being the most common. Accumulation of the membranal
shears into the intersecting perimeter members at A & C results in larger thrusts having to be
resisted at these two locations. This can be done by suitably designed buttresses or a tie
across AC which, although it is the most economical, detracts from appearance and reduces
headroom. Alternatively, the two high points (D & B) can be supported resulting in the
perimeter members being in tension and the resultant force being inwards rather than
outwards.

12.13 Hypar Design - Methodology

There are several methods available for determining the forces in a hypar shell the one
followed herein is that presented in the Western Wood Products Technical Guide; Hyperbolic
Paraboloid Shells.

For symmetrical loading of the hypar shown in FIGURE 12.16 the vertical reactions (R) are
half the sum of the vertical load (W). The horizontal thrust (H) can be determined by
considering the triangle of base ("/2), height (h) and hypotenuse (k). Since the total load
(W) can be assumed to act vertically at (O) along the line of (h), and if the resultant of (H)
and (R) is assumed to have its line of action (k), then summation of the moments of the
forces to the left about (O) results in:
¦ M 0L 0
R." / 2  Hh
R H (12.8)
h "/2
Hence:
R"
H
2h (12.9)

Taking moments of the resultant force (F) and the vertical reaction (R) about (D) results in:
R F
h k (12.10)

Giving :
k
F R
h

170
 FIGURE 12.16: Reactive force components and resultant

From the plane containing the two perimeter members (a), line (k), force (F), the line joining
the two high points and angle (T) in the plan view of FIGURE 12.16, the compression force
C in the perimeter member is:

2 C sinș F
sinș k/a

Giving:
Fa
C
2k
But:
Rk
F
h
Hence:
Ra
C (12.11)
2h

NOTE:
This compressive force varies uniformly from zero at the peak to a maximum at the
support

The perimeter members are very important components of the hypar shell since they:

x transfer all of the accumulated membrane shears to the bearing points;

171
 x resist any bending induced by the sheathing being connected to the top or bottom of these
members.

Hence, perimeter members can be subjected to combined bending and direct axial compressive forces
and must be designed accordingly.

By sandwiching the sheathing into the perimeter members with half of the perimeter member above and
half below the sheathing, eccentricity will be eliminated and the perimeter members will be subjected to axial
compression only.

Since membranal stresses result in boundary shears along the perimeter member these shears can be
resolved to determine sheathing stresses. The principal forces in the shell are compressive forces c,
parallel to the direction of the convex parabola and tension forces t, parallel to the direction of the
concave parabola shown in FIGURE 12.17.

FIGURE 12.17: Resolved components of the tension and compression forces

The following lists the nomenclature applicable to FIGURE 12.16 and FIGURE 12.17

a = length of side
a’ = length of the horizontal projection of a
C = total compression force in perimeter member
c = principal compressive force in sheathing / metre
F = resultant of the vertical reaction R and the horizontal thrust H
H = horizontal thrust
h = vertical distance from a support to the highest point of the shell
k = inclined distance from a support to the mid-point of the length Ɛ
"1 = length along longitudinal axis
"2 = length along transverse axis
R = vertical action
t = principal tension force in sheathing per metre
s = boundary shear force per metre

172
12.14 Methodology - Principal Membrane Forces
When the projected plan of the hypar is a diamond shape the tension (t) and compression
(c) forces shown in FIGURE 12.17 can be resolved by proportion. The principal tensile force
(t) / metre width is:

t s
"1 / 2 a'
"1 x s
t
2 a'
(12.12)

The principal compressive force (c) / metre width is:

c s
"2 /2 a'
Hence:
"2 x s
c (12.13)
2 a'

When the projected plan of the hypar is square in shape (t) and (c)/metre width will be equal
in magnitude to the boundary shears/metre length of perimeter member.

12.15 Methodology - Twist in Perimeter Members

Since the hypar is a doubly curved shell the sheathing slope constantly and uniformly
changes along the length of the perimeter member hence its contacting surface needs to be
appropriately shaped. This necessitates in the determination of the total angle of twist
shown in FIGURE 12.18(b) which applies to hypars having plan projections which are either
diamond or square in shape. For the diamond shaped projection:

ha
tan of angle of twist =
(a' )2 cos
where:
is that shown in FIGURE 12.18 (a)

For the square shaped projection angle ABC becomes zero and Equation 12.14 becomes:

The total angle of twist between the ends of a perimeter member is twice that determined
by Equations 12.14 or 12.15.

173
 (b)
FIGURE 12.18: Angle of twist

12.16 Hypar Design - Design Considerations

Sheathing parallel to the longitudinal and transverse axes of hypar act independently. Hence,
interconnection is not required for strength but is required to prevent buckling.

Sheathing parallel to the hypar sides results in the layer resisting part of the tension and part of the
compression forces. Hence, at the layer interfaces the forces have to be transferred across the
interfaces. This results in shear being developed between the two layers which has to be resisted by the
fasteners.

Perimeter members transfer all loads to the supports must have sufficient cross-section to resist the
cumulative axial compressive forces. Sheathing provides lateral restraint to the perimeter members
within the plane of the sheathing. In the perpendicular direction the perimeter members receive no lateral
support so the possibility of buckling must be considered.

As the hypar becomes flatter it becomes more flexible increasing the tendency to buckle. It is therefore
desirable, to limit flatness, which can be expressed as a ratio of rise (h)/length of side (a), to 1/5.

12.17 Domes
Introduction
Domes consist of doubly curved surfaces which, unlike the hypar, cannot be formed by a series of straight
lines. Hence, domes constitutes a non-developable surface, i.e. they cannot be flattened without cutting
the surface at a number of sections, e.g. half of a soccer ball. Theoretically the dome offers one of the most
efficient structural forms for covering large column free areas and encloses maximum space with
minimum surface. Braced domes, which are suitable for spans of 15 to 400m, can be categorised as
follows:

x
x
frame or skeleton – single layer;

x
truss type – double layer, very rigid and suitable for large spans;

x
stressed skin – covering forms an integral part of the structural system;
formed surface – sheets of material are bent and interconnected along their edges.

174
Many braced dome geometries exist but only three will be mentioned herein. These are the:

Schwedler dome which consists of polygonal rings interconnected by meridional members as shown in
Figure FIGURE 12.19(a). A feature of this dome is that it can be analysed as a statically determinate
structure.

Lamella dome developed by Dr Kiewitt and shown in FIGURE 12.19 (b). A feature of this dome is that it
results in an even stress distribution throughout and handles large concentrated loads efficiently.

Geodesic dome developed by Buckminster Fuller and shown in FIGURE 12.19 (c). A feature of this dome is
its suitability to construction situations requiring point supports. This is opposed to the previously mentioned
domes, both of which require continuous edge supports.

Ribbed domes consist of arches or ribs constituting the meridians intersecting at the crown and either
pinned at the base or connected to a horizontal base ring. Horizontal rings (hoops) are also required in
conjunction with bracing elements as shown in FIGURE 12.19 (a).

FIGURE 12.19: Shows some different dome geometries

12.18 Dome Design - Structural Action

The ribbed dome develops its load carrying capacity for symmetrical loads, through the meridionals acting
as funicular arches, i.e with no bending only compression and the rings restraining the arches by
developing hoop stresses. The hoop stresses may be compressive only for shallow domes and
compressive and tensile for high rise domes.

Load transfer in thin shell domes is almost entirely due to membrane action, i.e. by in-plane direct and
shear forces. Hence, the three active forces on a thin shell element are N x , N y and N xy as shown in FIGURE
12.20 (a). The term thin is relative since there is no doubt an eggshell fits this category but equally, an
89mm thick shell spanning 75.6m in Germany, does so as well.
175
Many of the modern braced domes are constructed incorporating a reticulated spatial
system of members which form the basis of the dome. These members are then covered by
a sheet material, e.g. plywood which may act integrally with the spatial members to produce
a composite structure thus performing the bracing function. An efficient means of attaining
these spatial systems is through the interconnection of triangular elements to produce the
reticulated patterns shown in FIGURE 12.20(b), (c) and (d).

FIGURE 12.20: Membrane forces and reticulated spatial systems

Based on the premise a reticulated shell, having a spatial member configuration capable
of carrying the membrane forces N x , N y and N xy , will function as a continuum shell allows
simple relationships between the forces of the two systems to be developed.

Two such systems will be considered herein.

Because of the large number of members and their associated degrees of freedom (up to
6/node) a membrane type analogy, closed form solution is essential at the preliminary
design stage.

12.19 Dome Design - Methodology

Membrane stresses in a thin spherical dome are given by:

N xy =0

The hoop force:

§ ·
wR ¨  cos T
© 1  cos T
1
¹̧
NX (12.16)

and the meridional force:

wR
1  cos T
1
NY (12.17)

where:
W = load acting on the shell per unit area measured on the
shell surface;
R = radius of curvature of the dome which is constant for

176
 a

T
sphere
= is the angle subtended by the element under
consideration with the crown

FIGURE 12.21 defines the above parameters.

FIGURE 12.216KRZVș DQJOHWRFURZQDQG5 UDGLXVRIFXUYDWXUH

when:
1
cosș = 0 from Equation 12.16
1 + cosș

T | 52q
Then:

and
Nx = 0

With further increase in ș, N x becomes positive, i.e. from ș>52q there are tensile stresses in the hoops.
Hence, domes having a low rise will result in the hoops being in compression.

Braced dome member forces as stated previously, can for analytical purposes, be conveniently related to
the membrane forces of a spherical dome subjected to symmetrical loading.

The axes of the membrane force field can be transformed to align with one of the lines of the grid system
as can be seen from observing FIGURE 12.22.

FIGURE 12.22: Grid systems and membrane forces

177
Satisfying equilibrium of the forces at the section A-A, of length 3/ 2 x L x2 3 x L , in the x-
direction for the grid system of FIGURE 12.20(b) gives:

Ȉ)x 0 
  P1 P2cos 60 $ P3 cos 60q
P1 P1
2 3 L x Nx
2 2

Hence :
4 P1 P2  P3 2 3 x L x Nx (12.18)

Doing likewise for section B-B of length 2xL/2 = L

In the Y-direction:
¦ Fy 0:

P2  P3
2
x L x Ny
3

Satisfying equilibrium along the B-B plane in the x-direction:

¦ FX 0
P2  P3
(12.20)
2 L N xy

Re-arranging the above equations:

4 P1  P2  P3 º
»
2 3 L »
Nx

»
»
3 P2  P3 »
»
(12.21)

»
Ny
2L
»
(P2  P3 ) »
»
»
N xy
¼
2L

Inverting Equations 12.21 gives:

º
(3 N x  N y ) »
L
»
P1

»
2 3

»
(N y  3 N xy ) »
(12.22)
»
L
P2
»
3
»
»
(N y  3 N xy )»
L
»¼
P3
3

At the crown of the dome where Nxy = 033, Nx = Ny, all three members forces are equal to:

P1 P2 P3 L.R.w . / 2 3

NOTE:
The above relationships were derived from static equilibrium requirements and
are therefore independent of member cross-sections.

In the case of the space grids shown in FIGURE 12.20 (c) and FIGURE 12.20 (d) which are
isolated as the triangle in FIGURE 12.22, a similar process results in:

178
 P2 L 2P3 º
 »
L 1 L 1L 3 »
Nx

»
»
P1 L 1P3 »

L 2 L 2L 3 »
(12.23)
Ny
»
»
»
P3 »
¼»
Nxy
L3
And

L 2N y  L 1 N xy º
»
P1
»
L 1N x  L 2 N xy »
»
P2 (12.24)
»
»
P3 L 3 N xy ¼»

12.20 Spherical Domes - Design Example

finishings and the uniformly distributed live load and T = 60q as shown in FIGURE 12.23.
A spherical dome has a radius of curvature of 20m, w = 1.5kPa due to self weight, fixings,

Assume a grid pattern identical to that of FIGURE 12.20(b) with grid member lengths = 2m.
Determine a preliminary size of proposed LVL grid members.

FIGURE 12.23: Dome dimensions

12.21 Domes – Worked Example

Span = 2.R.sin60q
= 34.6m

Because of the symmetrical loading, changes of slope and twist across the membrane
surface will be negligible, hence the shears (N xy ) will be zero.

The membrane forces will be:

* ~
Angle from dome N x (hoop) N Y (meridonal)
crown kN/m kN/m
0 -15.0 -30.0
30 -9.9 -34.6
45 -3.6 -42.4
60 +5.0 -60.0
§ ·
* N X = wR ¨  cos T ~ N Y = ( wR x1/ cos T)
1
© 1  cos T ¹̧

TABLE 12.1: (-) is compression, (+) is tension

179
From Equations 12.22 :
(3 N x  N y )
L
P1
2 3

(3.5  60)
2
2 3
43.3 kN

Ny 
L
P2 3 x Nxy
3

.  60
2
3
69.3 kN

(Ny 
L
P3 3 Nxy )
3

x  60
2
3
69.3 kN

Since this is a preliminary assessment of the structural capabilities of a spherical dome manufactured using
LVL members, a value of f c' (unfactored) of 20MPa will be assumed to determine a member size.

P
fc'
A
69.3 x 10 3
A
20
3465 mm 2

Assuming an LVL thickness of 45 mm:

3465
d =
45
d = 77 mm

Try a LVL cross-section = 75 x 45 mm

The foregoing calculation tells us nothing about the deformation of the structure. However, it does imply
member sizes should be reasonable for a clear span of 34.6 m.

12.22 Other Design Considerations

Although the preliminary calculations indicate a braced dome could be a viable solution there are a number
of other design considerations to be addressed. These include:

x producing a node connection capable of accommodating (6) member ends at the same time provide
the necessary stiffness;

x having a rigorous analysis done to include:

o individual member buckling due to direct forces on the shell;

o snap – through buckling due to local load concentrations;
o general shell buckling over a fairly large area;
o effects of unsymmetrical loads resulting in membrane shears;
o any moment effects near edges and at supports.

180
 x whether or not to force the plywood to act compositely with the LVL;

x construction techniques.

Listing the above design considerations are not meant to deter the designer, but rather to make him/her
aware of some of the vagaries, particularly those associated with buckling.

Many large diameter domes have been built over a long time span, and without the aid of computers. A
Schwedler dome, built in Vienna in 1874 had a clear span of 64m.

However, with the computer power available in the 21st century, in conjunction with sophisticated finite
element programs, capable of three dimensional second order analysis, provide the structural mechanist
with the necessary analytical tools to handle the most complex of shell structures. Additionally, the advent
of Formex Algebra which facilitates the generation of shell topology, further enhances the use of computers
where necessary.

12.23 Photographs
To demonstrate the versatility of plywood and LVL in the production of complex structural forms a collections
of photographs of actual structures is presented in Appendix A12.1.

12.24 Design Aids

Appendix A12.2 contains some design aids to assist designers at the preliminary design stage.

181
REFERENCES CITED:

1. W. Morgan’s The elements of Structure, Edited by I. Buckle, 2nd Ed. Pitman, 1977.

2. Architectural Structures : An Introduction to Structural Mechanics, H.J. Cowan, 1st Metric Ed.,
Pitman, 1980.

3. Steel Space Structures, Z.S. Makowski, Michael Joseph, 1965.

4. Wood Engineering & Construction Handbook, K.F. Faherty & T.G. Williamson, McGraw-Hill,
1989.

5. The Thames Barrier Roofs & Other Timber Structures Part II, V.C. Johnson, Journal of the
Institute of Wood Science, No. 48, December, 1980.

6. Arches, P. Smith, New Zealand Timber Industry Federation (Section B-7).

7. Timber Shells, L.O. Keresztesy, Timber Research & Development Association, High Wycombe,
Bucks, June 1970.

8. Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shells, Technical Guide, Western Wood Products Association, Portland,
Oregon, 1978.

9. An Experimental Investigation into the Stress & Displacement Distribution in Hyperbolic

Paraboloid Timber Shell, L.O. Keresztesy, TRADA, High Wycombe.

10. Hyperbolic Paraboloid timber Shell Roofs, L.G. Booth, The Architect & Building News, August,
1959.

11. Membrane Forces & Buckling in Reticulated Shells, D.T. Wright, Journal of the Structural
Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 1965.

12. Reticulated Space Structures, J.O. Crooker & K.P. Buchert, Journal of the Structural Division,
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 1970.

13. Structural Form, H. Bier, New Zealand Timber Industry Federation (Section A-1).

182
A12 Chapter 12 Appendix
EXAMPLES OF EXOTIC STRUCTURES

Folded Plates

Arches

183
Hypars

Domes

184
EXOTIC STRUCTURAL FORMS DESIGN AIDS

STRUCTURE SPACING (m) SPAN (m) DEPTH

ARCHES

5-15 20-60 h = L/50

5-20 20-100 h = L/55

FOLDED PLATE Max. Likely (m x m) COMMENTS

Stiffening ribs may

20 x 10
be required

HYPAR

LVL edge beams

25 x 25 with boarded
membrane

DOMES

Ribbed dome with

ĭ plywood membrane

Braced dome with

ĭ LVL members

TABLE A12.1: Preliminary design information

185
13 Connection Design – Plywood & LVL
13.1 Introduction
In no way is this chapter meant to replace Section 4 of AS 1720.1-1997 on Connection Design, but rather it is
meant to supplement it. It is hoped it will make the designer, new to timber, aware of the pitfalls associated
with the detailing of timber connections. A further aim is to provide some guidance in the design process to
ensure a functional and aesthetically pleasing timber structure is produced at competitive cost. Hence, it is
imperative that AS 1720.1-1997 is used in conjunction with the contents of this chapter.

The Crews & Boughton publication also proved to be a very useful reference during the compilation of this
Chapter.

The saying the devil is in the detail was never truer than in its application to connection design.
Irrespective of how much refinement is directed towards member and/or component design of structural
systems the effort is doomed to failure if connection design is neglected. Unfortunately, all the glamour
of structural design is associated with the member design aspect, resulting in the connection design not
being afforded the attention it deserves. This anomaly appears to be particularly prevalent in timber design
where gross looking steel connections are “designed” to, in particular, interconnect a number of timber
elements meeting at a common joint. There are however, occasions where the fabricated steel connection
does offer an economical and aesthetically satisfactory solution.

The scope of this chapter will be confined to the dowel type connectors, i.e.:

x nails and their associated connections;

x screws;
x bolts and their associated connections.

Selectivity has not been without purpose, for several reasons:

x dowel type connectors are the most widely used, by far, in timber structure construction;
x other type connectors, e.g. split ring, shear plate and the multiplicity of proprietary steel connectors

x this is not an exercise designed to subsidise the steel industry.

and their capabilities are well documented;

Hence, good connection design must not only ensure efficient load transfer through the joint but must also
ensure serviceability and durability have been carefully assessed and catered for. Also, aesthetics and
costs must be given due consideration.

Simplicity of connection form should always be uppermost in the designer’s mind with care being taken not
to create monsters. Such a situation arises when steel boots are fixed to exposed ends of beams to
supposedly protect them from the environment. These “protectors” can in fact create the ideal conditions
for moisture retention followed by the propagation of rot.

13.2 Terms and Definitions

For consistency of terminology the following definitions apply.

Connector refers to an individual fastener, e.g. a nail, screw or bolt.

Connection refers to the connector group, also called a joint, constituting the mechanism by which load is
transferred between members at a discontinuity. FIGURE 13.1(a) and (b) show simple examples of
connections.

A spliced joint develops continuity of load transfer, in uniaxial tension or compression, between two
members by overlapping and fixing or by butting the ends and fixing with a cover plate each side of the
discontinuity. FIGURE 13.1 (c) illustrates a spliced joint.

A dowelled connector herein refers to a fastener which is circular in cross-section, e.g. nail, screw or bolt,

186
Type 1 joints referred to in AS 1720.1-1997 result in the fastener being subjected to shear. All of the joints
shown in FIGURE 13.1 are Type 1 connections.

Type 2 joints referred to in AS 1720.1-1997 result in the fastener being subject to tension and/or
withdrawal. The joints shown in FIGURE 13.2 are Type 2 connections.

Moment Joints (discussed in Chapter 11) interconnect structural elements, e.g. beam/columns of a portal
frame with the capability of transferring the induced moment, shear and axial force across the
discontinuity. The medium of moment transfer being a gusset plate (plywood or steel) nailed, screwed or
bolted to the primary elements as shown in FIGURE 13.1(g).

FIGURE 13.1: Example of Type 1 Connections

187
 FIGURE 13.2: Examples of Type 2 Connections for nails and screws

Geometrical aspects relate to spacing and location of fasteners within the connection to prevent splitting
of the timber.

FIGURE 13.3 defines these critical dimensions for nails and screws and TABLE 13.1 quantifies them in
terms of the fastener diameter D. Adherence to these dimensions will ensure the connection modelled by
AS 1720.1-1997 will attain the required capacity.

188
 FIGURE 13.3: Two and Three member Type 1 nailed and screwed connections

Note:
Where fastener loads are at an anJOH ș to the grain the minimum spacing between the
fasteners can be found by application of Hankinsons’s Formula as follows:

S " , Sp
S " sin ș  S p cos 2 ș
Sș 2

where:
Sș = spacing of fasteners in the GLUHFWLRQș to the grain;
Sp = spacing perpendicular to grain;
S" = spacing parallel to grain;
ș = angle between the line joining adjacent connectors and the general
grain direction. See FIGURE 13.4.

Minimum Distance
Spacing Type Nails
Screws
Holes not pre-bored Holes pre-bored to 80% of nail diam.
End distance 20D 10D 10D
Edge distance 5D 5D 5D
Between connectors
20D 10D 10D
- along grain
10D 3D 3D
- across grain
TABLE 13.1: Minimum distances for nails and screws

189
Other requirements to attain AS 1720.1 – 1997 load capacities

Nails : Two Member t 1 > 10D; t p > 10D

Joint For: t 1 and t p <10D load is reduced in proportion to t 1 and t p decrease.
For: t 1 or t p <5D, P = O.

Nails : Three member t m <10D; t o >7.5D; t p >7.5D

joint For lesser values of t m , t o and t p reduce load proportionally.
For: t p <5D; P = O.

t 1 >10D, t p >7D
Screws
For: Lesser of t 1 and t p reduce proportionally until,
t 1 or t p ”'ZKHQ3 2

Fastener capacity 10%>timber to timber joints provided t o >1.5D; t p >10D;

Plywood
t w >10D
For: t p /D or t w /D<5, P = O

FIGURE 13.4 defines the critical dimensions for bolts and TABLE 13.2 quantifies them in terms of the bolt
diameter D.
NOTE:
Bolt characteristic capacities given in Tables 4.9 and 4.10 of AS 1720.1-1997 are for the
effective timber thicknesses b eff for single bolts loaded parallel and perpendicular to
the grain. The b referred to in TABLE 13.2 is defined therein.

190
 SECTION 4 : AS 1720.1-1997 : Clauses 4.4.1 to 4.5

FIGURE 13.4: Critical bolt spacings and distances

Distance – bolts loaded parallel Distance – bolts loaded perp. to

Spacing Type
to grain (T=0q to 30q) grain (T=30q to 90q)
8D unseasoned tension member
End distance ( " par ) 7D seasoned tension member 5D
5D others

Edge distance 2D 4D
d 2.5D for b/D = 2 and increase
proportionally to d 5D for b/D t 6.
Between Connectors,
5D *
Along grain (a)
Between Connectors,
4D 5D
Across grain
*b = effective thickness of member loaded perpendicular to grain

TABLE 13.2: Other requirements for bolts

191
13.3 Modification Factors – Nailed and Screwed Connectors
The modification factors discussed herein allow adjustments to be made to the Code
Characteristic Strength values (Q k ,N) to account for the various influencing design
parameters.

Capacity Factor(I)
Capacity factor (I) given in Table 2.6 of AS 1720.1-1997 differs in magnitude to those for
members and is generally less. This reduction is due to their being more contributing
factors, each of which is more difficult to quantify.

Duration of load factor (k 1 )

Duration of load factor (k 1 ) for connections also differs from those values given for solid
members. TABLE 13.3 lists the duration of load factors for connections.

Load Type Source Duration k1

Dead loads gravity permanent 0.57
Long term live loads furniture and partitions permanent 0.57
Frequent live load occupancy or vehicle 5 months 0.69
Infrequent live loads crowds, construction 5 days 0.77
Ultimate wind gust from AS/NZS 1170.2 gust 1.30
Earthquake loads from AS 1170.4 5 second 1.14
Regular snow loads alpine regions 5 month 0.69
Rare snow loads Sub-alpine regions 5 days 0.77
TABLE 13.3: Connection duration of load factors

In connection design a critical load combination, i.e. the one giving the highest D L , can be
found from the relationship:

N*
DL
k1
where
DL = duration of load parameter for the strength limit
state;

N* = Design action for the connection due to the

applied loads;

k1 = duration of load factor for the shortest duration

load in the combination

D L performs no other function in the design process other than to identify worst loading
case for the strength limit state.
Grain orientation factor (k 13 )
Grain orientation factor (k 13 ) for Type 1 nailed and screwed joints, irrespective of load
direction, is k 13 = 1.0. For nails and screws into end grain k 13 = 0.6. FIGURE 13.1 (a) and (b)
show examples.
Shear plane factor (k 14 )
Shear plane factor (k 14 ) accounts for the number of shear planes penetrated by a
connector. FIGURE 13.3 (a) and (b) show examples of k 14 for Type 1 connections. k 14 = 1 and
2 for FIGURE 13.3 (a) and (b) respectively.
Head fixity factor (k 16 )
Head fixity factor (k 16 ) relates to the amount of nails and screw head fixity offered by the
member containing the connector head. FIGURE 13.5 (a) shows a fully restrained nail
head by virtue of its being driven through an interference hole in the steel side plate. This
arrangement forces the nail to deform in double curvature under load which increases the

192
connection load carrying capacity compared to the single curvature response of the nail
driven through a clearance hole illustrated in FIGURE 13.5 (b).

FIGURE 13.5: Nail head fixity

TABLE 13.4 gives values of k 16 for nailed and screwed joints fixing side plates of various materials.

Plate Thickness
Side Plate Material Hole diameter k 16
Guide
Steel to >1.5D tight fitting 1.2
Plywood to >1.5D 1.1
Others 1.0
TABLE 13.4: Values for k 16
Multiple nail factor (k 17 )
Multiple nail factor (k 17 ) takes into account the fact multiple nail and screw connections result in the
failure load of a connection being less than the sum of the failure loads of all of the connectors. The
number of rows (n a ) of fasteners in a connection is defined as those fasteners along a line closest to
normal to the direction of the applied load as shown in FIGURE 13.6.

FIGURE 13.6 :Shows how rows are defined relative to applied load

193
TABLE 13.5 gives values for the factor k 17 for use in the design of multiple nail and screw connections.

Values of k 17
Condition of Timber Number of Rows of Fasteners
na<4 na=5 na=10 na>20
Unseasoned 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.75
Seasoned 1.00 0.94 0.90 0.85
TABLE 13.5: Values of k 17

13.4 Nailed and Screwed Connection Design – Methodology

Typically, a preliminary design will result in settling on a structural system that satisfies the design criteria
defined by the client.

Analysis of the structure then defines the magnitude of the member forces to be transferred across the joints.
Member sizing to satisfy the strength limit state requirements for the critical load combination provides
the designer with an indication of the area of timber available to facilitate the connection design.

The following steps may then be used as a guide in the connection design process for Type 1, nailed and
screwed LVL joints.

Steps:

1. Identify the connection type as Type 1 or 2 which may best be done by sketching or in some
cases doing a scaled drawing.

2. Select connector type and diameter based on experience, availability or calculations.

3. Determine the length of connector to develop full load carrying capacity. This may require
adjusting member sizes or reducing connector capacity.

4. Determine the number of connectors required per row. This is where the drawing will be
invaluable in aiding establishing force directions for finding edge and end distances.

5. Obtain the characteristic strength of the connector from Tables in AS 1720.1-1997.

6. Apply modification factors to the relationship:

ij1 j ijN 1 . k 13 . k 14 . k 16 . k 17 . nQ k

7. Determine the number of rows. Check this with the chosen value of k 17. If incorrect recalculate n.

8. Detail the connection.

194
13.5 Design of Type 1 Nailed Connections (CƐ.4.2.3)
Equation 13.2 gives the design capacity (ĭ1 j ) for a Type 1 joint (containing (n nails))
required to resist direct loads.

For the strength limit state to be satisfied:

ĭ1M •1  (13.2)
where:
ĭ1M ĭk 1 k 13 k 14 k 16 k 17 nQk (13.3)
and
N* = design action due to the applied factored loads
on the connection
ĭ = capacity factor;
k1 = the duration of loads factor for joints;

k 13 = 1.0 for nails in side grain;

= 0.6 for nails in end grain.

k 14 = 1.0 for nails in single shear;

= 2.0 for nails in double shear.

k 16 = 1.2 for nails driven through close fitting holes in

metal side plates;
= 1.1 for nails driven through plywood gussets;
= 1.0 otherwise.

k 17 = factor for multiple nailed joints for Type 1

connections designed to resist direct loads in
either tension or compression.

N = total number of nails in the connection resisting

the design action effect in shear.

Qk = nail characteristic capacity given in Tables

4.1(A) and 4.1(B) in AS1720.1–1997.

13.6 Design of Type 2 Nailed Connections

Equation 13.4 gives the design capacity (ĭ1 j ) for a Type 2 joint containing (n) nails. As
shown in FIGURE 13.2 a Type 2 connection results in the nails being in tensions.

For the strength limit state to be satisfied:

ĭ1 j • N*

where:
ĭ1 j = ĭk 13 . " p .nQ k (13.4)

and
N* = design action on a Type 2 nailed connection,
along connector axis due to factored loads applied
to the joints;
ĭ = capacity factor.
k 13 = reduction factor due to embedment into end
grain.
"p = depth of penetration (mm) into innermost timber
elements.
n = total number of nails in the joint.
Qk = characteristic nail capacity in withdrawal from
the specified joint strength group.

195
Design of Moment Resisting Nailed Connections
This topic was treated in detail in Chapter 10 of this Manual.

Serviceability Requirements for Type 1 Nailed and Screwed Joints

(CƐC3.2)
Section C3 of Appendix C of AS 1720.1-1997 gives some explanation regarding the
deformation of joints.

The displacement of nailed or screwed joints in single shear for solid wood/solid wood
connections may be estimated as follows:

ª 44 x j12 º ª Q * º
' for'  0.5mm
2

« 3. 5 » « h »
¬ D ¼ ¬ 32 ¼
(13.5)

To determine Q* at ' = 0.5mm:

0.107D1.75h32
Q 0* .5 (13.6)
0 .5
j12

For a displacement of ' = 2.5mm:

Q 2* .5 0.165D1.75 j13h32 (13.7)

For a displacement 0.5mm < ¨PP the corresponding applied load effect Q* should be
obtained by linear interpolation between the values to give:

¨ = 0.5mm and ¨ PP

where:
¨ = Deformation of a single nail in a Type 1
connection;
D = Nail diameter (mm);

j 12 = Special duration of load factor for serviceability of

nailed connections;

j 13 = Special duration of load factor for serviceability of

nailed connections;

j 32 = Stiffness factor for serviceability of nailed

connections;

Q* = Serviceability load effect on a single nail (N);

Q*0.5 = Serviceability load effect on a single nail when the

deformation is 0.5mm;

Q*2.5 = Serviceability load effect on a single nail when the

deformation is 2.5mm;

Note:
For plywood side plates Equations 13.5 and 13.6 result in conservative over-
estimates of connector slip.

13.7 Nailed Connections – Design Example

A spliced connection is to be designed for a LVL tension member to be used in a roof system
for a commercial building in Brisbane. The member has been designed and is 150mm deep x
35mm thick. The splice plates are to be of 12mm thick F11 structural plywood fixed using
2.8mnm diameter gun driven nails.

196
The following unfactored loads are to be transferred by the spliced joint.

Ɣ 20kN (tension) Dead load

Ɣ 5.5kN (tension) Live load (construction)
Ɣ 26.6kN (compression) Ultimate wind load
Ɣ 6.6kN (tension) Ultimate wind load

Critical Load Combinations

The load combinations normalised for long term application are:

Load Combinations Factors Factored Loads (kN) k1 D L =N*/k 1

Dead (permanent) 1.25G 1.25.20 = 25kN 0.57 43.9
Dead + Live (construction) 1.25G + 1.5Q 1.25.20 + 1.5.5.5 = 33.3kN 0.77 43.2
Dead + Ultimate Wind Load (compression) 0.9G – 1.5W u 0.9.20 – 1.5.26.6 = 21.9kN 1.15 19.00
Dead + Ultimate Wind Load (tension) 1.25G + W u 1.25.20 + 6.6 1.15 31.6

When the wind action is opposite to the gravity loads 0.9 x G is taken as resisting, not 1.25.G.

The critical load is the dead load with D L =43.9kN. The connection will be designed for N* = 25kN with k 1
= 0.57

Connection Type
The spliced joint will result in the nails being in single shear in a Type 1 joint.

Connector
The type of connector and its diameter, i.e. 2.8mm diameter gun driven nails, has been defined. Hence,
t p >10D>28mm and t o >1.5D = 4.2mm<12mm.

Connector length = 12 + 28 = 40mm (minimum).

Number of Connectors/Row
The following distances have to be satisfied for nails driven into timber which has not been pre-bored.

Distance Dimension Minimum Actual

End distance 20D 56 60
Edge distance 5D 14 15
Along grain spacing 20D 56 60
Across grain spacing 10D 28 30

Sketch of Joint
Knowing the cross-sectional dimensions of the member and the nail diameter allows:

Maximum number of nails/row to be

determined. In this case:
nr = 5

197
Connector Capacity Factors

x Capacity factor (ĭ) will be chosen based on the member being a part of a primary
structural system.

ĭ 
x
Table 2.6
Critical load is the dead load:

k 1 = 0.57

x Grain orientation factor for Type 1 nailed joints:

k 13 = 1.0

x Because the gusset plates are plywood the nails will be in single shear.

k 14 = 1.0

x For nails driven through plywood:

k 16 = 1.1

x An assumed value for k 17 is:

k 17 = 0.9

x Since the LVL is to be of joint strength group JD4 the characteristic capacity of a single 2.8mm
diameter nail driven into JD4 timber is:

Q k = 665N
Number of Nails
From Equation 13.3:
N*
I k1k13k14k16k17Qk
n

25 x 103
0.8 x 0.57 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.1x 0.9 x 665

n 42 nails each side

Number of Rows
The number of rows of nails can be found from:

198
 n
na
nr
42
5
na 9 rows

The assumed value of 0.9 for k 17 is satisfactory since it applies for up to 10 rows.

Figure 13.7 shows the connection with the nailing pattern chosen.

FIGURE 13.7: LVL / Plywood spliced joint

13.8 Design of Screwed Connections

Wood screws behave similarly to nails, the main difference being in withdrawal. The interlocking of wood
fibre between the threads results in screws having higher withdrawal resistances than plane shanked nails
whose capacities are given in Table 4.2 of AS 1720.1-1997.

Characteristic capacities for single screws are given in Tables 4.5(A) and (B), 4.6(A) and (B) and 4.7 of AS
1720.1-1997 for the various loading conditions and whether the timber is unseasoned or seasoned.
These values are based on the shank diameter and not the diameter at the root of the thread which would
result in a decided decrease in section modulus. In certain applications this may need to be taken into
consideration.

The previously mentioned characteristic capacities also apply to Type 17 self-drilling steel wood screws
manufactured to AS 3566.

The spacing of screws conforms to the provisions given for nails driven into pre-bored holes.

13.9 Screwed Connector Design – Methodology

The design process regarding screw connection design follows the same steps outlined in Section 13.4.

199
13.10 Design of Type 1 Screwed Connection (CƐ.4.3.3)
Equation 13.8 gives the design capacity (ĭN j ) for a Type 1 Joint containing (n) screws required to resist
the load.

For the strength limit state to be satisfied:

ĭ1 j •1 (13.8)
where:
ĭ1 j ĭk 1 k 13 k 14 k 16 k 17 nQk (13.9)

and
ĭNj = design capacity of the connection
ĭ = capacity factor;
k1 = the duration of load factor for joints;

k 13 = 1.0 for screws in side grain;

= 0.6 for screws in end grain.

k 14 = 1.0 for screws in single shear;

= 2.0 for screws in double shear.

k 16 = 1.2 for close fitting screws metal side plates of

adequate strength to transfer the load
= 1.1 for screws through plywood
= 1.0 otherwise.

k 17 = factor for multiple screwed joints for Type 1

connections designed to resist direct loads in
either tension or compression

n = total number of screws in the connection

resisting the design action effect in shear.

Qk = screw characteristic capacity given in Tables

4.5(A) and 4.5(B) in AS1720.1–1997.

N* = design action effect due to application of factored

loads.

200
13.11 Design of Type 2 Screwed Connections
As mentioned previously Type 2 screwed connections differ from nailed connections in one
major aspect, i.e.:

x Nails depend on friction between the shank and the wood fibres to resist withdrawal;

x Screws depend upon a mechanical interlocking of wood fibre between threads thus
enhancing the withdrawal capabilities of the screw over the nail.

Equation 13.10 gives the design capacity (ĭN j ) for a Type 2 joint containing (n) screws.

For the strength limit state to be satisfied:

ĭ1 j •1  (13.10)
where ĭ1 j is the lesser of:
ĭ1 j ĭN 13 . " p .nQk (13.11)

OR

ĭ1 j Q ĭ1 ts ) (13.12)

where:
ĭ1 j = joint capacity of Type 2 screwed connection, i.e.
along connector axis.

and:
N* = design action on a Type 2 nailed connection, along
connector axis. due to factored loads applied to the
joints;

ĭ = capacity factor.

k 13 = 1.0 for withdrawal from side grain;

= 0.6 for withdrawal from end grain;

"p = depth of screw penetration (mm) into primary

member.

N = total number of screws in joint.

Qk = characteristic screw capacity in withdrawal given in

Tables 4.6(A) and 4.6(B).strength group.

ĭ1 ts = design tensile capacity of screw as per screw

manufacturers specification

NOTE:
k 1 does not apply to screws subject to withdrawal

Design of Screwed Moment Joints

Screwed moment connections are not common, the nailed option being preferred because of their lower
installation cost, and similar lateral load capabilities.

In the event a screwed joint provides the desired solution to the connection problem the procedure presented
in Error! Reference source not found. of this Manual should be followed.

201
Serviceability Requirements for Type 1 Screwed Joints
AS 1720.1-1997 does not differentiate between nails and screws regarding joint deformations even though
intuitively one may feel a screwed and nailed joint of identical construction would result in the screwed joint
being stiffer.

13.12 Design of Bolted Connections

Although the basic philosophy for the design of nailed and bolted joints is similar, there are some
differences that need to be recognised, particularly with regard to the modification factors.

In FIGURE 13.4 the importance of direction of load application relative to nominal grain direction has
already been highlighted. In a nailed (or screwed) connection timber thickness is aligned with the depth of
nail penetration required to develop the full strength of the connector.

In a bolted connection the bolt capacity is presented as a function of timber thickness, which in the
tabulated data of AS 1720.1-1997, is referred to as the effective thickness (b eff ).

FIGURE 13.8 defines (b eff ) for loads parallel and perpendicular to the grain in seasoned and unseasoned
timber.

For Type 1 bolted connections the contents of FIGURE 13.8 can be summarized thus:

x for loads parallel to grain (b eff ) is the smallest aggregate cross-section of members loaded parallel
to grain:

x for loads perpendicular to grain (b eff ) is the aggregate cross-section of the elements in the
member with loads perpendicular to grain.

The characteristic strength of a single bolt in a Type 1 timber connection is a function of a number of
variables:

x bolt diameter – M6 to M36.

In seasoned timber the bolt hole is the nominal diameter of the bolt.
In unseasoned timber the bolt hole is 10 to 15% oversize.

x timber joint strength group – J1 to J6 and JD1 to JD6;

x timber effective thickness – in AS 1720.1-1997 – 25 to 200mm unseasoned and 25 to 120mm

seasoned;

x moisture content;

x angle between force application and the grain direction;

x bolt spacings – edge, end, along and across grain to prevent splitting and allow development of the
full bolt capacity.

Type 2 bolted connections do not depend on timber embedment of the bolt for load transfer and are
therefore largely independent of timber thickness. Type 2 joints depend upon:

x bolt tensile strength;

x crushing strength of the timber under the washers at each end of the bolt.

13.13 Modification Factors – Bolted Joints

Modification factors applied to bolted connection design perform a similar function, and take the same
form, as those used in nailed connection design. However, a number of the factors relevant to nailed
connections are not relevant to bolted connection design, e.g. the factors k 13 and k 14 .

202
The reasons k 13 and k 14 are not considered to influence bolted joint response is because:

x k 13 , the grain orientation factor for nails and screws, account for frictional forces due to the way
they are installed. For similar reasons these forces are not present in bolted connections.

x k 14 , the shear planes factor for nails and screws, is accounted for in bolted connections by the
system capacity quantity Q skl or Q skp of FIGURE 13.8.

Other factors which are common to both nailed and bolted connections are:

x Capacity factor (ĭ) which performs the same function it did for nailed and screwed joints. However,
(ĭ) is lower for bolted connections for a number of reasons. Not the least of these is due to the high
local forces produced in the timber by the bolt which makes maintaining its load carrying
capabilities in the vicinity of local defects more suspect than for a group of nails.

x Duration of load factor (k 1 ) is the same as defined in Section 13.3 for nailed connections.

x Head fixity factor (k 16 ) applied to bolts is similar to that described for nails. No increase is allowed for
bolts through plywood side plates, only steel. This increase is with the proviso that b eff for loads
parallel to the grain is b eff >5D and perpendicular to grain is b eff >10D.

Multiple bolt factor (k 17 ) differs from that applied to nail connections due to the huge penalty imposed on
bolted joints in unseasoned timber with transverse restraint. TABLE 13.5 lists values of k 17 for varying
number of rows of bolts (n a ).

203
FIGURE 13.8: Gives system capacities and effective timber thicknesses

204
 Type of Joint Values of k 17
n a ” n a =5 n a =10 n a =15 n a •
Seasoned Timber 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Unseasoned Timber
1.0 0.95 0.80 0.55 0.5
(no transverse restraint)
Unseasoned Timber
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
(transverse restraint)

TABLE 13.6: Values of k 17 for bolts and coach screws

The designer must closely examine the joint configuration to assess the likelihood of some of the timber
elements drying out (if unseasoned) during their design life.

If all of the timber elements of the system are seasoned, and remain so, there should be no problems with
restraint stresses.

When one member of a system can shrink and the lateral movement of that member is restrained through
connection to other members which are stable, as shown in FIGURE 13.9, extraneous stresses will be
induced into the system.

FIGURE 13.9: Lateral restraint stresses

13.14 Bolted connection Design – Methodology

x Sketch or draw to scale a typical connection which will allow the angle of the force to the grain,
acting on the bolt for each member of the joint, to be determined. This will allow the joint type to be
identified.

x Select k 16 based on whether the bolts pass through tight fitting holes in steel side plates (if
necessary) or otherwise.

x For each force component parallel or perpendicular to the grain match the configuration to a
diagram of FIGURE 13.8. This allows b eff to be determined, hence Q skƐ and/or Q skp the sum of the
individual characteristic loads for the system, can be found.

x Select a connector diameter based on analysis, availability, etc.;

x Determine the characteristic strength for:

o angle of bolt reactive force to the grain, i.e. parallel or perpendicular

o b eff for each member/bolt interface;

x Evaluate modification factors except for k 17 which has to be assumed conservatively initially for
inclusion in the relationship:

ĭ1 j = ĭk 1 k 16 k 17 nQ sk

205
 x Find the number of connectors/row that can be accommodated without violating
spacing requirements. The sketch/scale drawing will again prove very useful.

x Calculate the number of rows (n a ) of bolts required.

x Check k 17 is satisfactory through reference to TABLE 13.5. If not re-calculate.

x Detail the connection which should be very close to being completed.

13.15 Design of a Type 1 Bolted Connection (CƐ

Equation 13.13 gives the design capacity (ĭN j ) for a Type 1 joint containing (n) bolts to
resist the applied lateral loads.

For the strength limit state to be satisfied:

ĭ1 j •1  (13.13)

where:
ĭ1 j ĭk 1 k 16 k 17 nQsk (13.14)

and:
N* = design action effect due to application of
factored loads
ĭ = capacity factor;
k1 = Duration of load factor for joints;
k 16 = Head fixity factor
= 1.2 for bolts through tight fitting holes
in thick steel plates;
= 1.0 for other cases

k 17 = Multiple bolt factor

n = total number of bolts resisting applied loads shear;
Q sk = bolt characteristic capacities as determined by
reference FIGURE 13.8.

206
13.16 Design of Type 2 Bolted Connections
Equation 13.15 gives the design capacity (ĭN j ) for a type 2 joint containing (n) bolts which are loaded in
direct tension.

For the strength limit state to be satisfied:

ĭ1 j •1  (13.15)

ZKHUHĭ1MLVWKHOHVVHURI:
ĭ1 j Q ĭ Ntb ) (13.16)

OR where crushing under the washer results in a limit on strength :

ĭ1 j ĭN 1 .k 7 .nf”pj.Aw (13.17)

and:
N* = design action due to factored tensile loads
N = number of bolts in the joint
ĭ1 tb = design tensile capacity of bolts (Table 4.12)
ĭ = capacity factor
k1 = duration of load factor
K7 = length of bearing factor of washer (Table 4.12)
f’ pj = characteristic bearing strength of timber in joints (Table C6)
Aw = effective area of washer for bearing.

Moment Resisting and Eccentric Bolted Joints

AS 17201.1-1997 only real concern regarding moment joints for bolted connections is that
associated with joint eccentricity. No guidance is given concerning the design of bolted
moment joints required to sustain large applied moments as can occur, for example, in
portal frame knee joints.

The design of bolted moment joints incorporating rigid steel side plates can be effected by
application of the classical mechanics formula IJ =TU/J. However, the objective of this Manual
is to provide guidance to designers using plywood and LVL and moment joints with these
materials are best done using nails as the connector as described in Chapter 10.

Eccentric joints arise when the centre lines of action of their member forces, for example,
those of a truss joint do not intersect at a common point as shown in FIGURE 13.10. This
indiscretion can cause fairly high shear and moments to develop and tensile stresses
perpendicular to the grain may also be high.

FIGURE 13.10: Eccentric joint

207
Because of the lines of actions of the (3) forces are not concurrent the connection is now
treated as two separate connections. The bending shear is then determined for each
joint through the application of the classic bending shear equation:

f s = VQ / It

This results in the A sj term containing the 2/3rds of shear area, b x d s .

To accommodate this type of situation AS 1720.1-1997 recommends the secondary stresses

due to bending moment be checked to ensure no member or fastener is overstressed.

Further, the design capacity in transverse shear at an eccentric joint (ĭV sj ) satisfies
Equations 13.18 and 13.19.

ĭ9 sj • V* sj (13.18)
where:
ĭ9 sj = ĭk 1 k 4 k 6 f” sj A sj (13.19)
and:
V* sj = design action on the joint due to the factored
applied loads, i.e. transverse shear at joint
ĭ = capacity factor
k1 = duration of load factor
k4 = partial seasoning factor
k6 = temperature effects factor
'
fsj =characteristic strength in shear at joint details
appropriate to species strength group
A sj = transverse shear plane area at joint;
= 2.b.ds/3 where b is thickness of the member. See
FIGURE 13.10. for d s .

Washers
AS 1720.1-1997 states all timber-to-timber bolted structural joints shall be fitted with a
washer each end.

The function of the washers in a bolted structural connection is two-fold:

x having a larger diameter than the head and nut of the bolt, they distribute an axial
force in the bolt over a larger area;

x provided the bolt is kept tight to combat shrinkage the washer can minimise water
penetrating into the bolt hole. This reduces the possibility of rust of the bolt and
rotting of the timber.

Serviceability Requirements for Type 1 Bolted Joints (CƐ.C3.3)

AS 1720.1-1997 provides relationships to determine connection deformations of solid timber
joints fabricated with bolts as the connectors. The equations provide estimates of
displacements if no test data for the connection response is available.

The equations give reasonable results for the deflection of Type 1 joints under serviceability
loadings. Joints become less stiff after a number of load cycles resulting in the
deformation predictions become less accurate.

Equations 13.20 and 13.21 give the displacement ¨taking into account grain direction.

j14 Q*
ǻ = ǻi + for loads parallel to grain (13.20)
j33 Q k"

208
 j14 Q*
ǻ = ǻi + for loads perp’ to grain (13.21)
h33 xh35 Q kp
where:
¨ = deformation (mm) of a single bolt in a Type 1 joint
j 14 = duration of load factor for bolted joints;
h 33 = stiffness factor
h 35 = 1.5 for first (3) joints of FIGURE 13.8.
= 2.5 for multiple member connections, the fourth
joint in FIGURE 13.8.
¨i = initial displacement of joint due to oversize holes
N con = total number of bolts in the connection
Q* = serviceability load effect (N) parallel or
perpendicular to the grain for a single bolt
Q kƐ = characteristic strength of bolt parallel to grain (N)
Q kp = characteristic strength of bolt perpendicular to
grain (N)

13.17 Bolted Connection - Design Example

The connections in a roof truss provide the opportunity to expose a number of important
factors regarding bolted joint design. Therefore, in this example the heel joint of a truss will be
designed.

A roof truss having the geometry shown in Figure 13.11 is to be featured in a commercial
building to be constructed on Queensland’s Gold Coast. The truss has been designed, but
LVL with A faces for appearance, is being considered as an alternative. The joints of the truss
are to be bolted using M12 galvanised bolts. The design load is to be taken as the load in the
top chord.

The critical load combination for the strength limit state is to be:

nominal dead load : G = 8kN (axial compression top chord)

nominal live load : Q = 6kN (duration of load 5 days) axial compression top chord

The LVL for the single top chord is 150 x 45mm and for the double bottom chard 150 x 35mm.
The joint strength group of the LVL is JD3.

209
 FIGURE 13.11: Bolted truss joint
Bolted Connection - Worked Example

FIGURE 13.11 shows the truss plus a detail of the heel joint, but most importantly it gives an exploded view of
the joint, showing bolt force directions relative to the grain direction. The design force in the top chord
member will be equilibrated by a vertical force at the wall plate and a horizontal force in the bottom
chord members. This results in the total design force passing through the connection. For this loading
the force in the bottom chord members due to the applied load is of no concern for this exercise.

Critical Limit State Design Load

The critical limit state load for strength is due to dead and live load combination applied to the top chord.
N* = 1.25.8 + 1.5.6.0
N* = 19kN
Connector Capacity Factors:

For the live load being applied for 5 days:

k1 = 0.77

Because there are no rigid steel side plates:

k 16 = 1.0

210
The exploded view in Figure 13.11 shows bolt forces angle to the grain to be:
ș = 0° for top chord;
ș = 30° for bottom chord.

The truss is a primary structural component hence its connections will assume the same
status. Capacity factor will be:
ĭ = 0.65

Defining System Category for (b eff ) and Q sk :

For bolt loads parallel to grain, it can be seen from the exploded view this will apply to:

x
x
top chord member with full bolt load;
bottom chord member with a component.

A (3) member system loaded parallel to grain has (b eff ) and Q sk˜ defined by the middle
diagram of FIGURE 13.8. b eff is the smaller of 45mm or 2 x 35mm = 70mm;

b eff = 45mm for top chord;

Q skƐ = 2Q k "

For JD3 LVL and 12mm ĭ bolts:

Qk = 11900N Table 4.9(c)
Q sk = 2 x 11.9
= 23.8kN

For bolt loads perpendicular to grain:

A (3) member system loaded perpendicular to the grain has (b eff ) and Q skp defined by the third
joint down in FIGURE 13.8.
b eff = 2 x 35mm
= 70mm for bottom chord

Q kp = 7410N Table 4.10

Q skp = 2 x 7.41
= 14.28kN
Bolt Loads at an Angle to Grain:

The bolt forces in the bottom chord are at an angle of 30° to the grain direction.

NOTE:
This shows the importance of the exploded view showing there is a component of bolt force
perpendicular to the grain.

From Hankinson’s Formula:

Q sk " . Q skp
Qsk " . sin2ș Qskpcos 2ș
Q skș

23 ˜ 8 x 14 ˜ 28
23 ˜ 8 sin 30$  14 ˜ 28. cos 2 30$
2
Qskș 20 ˜ 4 kN

Number of Bolts:

The joint capacity is determined by the lower bolt capacity in the bottom chord. Hence, the critical
connection load will be:
Q VNș = 20.4kN

211
The number (n) of bolts required:
Nj *
n
ijN1k16k17Q sk

Assume k 17 = 1.0

19
n
0.65 x 0.77 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 20.4
n 1.86
say 2 bolts

Number of Rows:

Number of rows of bolts (n a ):

n
na
nr
For 2 rows of bolts:
na =2

Number of bolts / row (n r ):

2
nr 1
2

i.e. nr = 1, 2 rows, with 1 bolt / row

Joint Capacity Check

The joint capacity, in this instance, is controlled by the bolt capacity perpendicular to the grain in the
bottom chord, i.e. Q sk = 20.4kN

Design capacity for joint = ĭN j

= ĭk 1 k 16 k 17 nQ sk
= 0.65 x 0.77 x 1.0. x 1.0 x 2 x 20.4

ĭN j = 20.4kN • N j * so OK

Joint Geometry
To develop full joint capacity the bolts must be located such that end, edge and bolt spacings satisfy the
requirements set by AS 1720.1-1997. These are:

end distance (tension member) 7D 84

end distance (compression member) 5D 60
edge distance 2D 24
spacing (parallel to grain) 5D 60
Spacing (perpendicular to grain) 4D 48

FIGURE 13.12 shows these distances and spacings satisfying the necessary requirements. The dashed
hatched area is within the edge, end and spacing between bolts distances.

212
 FIGURE 13.12: Edge, end and bolt spacings

13.18 Design of Coach Screwed Connections (CƐ.4.5.2)

The coach screw has the hexagon head of a bolt (as do some wood screws) but the shank of a wood
screw as shown in FIGURE 13.13. The pitch of the thread of the coach screw is much coarser than that for
a bolt.

Although the coach screw has a strong resemblance to a screw, for design purposes, it is categorised
with bolts.

13.19 Design of Type 1 Coach Screw Connections

Characteristic capacities for coach screws loaded laterally in shear in side grain can assume the values
given for bolts (C1.4.4.2) provided:

x coach screw diameter is that of its shank not the core diameter (bottom of thread). In critical
loading cases it may be wise to take the core diameter for determination of characteristic
capacities;

x coach screw is fitted with a washer;

x for a two-member joint the thinner member must have a thickness (t t ):

tt • 3D s
where:

x
Ds = shank diameter (mm);
hole for shank:
= (D s +1mm) or (D s +0.1D s ) whichever is lesser;

hole for threaded section: ” core diameter;

depth of hole: • length of screw

x depth of coach screw penetration(t p ) into the second member for various species
groups is given in FIGURE 13.13.

213
 For lesser values of t p reduce load proportionally to decrease in t p , until t p = 4D s ,
after which coach screw is non-load bearing.

FIGURE 13.13: Coach screw depth of penetration and timber thickness

For lateral loads in end grain as shown in FIGURE 13.1(b):

x characteristic capacities must not exceed 60% of values obtained for lateral loads
in side grain.

13.20 Design Capacity of Type 1 Coach Screwed Joints (C˜.4.5.3)

Equation 13.22 gives the design capacity (ĭN j ) for a Type 1 joint containing (n) coach
screws to resist the applied load.

For the strength limit state to be satisfied:

ĭ1 j •1  (13.22)
where:
ĭ1 j ĭk 1 k 13 k 16 k 17 nQ sk (13.23)
and:
N* = Design action due to applied factored loads on
the connection
ĭ = capacity factor
k 13 = 1.0 withdrawal from side grain;
= 0.6 withdrawal from end grain;

k 16 = head fixity factor

= 1.2 for coach screws through rigid side plates;
= 1.0 others;

k 17 = multiple screw factor

n = total number of coach screws resisting applied
load
Qsk = characteristic capacity for a single screw by
Cl.4.4.2.4 and whose innermost member
thickness is taken as t p .

214
13.21 Design of Type 2 Coach Screwed Connections
Typically Type 2 joints result in the connector being subjected to uniaxial tension.

Load response characteristics of the coach screw closely resembles that of screws except
for the extra possible failure mode, i.e.:

x the need for the timber to resist crushing under the washer

Equation 13.24 gives the design capacity (ĭN j ) for a Type 2 joint containing (n) coach
screws. For the strength limit state to be satisfied:

ĭ1 j •1* (13.24)

where: ĭ1Mis the lesser of

ĭN j = Q ĭ1 tc ) (13.25)

Or

ĭ1 j = ĭk 13 Ɛ p .nQ k (13.26)

or where crushing under the washer may occur:

ĭ1 j = ĭk 1 k 7 nf’ pj Q k (13.27)

where:

N* = design action effect due to the application of

factored loads causing tension in the joint;
ĭ = capacity factor;
N = total number of coach screws in joint;
ĭ1 tc = tensile capacity of a single coach screw (Table 4.14)

k 13 = grain orientation factor:

= 1.0 for withdrawal from side grain;
= 0.6 for withdrawal from end grain;

p = depth of screw penetration into the primary

member;

Qk = characteristic capacity (Table 4.13)

k1 = duration of load factor for fasteners;

k7 = length of bearing factor, which for a washer is its

diameter or side length
f’ pj = characteristic bearing capacity of timber in joints;
Aw = effective area of washer for bearing.

Note:
k 1 does not apply to coach screw withdrawal capacity as was the case for screwed and
nailed connections.

Serviceability Requirements for Type 1 Coach Screwed Joints

AS 1720.1-1997 provides no direct guidance regarding coach screw joint deformation.

Since the structural response of the coach screw is closely allied to that of the bolt it is not
unreasonable to assume the contents of C3.3 should also apply.

215
Coach Screwed Joint – Design Example

Because the design methodology described for bolted joints applies to coach screwed joints no design
example is considered necessary.

13.22 Dowelled Connections

As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter only dowelled connectors have been discussed.
Dowelled connectors were defined as those with a circular cross-section, e.g. nails, screws and bolts.

There is, however, another connector which is called a dowel. Its structural response is similar to that of
a bolt and is best described as a bolt with no head and no thread for a nut.

The main use of the dowel is in the incorporation of steel fin plates in truss joint design where the end of
the timber member is slotted to fit over the steel projection. The dowels are driven into tight fitting holes
drilled through the timber and steel. Since the design methodology applied to bolts can be applied to dowels
no further discussion is considered warranted.

13.23 Photographs
Appendix A13 gives some examples of joints designed to interconnect timber members. It should be noted
not all of these connections display the ideal means of member jointing. In fact it is hoped they convey a
range of images, i.e. from a virtual total lack of connectivity, through aesthetically displeasing, to interesting,
functional and challenging. Since “beauty is said to be in the eye of the beholder” it is left to the reader to do
their own categorization of the connections. However, in so doing it is further hoped something is gleaned
from the exercise.

216
REFERENCES CITED:

1. AS 1720.1-1997, Timber Structures, Part 1 : Design Methods.

2. Limit States Timber Design to AS 1720.1-1997 : An introduction to Member Sizing using the
Australian Limit State Design Code. Boughton, G.N. and Crews, K.I. Standards Australia, 1998.

3. Nailed Joints in wood Structures, Ehlbeck, J. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia, USA, 1979.

4. Timber Joint Design – 3, Bolts, Coach Screws and Timber Connectors, National Association of
Forest Industries, 1989.

5. AS/NZS 1170.0:2002, Structural Design Action.

6. Developments in the Design of Timber Joints, Hilson, B.O. and Whale, L.R.J. The Structural
Engineer. Volume 68/No.8, 1990.

7. Fastenings, Soltis, L.A. Chapter 7, Source unknown.

8. Multiple Fastener Timber Connections with Dowel Type Fasteners, Jorrisen, A. Proc. of Pacific
Timber Engineering Conference, Rotorua, N.Z., 1999.

9. Design Concepts for Nailed and Screwed Joints, Aune, P. Source unknown.

10. Bolted Wood – Joint Yield Model, McLain, T.E. and Thangjitham, S. Journal of Structural
Engineering, Vol. 109, No. 8, 1983.

11. Simplified Design of Joints with Dowel – Type Fasteners, Blass, H.J. Ehlbeck, J. and Rouger, F.
Proc. of Pacific Timber Engineering Conference, Rotorua, N.Z., 1999.

12. Review of Current Structural Timber Jointing Methods – an Architectural Perspective,

Charleston, A.W. and Patience, D.B., School of Architecture, Victoria University of Wellington, New
Zealand Timber Design Journal, Issue 3, Vol. 2, 1993.

217
A13 Chapter 13 Appendix

CONNECTIONS

Plate 1

Plate 2

218
Plate 3

Plate 4

219
Plate 5

Plate 6

220
Plate 7

Plate 8

221
 Part Five
M i s c e l l a ne o us T o pi c s
Noise Control

Condensation and Thermal Transmission

Resistance to Fire Decay and Bugs

Finishing

222
14 Noise Control
14.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to provide designers, conveniently located under one cover, with some
fundamental information on sound and its unwelcome by-product noise. This is considered important
because noise (or its control) has become a major issue as we are confronted, on a daily basis, with closer
living conditions which alone poses many problems and traffic noise, to mention just two of the main
contributors.

In this chapter noise assumes the non-technical definition, i.e. of being those sounds found to be
obnoxious to the ear of the recipient. Such sounds may take many forms including the children’s choice
of music, those from being located in the flight path of aeroplanes or from traffic on a busy road to squeaky
floors and other structure borne noises due to impact or vibration.

This chapter does not pretend to offer designers a solution to all of their noise problems but rather to
make them more aware of their existence and a little better equipped to deal with them.

14.2 Nature of Sound

A sound source transmits the associated noise in wave form, analogous to the way in which a pebble
dropped into a still pond of water, propagates waves.

Hence, sound presents itself as a pressure wave i.e. as a form of mechanical energy. To reduce the effect
of the noise source it is necessary to convert the energy of the wave to another form, e.g. heat energy by
making it work.

The human ear detects sound as variations in air pressure which are measured in units of micro
2
Newtons/metre (µN/m ) or micro Pascals (µPa).

The amplitude (loudness) of sound pressures registered by the human ear vary from 20 to 200 million
µPa which is within the frequency range of 20 to 20,000 Hz. Because of this wide pressure range it is
measured on a logarithmic scale known as the decibel (dB) scale.

FIGURE 14.1 gives a scale of sounds commonly encountered, together with approximate dB values.

(dB)
Threshold of pain — 140
90 — Jet aeroplane at 300m altitude
Highway traffic at 30m — 75
50 —Quiet restaurant
Residential area at night — 40
20 —Rustling of leaves
0 —Threshold of hearing
FIGURE 14.1: Decibel scale

223
14.3 The “A – Weighted” Decibel (dBA)
Because the human ear is not equally sensitive to all frequencies highway traffic noise is
measured using an “A-Weighted” approach. A-weighting emphasizes sound within the
frequency range 1000 to 6300Hz and de-emphasizes sounds above and below these values.

14.4 Sound Pressure Level (SPL)

The SPL converts the sound pressure (energy) presented on a logarithmic scale to
decibels (dB) given by Equations 14.1 and 14.2.

In terms of pressure:
§ p ·
10.log10 ¨¨ ¸
2

¸
© p ref ¹
SPL (14.1)

where:
p = sound pressure;
p ref = reference sound pressure of 20µPa

Sound energy is related to SPL thus:

§ p ·
¨ ¸ =10 (spl-10)
2

¨p ¸
© ref ¹
(14.2)

Because decibels are represented on a logarithmic scale they cannot be added

algebraically. For example, say a source produces 50dB at a receiver and an additional
50dB was added to the source their combined SPL would not be 100dB at the receiver, but
53dB. How this result was arrived at will be discussed in some detail in Section 14.8.

14.5 Transmission Loss (TL)

Transmission Loss is the ability of a material to reduce or resist the transmission of sound
by absorption as shown in FIGURE 14.2.

FIGURE 14.2: Sound response on meeting a barrier

224
The absorption process of a single leaf panel is a function of:

x panel mass/m ;
2

x panel bending stiffness (or better its lack thereof);

x frequency of the sound source;

For a sound source of a given frequency, randomly incident to the panel, the transmission
loss is:
TL = 20 log (M.f) – 47.2dB (14.3)
where:
2
M = mass of panel in kg/m ;
f = frequency of source;

The relationship of Equation 14.3 is known as the Mass Law. From Equation 14.3:

20 log 2 = 6 i.e.

x doubling the mass increases TL by 6dB;

x doubling the frequency increases TL by 6dB.

The consequence of the influence of frequency response on TL for a single leaf partition is
shown in FIGURE 14.3.

FIGURE 14.3: Shows various regions of performance for single leaf partition

14.6 Sound Transmission Reduction – Airborne & Impact

It can be seen from FIGURE 14.3, because of the variation in magnitude of Transmission
Loss (TL) with frequency, difficulties are presented in the assigning of a single number
rating to characterise the TL of the partition. However, a single number rating is desirable
and the Sound Transmission Class (STC) used in Multi-Residential Timber Framed
Construction 2, was to be such a number. The STC was a type of average value of TL over
the range of frequencies.

The STC was limited in that it only applied to walls insulating against speech, i.e. airborne
sound, or similar sound sources. STC was not really suited for external wall systems and
even for some internal sound sources.

The STC concept was replaced by the Weighted Sound Reduction Index (R w ) for sound
insulation against airborne and impact noise on walls and floors separating sole occupancy
units. R w better accounted for the low frequency regime of the sound frequency
distribution than did the STC.

225
With structure borne sounds, i.e. impact and vibration the Impact Isolation Class (IIC) applies to floor
construction, and is a single number rating the effectiveness of a floor system in providing insulation
against impact noise such as footsteps.

The IIC system of impact rating has now been replaced by the Weighted Standardised Impact Sound
Pressure Level (L nt.w ).

Because building product information from some sources (includes Multi-Residential Timber Framed
Construction MRTFC 2) is still quoted in IIC the following relationship has been devised by the Association of
Australian Acoustical Consultants to allow conversion.

L nt.w = 110 – IIC

The effect of holes, openings, and gaps will significantly downgrade the acoustic performance a wall.
Even small air gaps between panels affect performance. Doors and windows (both closed) incorporated in a
wall system change its insulation rating quite dramatically.

14.7 Subtraction and Addition of Decibels

Subtraction:

When noise passes through a barrier, e.g. a plywood sound barrier, a transmission loss results. Assume
the sound source to be a truck producing 70dBA and the plywood barrier results in a transmission loss of
21dBA then the noise received through the barrier is the algebraic difference:

70 – 21 = 46 dBA
Addition:

Decibels cannot be added algebraically. Addition of decibels requires the use of TABLE 14.1.

For combining two decibel levels of sound with random frequency characteristics
Difference between levels (dB) Amount to be added to higher level (dB)
0 or <1 3.0
1 2.5
2 2.1
3 1.8
4 1.5
5 1.2
6 1.0
7 0.8
8 0.6
9 0.5
10 0.4
>10 0.0
TABLE 14.1 : Addition of (dB’s) to be added for various (dB) differences

As an example consider a person being exposed to a sound pressure level of 90dB from one source and
88dB from another source.

The resultant total sound pressure is not the algebraic sum, i.e. (90 + 88 = 178dB).

To find the combined sources intensity subtract the smaller value from the larger to give:

90 – 88 = 2dB

From TABLE 14.1, the difference of 2dB (left column) results in 2.1dB being added to the higher value, i.e.

90 + 2.1 = 92.1dB

Rounded to the nearest whole dB ¼92dB

226
When it is required to add more than two sound sources they must be arranged in numerically increasing
order.

For example, to add: 88dB, 89dB, 84dB and 86dB.

Arranging in numerically increasing order: 84, 86, 88, 89

For: 84 + 86
= difference of 2dB.

From TABLE 14.1, 2.1 dB is to be added to 86 to give 88.1dB.

i.e. 88.1 rounded to 88dB.

Add 88 to 88dB giving a difference of 0.

From TABLE 14.1, 3 dB is to be added to 88 to give 91dB.

Add 89 to 91dB giving a difference of 2

From TABLE 14.1, 2.1 dB is to be added to 91 to give 93.1dB.

i.e. 93.1 rounded to 93dB

14.8 Sound Barriers (from Ref. 1) - Design Example

There are two designs to reduce traffic noise into a home. FIGURE 14.4 shows the sound paths for
diffraction and transmission.

One consists of a solid filled concrete block wall giving a sound reduction of 35dBA.

The other is 25mm thick timber giving a TL of 21dBA. Intuitively this may suggest the block structure
would give the best result.

FIGURE 14.4: Sound paths

Sound Barriers – Worked Example

Noise is received at the house, mainly by two paths.

x diffracted rays over the walls;

x transmitted through the wall.

Diffraction can be attributed to a reduction of 10-12dBA, maximum. In this case take 12dBA.

227
For a truck noise of 70dBA - Solid Block Wall

Due to transmission:
70 – 35 = 35dba
By diffraction:
70 – 12 = 58dBA
Adding:
58 – 35 = 23dBA> 10 so +0.

Noise received = 58dBA

Timber Wall

Due to transmission
70 – 21 = 49dBA
By diffraction:
70 – 12 = 58dBA
Adding
58 – 49 = 9dBA so + 0.5
= 58.5dBA

Rounding could go either way. Going down:

Noise received = 58dBA

Hence, no additional benefits are gained by using a material having a higher acoustic performance than
25mm thick timber.

14.9 Noise in Buildings

Identifying potential noise sources at the design stage of a building is imperative since remedial work can be
very costly and inconvenient to the client.

Noise in buildings can be categorised into two types:

airborne from within from voices, TV’s and radios, from outside from traffic, weather, etc.

structure borne from vibrating machines, impact from footsteps from people walking or running,
moving furniture, etc.

Materials providing adequate insulation against airborne sound may not be so effective against impact.
This is particularly so if the Mass Law is invoked to improve transmission loss.

14.10 Timber Stud Cavity Walls – Airborne Noise

2
The Mass Law shows by doubling the mass/m of a single skin wall contributes to a 6dB increase in TL.
That is, a 10mm thick panel increased to 20mm thick gives an additional 6dB noise reduction. However, if
further 6dB increases are required it can be seen taking the Mass Law approach soon becomes impractical.

If instead of doubling the thickness of the single skin, another identical single skin wall panel is located
beside the first one, but sufficiently separated to render them acoustically independent. This system would
not result in just a 6dB gain but rather it would double the TL of the first panel.

Again, the practicalities of the cavity stud wall construction shown in FIGURE 14.5(a) dictates the sheathing
material must be relatively close together. This results in the gain in TL not even approaching that of the
idealised case due to resonances within the cavity.

228
 FIGURE 14.5: Types of cavity walls

To maximise the insulations contribution within the cavity requires not having a stud wall of the type shown
in FIGURE 14.5 (a). This can be achieved by either staggering or doubling the studs as shown in FIGURE
14.5 (b) and (c).

Resilient steel channels, which are thin steel sections arranged such that when attached to the timber
studs will provide a flexible connection between sheathing and studs, can also be used to enhance TL.

14.11 Floor Insulation

Currently polished timber floors are popular in floor finishes in single dwelling houses and apartments.
However, because of their lack of resilience they pose definite challenges to the designer, particularly with
regard to control of the transmission of footfall noise.

To attain a suitable impact insulation rating for a timber floor, although presenting a considerable
challenge to the designer, should still be attainable with a suitable combination of:

x carpet and underfelt (although not so well performed at low frequencies) over plywood flooring;

x LVL joists;

x suspended ceiling with fibreglass absorber;

x suitable thickness of plasterboard ceiling.

To attain the desired outcome may require the application of new technologies or better use of old ones.

14.12 Conclusion
There is little doubt the control of noise to acceptable levels within the habitable environment of places of
residence, work, entertainment, etc. should be given the same careful consideration as structural aspects.
Whilst this chapter does not pretend to convert the designer into an instant acoustics expert it is hoped it
provides sufficient background to raise the awareness of a very important parameter within the overall design
process.

229
REFERENCES CITED:

1. Acoustics (Section D-4), Hegley, N. N.Z. Timber Industry Federation (Inc), undated. From Timber
Use Manual.

2. Timber – Sound Control, Timber Data File p6, National Association of Forest Industries, 1989.

3. Sound in Buildings, Dodd, G. N.Z. Timber Design Journal, Issue 2, Vol. 4, 1996.

4. Improved Sound barriers Employing Lead, lead Industries Association, 292 Madison Avenue,
New York 17, New York. Undated.

5. Technical Basics No. 2 – Sound Impact Properties of precast Concrete, Knowland, P. and Uno,
P. National Precaster, No. 41, 2006.

6. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Highway Noise barrier Design Handbook, Volpe, J.A.
U.S. Department of Commerce, National Technical Information Service, 2000.

7. Multi-Residential Timber Framed Construction, MRTFC 2, National Association of Forest

Industries, 1995.

8. Survey of Sound Transmission Loss Test Data of Timber-Framed Walls and Partitions, Kaye,
R.H. Davern, W.A., Dubout, P. and Davey, J.L., Division of Construction & Engineering Technical
Report TR88/2, Highett, Victoria, 1988.

9. Building Technology File, Noise & Buildings, Building Innovation & Construction Technology,
1995.

10. Footfall on Floors – Noise Control Guide, McGunnigie, K. Acoustician, BRANZ Accredited
Adviser with Prendos Ltd., Auckland.

11. Building Code of Australia.

230
15 Condensation & Thermal Transmission
15.1 Introduction
The main objective of this chapter is to also provide, under the one cover, some basic information pertaining
to condensation and heat flow in habitable type buildings be they domestic, commercial or industrial.

It is imperative the designer gives due consideration to the question of heat flow and ventilation at an
early stage of the design process. Early attention to such detail will eliminate the need for later, costly
repairs and inconveniences.

Again, the purpose of this chapter is not to attempt to convert readers into being thermo-fluid experts, but
rather to make them more aware of the problems that exist and to assist in their identification and solution.

15.2 Condensation – Causes

Condensation causes mould growth in houses and rot in the timber framing of the house thus threatening
its structural integrity. Thermal insulation, whose function it is to prevent surface condensation, if not
installed correctly, can cause it.

Terms and Definitions

Only those terms and definitions considered relevant to the topic are presented here.

x Dry-bulb temperature – The temperature of the air as registered by an ordinary thermometer (t).

x Wet-bulb temperature – The temperature registered by a thermometer when its bulb is covered by a
wetted wick and is exposed to a current of rapidly moving air (t’).

x Relative humidity – Ratio of the partial pressure of the water vapour in the mixture to the saturated
partial pressure at the dry-bulb temperature, expressed as a percentage.

pw
Rh x 100 (15.1)
ps

Note:
If the air is completely saturated, the partial pressure will be the vapour pressure of water at the dry–bulb
temperature, i.e. at saturation t=t’.

x Dew-point temperature (DP) – Temperature to which air must be reduced in order to cause
condensation of any of its water vapour.

The above terms will be required if the moisture content of timber was to be determined using FIGURE 15.1
Such a situation may arise where, during a wet period, water has ponded under a house without a vapour
barrier. This can cause the underside of the timber floor to take up moisture which in turn can result in
buckling of the floor if the underside is unprotected and the top surface has been coated with say a
polyurethane finish.

15.3 Condensation – An Explanation

Air can retain water as vapour provided the temperature of the air and the amount of water are
compatible. The ratio of the water in the air relative to the amount which the air can hold is by definition
the relative humidity.

Warm air can hold more moisture than cool air. This means if air at a certain temperature is saturated,
this corresponds to 100% humidity. If this air is then cooled water must condense out. This will occur as
a fog of liquid droplets if the air is cooled en mass or as a condensate if cooled in contact with a surface.
The temperature at which some of the moisture condenses as dew is the dew-point temperature.
Problem Areas:

231
In general the problem areas can be classified as:

x high humidity areas, most likely to give problems during the cooling season;
x cold wet climates which would most likely present problems during the heating season.

Vapour Retarders:

Vapour retarders are used extensively under concrete slabs and sheet metal roofs and take the form of
aluminium foil or polyethylene sheet and have high resistance to the flow of water vapour. These type
retarders are placed on the warm side of the building elements, whilst membranes that breathe should be
placed on the cold side.

When these membranes are incorrectly specified and used as insulation or sarking they may contribute
to condensation by stopping water vapour from escaping from high humidity areas.

Condensation Control:

Factors to be taken into account to control condensation are:

x reduce moisture inside the home. This can be done by controlling the output from various sources,
e.g. clothes driers, bathrooms, kitchens, etc. by venting to the outdoors if necessary.

x by using a vapour retarder ground cover under low set houses to prevent moisture reaching the
underside of the floor. Suitable drainage should also be ensured.

x doing regular checks looking for any sign of moisture accumulation.

x noting in general, timber floors do not cool sufficiently, to cause condensation from within the house.

FIGURE 15.1: Equilibrium Moisture Content of Wood as a function of Dry Bulb Temperature, Wet Bulb
Depression and Relative Humidity

232
15.4 Thermal Transmission
Thermal transmission, or more specifically for this section, heat flow through building materials is of prime
importance in this day and age where efficient energy usage is so important. Therefore, it is imperative
architects, engineers and building designers are at least conversant with the topic.

Terms and Definitions

Unit thermal conductivity (k), a fundamental heat transmission property, is a measure of the rate of heat
flow through unit area of a material of unit thickness subjected to a unit temperature gradient.

Thermal conductivity of wood is affected by:

x density – increases with increasing density;

x moisture content – increases with increasing moisture content;

x extractive content – increases with increasing extractive content;

(density and moisture content have the greatest influence)

x grain direction – about the same in the radial and tangential directions but can be about twice this

x natural characteristics – increases with the amount of knots, checks, etc;

along the grain;

x temperature – increases marginally with temperature

The unit of thermal conductivity (k) is the Watt/m°C where:

1 watt = 1 Joule/second or 1 Newton metre/second

Unit thermal conductivity (k) of softwood timbers at 12% moisture content is in the range 0.11 to 0.18
W/m°C compared with 216 for aluminium, 45 for steel and 0.9 for concrete.

Thermal resistivity (R) is the reciprocal of unit thermal conductivity, i.e.

1 $
R m C/W (15.2)
k

Thermal conductivity and thermal resistivity refer to thermal properties of homogeneous

materials of uniform composition and specifically relate to a thickness of 1m of the
material.

Thermal resistance (r) refers to the individual resistances of the barriers encountered
during the transmission from one side to the other of the system of barriers.

The thermal resistance of an individual barrier, i.e. plywood, etc. is obtained thus:

material thickness (metres)

ri
unit thermal conductivity
where: Ti
ki
Ti = thickness of the barrier (m)
ki = unit (1m thick) thermal conductivity (W/m°C)

TABLE 15.1 gives a range of thermal resistances for various thicknesses of softwood
3
plywood having an average density of 550kg/m .

233
 Thermal
Unit Thermal Thermal
Thickness Density Resistivity
3 Conductivity Resistance (r)*
(mm) (kg/m ) R=1/k 2
k(W/m°C) (m °C/W)
(m°C/W)
3 0.02
6 0.05
9 0.07
550 0.13 7.7
12 0.09
18 0.14
25 0.19
* r T(m) RT(m)
k
TABLE 15.1: Thermal resistances for different plywood thicknesses

The total thermal resistance (R t ) is determined by summation of the individual thermal

resistances of the successive thermal barriers.

Hence:
Rt = r 1 + r 2 + r 3 +... (15.3)

The overall co-efficient of heat transfer (U) is given by:

1 $
U W/m 2 C (15.4)
Rt

TABLE 15.2 gives thermal resistivities for a number of common building materials.

3 Thermal Resistivity
Material Density (kg/m )
(m°C/W)
Brickwork 0.87
Concrete 1:2:4 2400 0.69
Concrete (aerated) 480 9.25
Plasterboard 880 5.88
Weatherboard 7.17
Softwood Timber 520 9.06
Hardwood Timber 870 5.30

TABLE 15.2: Thermal resistivities of some common construction

(reproduced from Victoria Appendix, Part F6, Guide to the
Insulation Regulations for Residential Buildings, 1992 Edition)

TABLE 15.3 gives indoor and outdoor surface air resistances for walls, roofs and floors.

Location Surface Surface Resistance

2
(m °C/W)
Walls Outdoor surface air; 0.04
Indoor surface air; 0.12
Roofs Outdoor surface, moving air; 0.03
Outdoor surface, still air; 0.11
Indoor surface. 0.11
Floors Outdoor surface; moving air 3m/s; 0.03
Outdoor surface, air movement 0.5m/s 0.08
Indoor surface. 0.16

TABLE 15.3: Surface resistances for walls, roofs and floors.

(Reproduced from Victoria Appendix, Part F6, Guide to the
Insulation Regulations for Residential Buildings, 1992
Edition)

234
15.5 Thermal Transmission – Design Example
FIGURE 15.2 shows a wall configuration consisting of 90 x 45mm timber framing and EWPAA branded
12mm thick plywood cladding over rigid foam sheathing. Including:

x batt insulation fitted between the studs;

x a vapour barrier nearest the winter warm side to prevent vapour reaching any part of the construction
resulting from a temperature below the dew point;

x plasterboard internal lining which results in an effective method of reducing annual heating or cooling
costs. In this case it is 12mm thick.

It should be noted the vapour barrier provides no significant thermal resistance to the heat flow. Also,
vapour retarders may be omitted from walls in hot humid climates.

A number of foam sheathing types are available, e.g. polystyrene, polyurethane and isocyanurate foams
being the most common. These are available in thicknesses of 19 or 25mm with R values ranging from 0.5 to
1.27 m°C/W.

Reflective Foil Liners can be either single or double sided and result in a reflective air gap, which for
walls has a thermal resistance (r = T / k) of :
2
20mm reflective air gap = 0.58m °C/W
> 20mm reflective air gap
2
= 0.61m °C/W not required – for information only.

FIGURE 15.2: Sample Wall

235
Thermal Transmission – Worked Example

roa   rrf   r vb   ria

Tply Tbatt Tpb
Rt
k ply rbatt rpb
where:

r oa = outdoor surface air resistance;

T ply = thickness of plywood sheathing (m);

r rf = rigid foam resistance;

T batt = batt insulation thickness (m);

r vb = vapour barrier resistance = 0;

T pb = thickness of plasterboard (m);

r ia = inside surface air resistance

0.012 0.095 0.012

Rt = 0.04+ +0.5+ +0+ +0.12
0.13 0.05 0.22
= 0.04+0.092+0.5+1.9+0+0.05+0.12
Rt = 2.25m2 $ C/W
1 (15.5)
U =
Rt
1
=
2.25

U = 0.44 W/m2 $ C (between studs)

If the heat flow through the studs was being considered r stud = T stud /k timber , which in this
case would be 0.09/0.13 = 0.69, would have to be included in the calculation for R t .

The Building Code of Australia (BCA) – Part J1, Building Fabric provides guidelines for
minimum R – values for the various climate zones for:

x various roof and ceiling types;

x walls of various construction;
x floors of timber and concrete construction.

For a comprehensive treatment of floor insulation the reader is referred to the publication:

“Insulation Solutions to enhance the Thermal resistance of Suspended

Timber Floor System in Australia”

and for more details on availability see Reference 7.

15.6 Conclusion
The information contained in this chapter is not meant to be exhaustive, but rather,
informative. Where the designer has any doubt as to the likely outcome of the choice of the
insulation components constituting a barrier professional help should be sought. Recognition
of potential problems and implementing the correct steps towards their solution is a
fundamental part of the design process. Hence, the age old truism A LITTLE KNOWLEDGE
CAN BE DANGEROUS should forever be uppermost in ones mind.

236
REFERENCES CITED:

1. Condensation, CSIRO Building Technology file, 1995.

2. Condensation Causes and Control, APA The Engineered Wood Products Association, 1997.

3. Modern Air Conditioning Heating and Ventilating Carrier, W.H., Cherne, R.E., Grant, W.A., and
Roberts, W.H., Pitman, 1959.

4. Guide to the Insulation Regulations for Residential Buildings, BCA Victoria Appendix – Part 6,
1992.

5. Energy Efficient Design : theory and the real world, Task 3 – Lightweight Construction and the
Victorian thermal Insulation Regulations and Vichers, Williamson, T., Coldicut, S., Bennets, H., and
Rees, J., The University of Adelaide, 1995.

6. BCA 2007, Class 2 to Class 9 Buildings, Volume One.

7. Insulation Solutions to Enhance the Thermal Resistance of Suspended Timber Floor Systems
in Australia, Williamson, T., and Beauchamp, B., for Forest & Wood Products Research &
Development Corporation. Project No. PN05, 1014. Web:www.fwprdc.org.au

237
16 Resistance to Fire, Decay and Bugs
16.1 Fire & Wood
Three components are required for a fire, i.e. fuel, heat and oxygen. This knowledge is essential when
considering containment which requires eliminating one of these three components from the other two. That
is, to extinguish the fire requires removing:

x heat by wetting;
x fuel by eliminating the source;
x oxygen by smothering the fire.

Wood is composed of a mixture of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin bound together in a complex network.
Heating wood above 280qC causes decomposition or pyrolysis converting it to gases, tar and charcoal. At
temperatures above 280qC the gases will flame vigorously but the charcoal requires temperatures of about
500qC for its consumption. A build-up of char tends to protect the unburnt wood from rapid pyrolysis. The
unburnt timber, being a good insulator, results in the timber close to the char edge being unaffected by the
fire. FIGURE 16.1 shows a schematic representation of burning wood.

FIGURE 16.1: Zones of burning wood

16.2 Fire Hazard Properties – Test Methods

The most dangerous period with regards to human safety is usually at the initial stages of the fire prior to
flashover. Hence the need for provisions in the BCA which limit the spread of fire and the development of
smoke until the building occupants have time to evacuate. Tests have been developed which simulate a
fire in a building or are done on test specimen to facilitate the generation of relevant design data.

AS 1530 Part 3
Early fire hazard tests to AS 1530 Part 3 (which has now been superseded by ISO 9239.1, ISO 9705 and
AS/NZS 3837 see FIGURE 16.2) were performed to assess the surface burning characteristics of
materials. The data generated through these tests is still valid for sarking type materials, i.e. reflective
foil or other flexible membranes for waterproofing, vapour proofing or thermal reflectance in Class (2) to (9)
buildings. However, it does not apply to:

x floor materials and floor coverings;

x wall and ceiling linings fire hazard properties.

The test sample parameters quantified in the AS 1530 Part 3 test are:

x
x
tendency to ignite through assigning an ignitability index;

x
tendency to propagate flame through assigning a spread of flame index;

x
ability to release heat once ignited through assigning a heat evolved index;
tendency to produce smoke while burning through assigning a smoke developed index

238
The early fire hazard test indices are scaled according to their performance from best 0 to worst 10. The
two most important parameters, i.e. spread of flame index and smoke developed index are given in
Table 16.6 for a number of plywood species.

In Class 2 to 9 buildings sarking type materials must have fire hazard properties thus:

x flammability index ”5;

In the case of other materials:

x spread of flame index ”9;

x smoke developed index ”8 if spread of flame index is ”5.

ISO 9239.1
This test applies specifically to floor materials and floor coverings and is summarised in FIGURE 16.2. The
2
test results in the material being assigned a number (in kW/m ) based on its critical radiant flux. The test
also allows the smoke development rate to be determined and must not exceed 750 percent – minutes
when a sprinkler system has not been installed.

The critical radiant flux is an indication of the amount of heat flux required to be applied to a material to
cause a small flame to ignite it.

TABLE 16.1 of BCA Specification C1.10(a) sets out critical radiant flux values for buildings with and
without sprinkler systems.

General
Building not fitted with Building fitted with Fire-
Class of building a sprinkler system a sprinkler system Isolated
complying with complying with Exits
Specification E1.5 Specification E1.5
Class 2,3,5,6,7,8 or 9b, Excluding 2.2 1.2 2.2
accommodation for the aged
Class 3, Accommodation for the aged 4.5 2.2 4.5

Class 9a,Patient care areas 4.5 2.2 4.5

Class 9a, Areas other than patient care 2.2 1.2 4.5
areas

Class 9c, Residential use areas - 2.2 4.5

Class 9c, Areas other than residential - 1.2 4.5

use areas

2
TABLE 16.1: Critical Radiant Flux (CRF in kW/M ) of Floor Materials and Floor Coverings

239
 FLOOR AND WALL AND CEILING COVERING AND LINING TESTS
AS/NZS 1530.3 were the tests performed to determine fire hazard properties for floor materials and coverings and also for wall and ceiling linings.

FIGURE 16.2: Summary of Floor, Wall and Ceiling Fire Tests

240
ISO 9705 AND AS/NZS 3837
These tests apply specifically to wall and ceiling linings and are summarised in FIGURE 16.2. The main
outcome of the tests is to assign a Material Group Number. Once tested the material will fall into 1 of 4
groups as listed in TABLE 16.2. The tests also assign smoke production numbers which are of
consequence when no sprinkler system has been installed.

Material Group Description

Number
Group 1 Materials that do not reach flashover following exposure to 300kW for 600 seconds, after
not reaching flashover when exposed to 100kW for 600 seconds.
Group 2 Materials that do reach flashover after exposure to 300kW for 600 seconds, after not
reaching flashover when exposed to 100kW for 600 seconds.
Group 3 Materials that reach flashover in more than 120 seconds but less than 600 seconds after
exposure to 100kW.
Group 4 Materials that reach flashover in less than 120 seconds after exposure to 100kW.
TABLE 16.2: Material Group Numbers

Group 1 materials are suitable for the most stringent fire hazard requirements whilst Group 4 do not
meet the requirements for lining materials for walls and ceilings.

TABLE 16.3 of BCA Specification C1.10(a) gives Deemed-to-Satisfy Provision for wall and ceiling lining
materials, in terms of Material Group Numbers, for sprinklered and unsprinklered buildings.

Deemed-to-Satisfy
Fire-isolated Public corridors Specific areas Other areas
Class of exits
Wall Ceiling Wall Ceiling
building Wall/ceiling Wall/ceiling
Class 2 or 3, Excluding accommodation for the aged, people with disabilities, and children

Unsprinklered 1 1,2 1,2 1,2,3 1,2,3 1,2,3

Sprinklered 1 1,2,3 1,2,3 1,2,3 1,2,3 1,2,3
Class 3 or 9a, Accommodation for the aged, people with disabilities, children and health-care buildings

Unsprinklered 1 1 1 1,2 1,2 1,2,3

Sprinklered 1 1,2 1,2 1,2,3 1,2,3 1,2,3
Class 5,6,7,8 or 9b schools

Unsprinklered 1 1,2 1,2 1,2,3 1,2 1,2,3

Sprinklered 1 1,2,3 1,2,3 1,2,3 1,2,3 1,2,3
Class 9b other than schools

Unsprinklered 1 1 1 1,2 1,2 1,2,3

Sprinklered 1 1,2 1,2 1,2,3 1,2,3 1,2,3
Class 9c

Sprinklered 1 1,2 1,2 1,2,3 1,2,3 1,2,3

For the purpose of this Table:
1. “Sprinklered” means a building fitted with a sprinkler system complying with Specification E1.5.
2. “Specific areas” means within:
(a) for Class 2 and 3 buildings, a sole-occupancy unit.
(b) for Class 5 buildings, open plan offices with a minimum floor dimension/floor to ceiling height ratio >5.
(c) for Class 6 buildings, shops or other building with a minimum floor dimension/floor to ceiling height ratio >5.
(d) for Class 9a health-care buildings, patient care areas.
(e) for Class 9b theatres and halls, etc. an auditorium.
(f) for Class 9b schools, a classroom
(g) for Class 9c aged care buildings, resident use areas.

TABLE 16.3: Wall and Ceiling Lining Materials (Material Groups Permitted)

241
Specific Areas – Example

Consider an open plan office area having floor dimensions of 18m x 20m and a floor to ceiling height of
3m. Since the minimum floor dimension (18m) divided by the ceiling height (3m) is greater than 5 (6 in
fact), the area is a specific area. Hence, the ceiling linings in this area would need to comply with the
requirements for Class 5 buildings.

BCA Building Classes

The various classes of buildings are described in the Part A3 of the BCA 2007 document, and are copied here
for convenience :

Class Definition

A single dwelling being –

Class 1a (i) A detached house; or
(ii) One of a group of 2 or more attached dwellings, each being a building, separated by a fire resisting
wall, including a row house, terrace house, town house or villa unit.

A boarding house, guest house, hostel or the like –

2
Class 1b (i) with a total area of all floors not exceeding 300 m measured over the enclosing walls of the Class 1b;
and
(ii) in which not more than 12 persons would ordinarily be resident.

Class 2 A building containing 2 or more sole-occupancy units each being a separate dwelling.

A residential building, other than a building of Class 1 or 2, which is a common place of long term or
transient living for a number of unrelated persons, including –
(a) a boarding house, guest house, hostel, lodging house or backpackers accommodation; or
Class 3 (b) a residential part of a hotel or motel; or
(c) a residential part of a school; or
(d) accommodation for the aged, children or people with disabilities; or
(e) a residential part of a health-care building with accommodates members of staff; or
(f) a residential part of a detention centred.

Class 4 A dwelling or building that is class 5, 6, 7,8, or 9 if it is the only dwelling in the building

Class 5 An office building used for professional or commercial purposes, excluding buildings of class 6, 7, 8, or
9.

A shop or other public building for the sale of goods by retail or the supply of services direct to the
public, including-
Class 6 (a) an eating room, café, restaurant, milk or soft drink bar; or
(b) a dining room, bar, shop or kiosk part of a hotel or motel; or
(c) market or sale room, show room or service station

Class 7a A building which is a car park

Class 7b A building which is for storage, or display of gods or produce for sale by wholesale

Class 8 A laboratory or a building in which a handcraft or process for the production, assembling, altering,
repairing, packing, finishing, or cleaning of goods or produce is carried on for trade sale or gain

Class 9a A building of a public nature that is a health care building, including those parts of a building set aside as
a laboratory

Class 9b An assembly building, including a trade workshop, laboratory or the like in a primary or secondary
school, but excluding any other parts of the building that are of another class

Class 9c An aged care building

Class 10a A non-habitable building being a private garage, carport, shed, or the like

Class10b A structure being a fence, mast, antenna, retaining or free standing wall, swimming pool, or the like

242
General Information
Design of structures for fire resistance can pose difficulties for the uninitiated, and with the new approach
contained in the BCA, initially for the initiated.

It is necessary for the Designer to be familiar with the section on Fire Resistance given in the BCA. It is
hoped the contents of this chapter will aid in the application of the BCA requirements, which in order to satisfy
them it is necessary to:

x comply with the Deemed to Satisfy provisions, i.e. sections in the BCA listing ways to satisfy

x
performance criteria;
formulate an alternative solution that:
o complies with the performance criteria, or
o is shown to be at least equivalent to the Deemed to Satisfy provision.

The following lists the relevant sections of the BCA regarding fire resistance.

Reference Description

Part A3 BCA Building Classes

Section C Deemed to Satisfy provisions regarding fire resistance and stability

Section C1.10 Deemed to Satisfy provisions for Fire Hazard Properties of Materials

Specification C1.10 Deemed to Satisfy requirements for materials other than floors, walls and ceilings

Specification C1.10a Deemed to Satisfy requirements for floors, walls and ceilings

The first time designers in the area of fire resistance should also refer to the document:

EWPAA : Fire Resistance

Class 2 and 9 Buildings

Because of the way in which buildings have been categorised, Class 2 to 9 structures demand the most
stringent fire resisting characteristics of materials used in their construction.

Such buildings may have a wide variety of unrelated occupants or provide storage for flammable
materials of various types.

Therefore, materials used in the construction of floors, walls and ceiling linings for these buildings must have
a certain minimum capability regarding resistance to the spread of fire and the development of smoke.

Class 1 and 10 Buildings

Class 1 buildings can generally be classed as detached residential dwellings or two or more attached
buildings separated by a fire resisting wall. This is a very different occupancy to that described for
Class 2 to 9 buildings and as such also rates a separate volume (Volume 2) by the BCA which cannot be
covered in any detail herein.

An important aspect of fire safety with regards to Class 1 buildilngs is the incorporation of a separating
wall (party wall). This must have a Fire Resistance Level (FRL) of not less than 60/60/60 for its
separation of Class 1 from Class 1 or Class 1 from Class 10 buildings.

P2.3.1 from Volume 2 of the BCA regarding Protection from Spread of Fire states:

A Class 1 building must be protected from the spread of fire from:

243
 x another building by not less than 1.8m other than an associated Class 10 building or a

x
detached part of the same Class 1 buidling;
the allotment boundary by not less than 900mm, other than a boundary adjoinng a road or
public space.

3.7.1.5 regarding Construction of External Walls states:

x The intent of construction is to ensure combustible materials (external and internal) are not
directly exposed to fire at the junction of the wall and non-combustible roof, eaves lining,
guttering and the like.

Bushfire Areas
A Class 1 building constructed in a designated bushfire prone area must be designed and constructed
to reduce the risk of ignition from a bushfire while the fire front passes.

Performance Requirements, P2.3.4 of Volume 2 is satisfied for a Class 1 building located in a designated
bushfire prone area if it is constructed in accordance with:

AS 3959 – Construction of Buildings in Bushfire-Prone Areas.

AS 3959 contains a methodology for assessment of the category of bushfire attack for a site. The
categories are determined by considering:

x
x
predominant vegetation type;

x
distance between the site and the predominant vegetation;
slope of the land between the site and the predominant vegetation

The categories of bushfire attack are low, medium, high and extreme.

States and Territories replace clauses in the BCA stating Acceptable Construction Practice with their
own compliance requirements and are detailed in Part 3.7.4 Bushfire Areas in Volume 2 of the BCA.

16.3 Plywood and LVL Performance

This section provides the most recent data obtained from test results for plywood and LVL (solid wood)
regarding the Building Code of Australia specifications for:

x
x
wall and ceiling lining materials;
flooring materials

Plywood – Wall and Ceiling Linings

Testing done by Warrington Fire Research (Aust) Pty Ltd during 2007 was to AS/NZS 3837:1998, in
conjunction with the prediction method. This resulted in the determination of a material group number
3
and average specific extinction area (m /kg) for veneer timber species given in Table 16.4.

Plywoods constructed from the species of Table 16.4 are suitable for wall and ceiling linings provided
they:

x
x
have a minimum thickness of 6mm;

x
a tongue and groove or square edge profile;
a smooth sanded finish.

244
 Species Species
Ash, Alpine – Eucalyptus delegatensis Gum, Spotted – Corymbia maculata
Ash, Mountain – Eucalyptus regnans Gum, Sugar – Eucalyptus Cladocalyx
Ash, Silvertop – Eucalyptus sieberi Gum, Yellow – Eucalyptus leucoxylon
Beech Myrtle – Nothofagus cunninghamii Ironbark, Grey – Eucalyptus drepanophylla
Blackbutt – Eucalyptus pilularis Ironbark, Red – Eucalyptus sideroxylon
Blackbutt, New England – Eucalyptus andrewsii Jarrah – Eucalyptus marginata
Blackbutt, WA – Eucalyptus pantens Karri – Eucalyptus diversicolor
Blackwood – Acacia melanoxylon Mahogany, Red – Eucalyptus resinifera
Bloodwood Red – Corymbia gummifera Marri – Eucalyptus calophylla
Box, Brush – Lopehostman confertus Merbau – Instia bijuga
Box, Grey – Eucalyptus microcarpa Messmate – Eucalyptus oblique
Box, Grey, Coast – Eucalyptus bosistoana Pine, Baltic – Picea abies
Brownbarrel – Eucalyptus fastigata Pine, Radiata – Pinus Radiata
Gum, Blue, Sydney – Eucalyptus saligna Pine, White Cypress – Callitris glaucophylla
Gum, Blue, Southern (TAS) – Eucalyptus globulus Sheoak, WA – Allocosuarina fraserana
Gum, Blue, Southern (VIC) – Eucalyptus globulus Stringybark, Yellow – Eucalyptus muellerana
Gum, Manna – Eucalyptus viminalis Tallowwood – Eucalyptus microcorys
Gum, Red, River – Eucalyptus camaldulensis Turpentine – Syncarpa glomulifera
Gum, Rose – Eucalyptus grandis Wattle, Silver – Acacia dealbata
Gum, Shining – Eucalyptus nitens
TABLE 16.4 : Suitable veneer species for plywood construction
The timber species listed in Table 16.4 have been tested and achieve the following performance when tested in
accordance with AS/NZS 3837:1998 and using the Method of Kokkala, Thomas and Karisson to calculate Material group
number.
Material Group Number 3
2
Average Extinction area Less than 250m kg

Floor Materials
Tests done by WFRA in accordance with AS ISO 9239.1-2003 resulted in the plywood constructions given
in Table 16.5.

Thickness Performance
Species
(mm) Critical Radiant Heat Flux
2
Pine, Hoop – Araucaria cunninghamii 15 or > Between 2.2 (kW/m ) and Less than 750(%-min)
2
Pine, Radiata – Pinus Radiata 17 or > 4.5 (kW/m )
Pine, Slash – Pinus elliotti 17 or >
(plywoods with no substrate)

TABLE 16.5 : Plywood Flooring

Early Fire Indices – To AS 1530.3

Table 16.6 gives the relevant data regarding early fire hazard tests for both untreated and fire retardant
treated plywood which is no longer acceptable. If fire retardant plywood is desired treatment must be
by impregnation with fire retardant salts and must be certified to show compliance with the building
regulations.

245
 PLYWOOD (UNTREATED)
Face veneer’s Botanical Name Spread of Smoke Report
Common Flame Developed Reference
Name Index Index
(0-10) (0-10)
Australian Red Toona australis 9 9 E.B.S. 5/10/76
Cedar E.4248
Australian Red Toona australis 8 2 E.B.S 5/10/78
Cedar (grooved) E.4250
Blackbean Castanospermum australe 9 3 E.B.S 5/10/78
E.4238
Coachwood Ceratopetalum apetalum 8 2 E.B.S. 5/10/78
E.4235
Hickory Ash Flindersia ifflaiana 8 3 E.B.S. 5/10/78
(grooved) E.4249
Klinkii pine Aurancaria hunsteinii 8 4 E.B.S. 5/10/78
E.4245
Lauan Parashorea Spp. 8 3 E.B.S. 5/10/78
Shorea Spp. E.4244
Meranti Shorea Spp. 8 2 E.B.S. 5/10/78
E.4240
Pacific Maple Shorea Spp. 8 2 E.B.S. 5/10/78
E.4240
Queensland Flindersia brayleyana 8 2 E.B.S. 5/10/78
Maple E.4239
Queensland Endiandra palmerstoni 8 3 E.B.S. 5/10/78
Walnut E.4241
Radiata Pine Pinus radiata 8 2 E.B.S. 5/10/78
E.4237
Radiata Pine Pinus radiata 7 2 E.B.S. 5/10/78
(scorched and brushed surface) E.4246
Sapele Entandrophragma cylindricum 8 2 E.B.S. 5/10/78
E.4243
Silver Ash Flindersia bourjotiana 8 3 E.B.S. 5/10/78
E.4242
Tasmanian Oak Mixture of: 8 2 E.B.S. 5/10/78
Euc. obliqua E.4236
Euc. delegatensis
Euc. regnans
Teak Tectona grandis 8 3 E.B.S. 5/10/78
E.4247
Victorian Ash Mixture of: 8 2
Euc. regnans E.B.S. 5/10/78
Euc. delegatensis

TIMBERS AND PLYWOODS TREATED WITH FIRE RETARDANTS

Timber Species Treatment Spread of Smoke Report
Flame Developed Reference
Index Index
(0-10) (0-10)
Hoop Pine Retardant Impregnated 0 2 (a)
Redwood Surface coated with 3 coats of 0 5 E.B.S. 23/2/79
fire retardant E.4362
Surface coated with 1 coat of
fire retardant 8 4 E.B.S. 23/2/79
E.4361
Western Surface Coated with 3 coats of 0 4 E.B.S. 23/2/79
Red Cedar fire retardant E.4360
Surface coated with 1 coat of 8 4 E.B.S. 23/2/79
fire retardant
Yellow Walnut Retardant impregnated 0 1 (a)

REFERENCES: (a) *’Early Burning Properties of Australian Building Timber’, J. Beesley, J.J. Keogh, A.W. Moulen, Division of Building Research
Technical Paper No. 6 24 pages published by C.S.I.R.O. 1974

The contents of this publication may be reproduced provided acknowledgement is made to the Timber Development Association (N.S.W.) Ltd.
Extracts should not be published without prior reference to T.D.A.

TABLE 16.6: Early Fire Hazard Data for Untreated and Fire Retardant Treated Plywood

246
Results of recent tests organised by the Timber Development Association and done by CSIRO to AS 1530.3
has found four timber species, i.e. White Mahogany, Grey Ironbark, Mountain Grey Gum and Merbau
(Kwila) to have a spread of flame index of zero. These are the first timber species to have a zero spread
of flame index.

Included in this testing program were four plywood species not listed in Table 16.6. These were Blackbutt,
Rose Gum, Spotted Gum, and Hoop Pine. To view the test results derived for the (27) timber species,
including the plywoods go to www.timber.net.au.

16.4 LVL Performance

WFRA Short Form Report (SFR4 1117.2) dated September 26, 2007 confirm timber species tested by
them have attained the stated performance. The tests were done to satisfy the requirements of the
Building Code of Australia specification C1.10a.

Wall and Ceiling Linings

For solid timber (including LVL) the assessed construction was a solid timber wall and ceiling linings
made from the timber species listed in Table 16.4 and:

x
x
being not less than 12mm thick;

x
having a tongue and groove or square edge profile;
a smooth milled surface finish
2
The material group number is (3) and the average extinction area is less than 250m /kg the same as for
plywood of not less than 6mm thickness.

Floor Materials
Solid timber floors (with no substrate) were assessed for solid flooring made from the species listed in
Table 16.7. The flooring material must:

x
x
be not less than 12mm thick;

x
be fixed to structural framing with an air gap under;

x
incorporate a tongue and groove or square profile;
have a smooth milled surface finish

Species Species
Ash, Alpine – Eucalyptus delegatensis Gum, Shining – Eucalyptus nitens
Ash, Mountain – Eucalyptus regnans Pine, Celery-top – Phyllocladus asplenifolius
Gum, Blue, Sydney – Eucalyptus saligna Stringybark, Yellow – Eucalyptus muellerana
Gum, Rose – Eucalyptus grandis

TABLE 16.7 : LVLspecies suitable for 12mm thick flooring (no substrate)

Solid timber floors (no substrate) were assessed for flooring made from the species listed in Table
16.8. The flooring material must:

x
x
be not less than 19mm thick;

x
be fixed to structural framing with an air gap under;

x
incorporate a tongue and groove or square edge profile;
have a smooth milled surface finish

247
 Species Species
Ash, Alpine – Eucalyptus delegatensis Gum, Rose – Eucalyptus grandis
Ash, Mountain – Eucalyptus regnans Gum, Shining – Eucalyptus nitens
Ash, Silvertop – Eucalyptus sieberi Messmate – Eucalyptus oblique
Blackbutt – Eucalyptus pilularis Pine, Celery-top – Phyllocladus asplenifolius
Brownbarrel – Eucalyptus fastigata Pine, Radiata – Pinus Radiata
Gum, Blue, Sydney – Eucalyptus saligna Stringybark, Yellow – Eucalyptus muellerana
Gum, Manna – Eucalyptus viminalis

TABLE 16.8(a)

Species Species
Beech Myrtle – Nothofagus cunninghamii Ironbark, Grey – Eucalyptus drepanophylla
Blackbutt, New England – Eucalyptus andrewsii Ironbark, Red – Eucalyptus sideroxylon
Blackwood – Acacia melanoxylon Jarrah – Eucalyptus marginata
Bloodwood Red – Corymbia gummifera Karri – Eucalyptus diversicolor
Box, Brush – Lopehostman confertus Mahogany, Red – Eucalyptus resinifera
Box, Grey – Eucalyptus microcarpa Merbau – Instia bijuga
Gum, Blue, Southern (TAS) – Eucalyptus globulus Pine, Baltic – Picea abies
Gum, Blue, Southern (VIC) – Eucalyptus globulus Pine, White Cypress – Callitris glaucophylla
Gum, Red, River – Eucalyptus camaldulensis Tallowwood – Eucalyptus microcorys
Gum, Spotted – Corymbia maculata Turpentine – Syncarpa glomulifera
Gum, Sugar – Eucalyptus Cladocalyx Wattle, Silver – Acacia dealbata
Gum, Yellow – Eucalyptus leucoxylon

TABLE 16.8(b) LVL species suitable for 19mm thick flooring (no substrate)

Solid timber floors (with substrate) were assessed from flooring made from the species listed in Table
16.8(a) and (b). The flooring material must:

x
x
be not less than 12mm thick;

x
be fixed to a substrate listed in Table 16.9 with PVA adhesive;

x
incorporate a tongue and groove or square edge profile;
have a smooth milled surface finish

Substrate Specification Thickness (mm)

3
Particleboard 716kg/m not less than 19
Fibre cement Not less than 15mm
Normal weight concrete floor Not less than 75mm
Lightweight concrete floor Not less than 75mm

TABLE 16.9 : Substrates for LVL flooring

Critical Radiant Heat Flux for LVL

The timber species listed in Table 16.10 achieve the stated performance when tested in accordance with
AS ISO 9239.1-2003.

248
 Performance
Flooring Minimum Applicable Smoke
Construction Thickness Species Critical Radiant Heat Flux Development
Rate
LVL Table 16.6(a)
2 2
(Substrates in 12mm and Between 2.2(kW/m ) and 4.5 (kW/m )
Table 16.9) Table 16.6(b)
2
Between 2.2(kW/m )
12mm Table 16.5 2
and 4.5(kW/m )
LVL 2
Between 2.2(kW/m )
(No substrate) 19mm Table 16.5 2 Less than 750
and 4.5(kW/m )
2 (%-min)
19mm Table 16.6 More than 4.5(kW/m )

TABLE 16.10 : critical Radiant Heat Flux for LVL Flooring

NOTE: Many of the timber species listed in Tables 16.4 through 16.8 are not used to manufacture plywood or
LVL. Therefore, the Designer must check with the manufacturer before specifying a particular species as a
wall and ceiling lining or as flooring.

16.5 Resistance to Fire

Fire Resistance is the ability of a building component to resist a fully developed fire,
while still performing its structural function. Fire resistance levels (FRL) are assigned
as performance criteria, in minutes, for structural adequacy, integrity and insulation.
This important parameter is defined by three numbers, e.g. 30/30/30 for which the:

x first number relates to structural stability, i.e. the time to elapse before collapse;

x second number is an integrity requirement, i.e. flames must not pass through the
component for this number of minutes;

x third number is an insulation value, i.e. limits heat transfer through the component.

Plywood is quite acceptable as a material used in fire resistant components provided it is

combined with other materials so as to meet the fire resistant requirements. This can be
achieved by combining plywood with non-combustible materials such as fibrous cement
or fire grade plasterboard. The FRL rating is evaluated in a Standard Fire Test as specified
in AS 1530.4.

LVL beam or column components can be assessed for fire resistance levels as per the
requirements of AS 1720.4 Timber Structures – Fire-resistance of structural timber
members. To ascertain the retained load carrying capabilities of a structural element is
done through a fire resistance test. This assesses how long a component can continue
to perform when exposed to a fire. This ability is measured in terms of the elapsed time to
failure.

When establishing the Fire Resistance Level (FRL) of structural untreated wood and wood
based products the charring rate of the surface is very important. As previously mentioned
charring produces a protective layer which slows down the charring process. The unburnt
timber can then be used in calculations to determine the structural integrity of the load
bearing member.

16.6 Steps in Establishing an FRL

After a protective layer of char has developed the char rate slows considerably. The
charring rate of dry wood has been shown to continue for several hours at a reasonably
constant rate given in AS1720.42006 by:

249
 = GKGW  ȡ
2
c (16.1)

where:

c = dh/dt = notional charring rate (mm/minute);

U
3
= timber density (kg/m ) at a moisture content of 12%.
3
The charring rate of a typical softwood having a density of 500kg/m is
0.76mm/minute. During a fire a realistic assessment of structural response can be
made by neglecting 10mm of unburnt wood and assuming the remainder retains
its full strength and stiffness.

x The effective depth of charring (d c ) for each exposed surface after a period of time (t)
is given by:

dc = ct + 7.5 (16.2)

where:

dc = calculated effective depth of charring (mm);

c = notional charring rate;
t = period of time (minutes)

NOTE:
t can be taken as either the:
(a) time taken for the FRL to be achieved;
(b) fire resistance period determined by a series of successive iterations.

x The effective residual section is determined by subtracting d c from all fire-exposed

surfaces of the timber member as shown in FIGURE 16.3

FIGURE 16.3: Shows loss of section due to charring

x the design loads to be resisted by the structural elements/components are determined

from the application of Clause 4.2.4 and Section 6.1 of AS 1170.0.

x a check of the strength of the residual section is done in accordance with the
requirements of AS 1720.1-1997. The deflection limits can be:

o set by the design engineer

o a maximum of span / 300.

TABLE 16. provides a guide to selecting a minimum beam width for a FRL of 60/-/-,

250
 as expressed in the BCA.

Species Average Density Typical Minimum Width

3
(kg/m ) (mm)
Hardwood 800 100
Softwood 550 140
TABLE 16.11: Minimum beam thicknesses

When determining the strength of the effective residual section take k 1 = 5 hours.

16.7 Other Factors

There are a number of other factors to be considered when assessing the structural
adequacy of a member designed to achieve a desired FPL in accordance with AS 1720.4 –
2006. These are:

Determination of Fire Resistance Period (FRP).

The FRP may be required to:

Ɣ determine a member size to satisfy Building Regulations;

Ɣ check the effective residual section of an existing member against the FRP, i.e.
against for example, 60/-/-.

The FRP is determined by doing a series of successive iterations of time (t). FRP is
reached when the effective residual section can no longer support the design load.

Barrier Junctions
When included in a fire-resisting barrier a timber member has to have allowance made for
the effect the barrier junction has on the effective residual section. This effect is shown in
FIGURE 16.4.

FIGURE 16.4: Charring at junction with fire proof barrier

Protected Timber
Timber members with fire exposed surfaces protected by a fire-resistant insulation results
in the fire resistance for structural adequacy of the timber member being increased. To
quantify this increase AS1720.4 modifies the fire resistance period thus:

251
 Tp = ti + tm
(16.3)

where:
Tp = fire resistance period of a timber member
protected with resistant insulation, in minutes;

ti = fire resistance period appropriate to the protective

insulating systems, in minutes;

tm = fire resistance period of the structural timber member

Note:

Ɣ For protected timber c of Equation 16.1 is multiplied by 1.1;

Ɣ T p of Equation 16.3 is a conservative estimate of the FRP and can be modified if

acceptable test data is available, through reference to manufacturers’ product
catalogues, technical reports and reports on tests performed in accordance with AS
1530.4.

16.8 Fire Protection of Joints with Metal Connectors

There are two possible scenarios in which joints having metal connectors can occur in a fire within a
structure. These are as:

1. Unprotected connectors whereby structural adequacy can be established by test or is

negligible if test data does not exist.

2. Protected connectors which can be achieved by:

Ɣ embedding, which results in the connectors being embedded into the member to a depth
equal to the calculated effective depth of charring as shown in FIGURE 16.5. The resulting
holes must be plugged, using timber, glued into place;

Ɣ cladding which is effected by covering the joint, e.g. a nailed plywood gusseted moment joint,
covered with fire-resistant claddings.

FIGURE 16.5: Fire protected connectors

TABLE 16.1 provides comparative data for fire resistance levels for structural stability between Douglas fir
plywood as published in the Fire Protection Handbook published by the National Fire Protection Association,
USA and radiata pine plywood as published by Carter Holt Harvey in their Technical Note 95/3/14, March,
1995.
252
 Plywood Thickness for:
Rating
Douglas fir Comparable Recommended
(Minutes)
(USA) (mm) CHH Radiata Pine (mm) CHH Radiata Pine (mm)
10 6.4 7 12
15 9.5 12 12
20 12.7 15 17
25 15.9 17 21
30 19 19 25

TABLE 16.12: Fire Resistance Level for Structural Stability for Non-load Bearing Plywood

Closure
The main aim of this revision is to provide the first time designer of fire resistant structures with some
background information and pointers to aid in the plotting of a path through the process.

Also, it is hoped it provides the experienced practitioner with relevant updated fire resistant design data
regarding plywood and LVL. This should allow their use, with confidence, in a wide range of applications.

The ramifications of a fire, be it localised in a kitchen, bedroom, etc. or from a bushfire, can be horrendous. It
is, therefore imperative, the designer provides the occupants with every chance of survival.

16.9 Resistance to Decay

The durability of structural laminated wood veneer products is dependent on the durability of the
adhesive used to bond the veneers and the durability of the timber veneers themselves.

 ’ XUDELO
LW
\ RI W
KH $ GKHVLYH

The Type A phenolic bond, used in structural plywood manufactured to AS/NZS 2269 and structural LVL
manufactured to AS/NZS 4357, will not creep or break-down in applications involving long-term
structural performance and/or extreme long-term exposure to weather, wet or damp conditions. It is a
durable, permanent bond.

The EWPAA tests bond quality of samples obtained from every production shift of
EWPAA manufacturing members. The bond quality test for a Type A bond involves a
72 hour boil of the plywood or LVL sample (or 6 hours steaming at 200 kPa pressure).
The specimen is then chiselled apart along each glueline and the amount of wood fibre
failure evaluated. The quality of the bond is determined from the amount of wood fibre
failure present. More than 50% wood fibre retention by the adhesive after chiselling
indicates the bond is stronger than the surrounding wood fibre, i.e. a good bond has
been achieved. Less than 50% wood fibre retention would indicate a failed bond.

’ XUDELO
LW
\ RI W
KH 7 LP EHU9 HQHHUV

Structural plywood and LVL are predominantly wood products and in addition to the adhesive durability,
the durability of the timber veneers must be considered for each specified application. The majority of
structural plywood and LVL manufactured in Australia and New Zealand is made from radiata, slash or
hoop pine timber species. These pine species have an expected service life of less than 5 years when
used in exposed applications in contact with the ground, if they are not preservative treated or
otherwise protected, (based on CSIRO durability classifications). Their expected service life when not in
ground contact but fully exposed to the weather would be much longer.

As a general rule, structural plywood and LVL used in exposed application will need to be preservative
treated and surface finished to meet the exposure hazard and required service life. Generally, the main
hazards for which structural plywood and structural LVL durability needs to be considered are:

Ɣ decay

253
 Ɣ surface moulds
Ɣ poor detailing

Decay: Decay or rot is caused by fungi. Decay fungi can cause a significant loss in strength of timber.
Decay or rot of timber will not occur unless conditions are favourable for the fungi. The four required
conditions are: a suitable temperature range (5 to 500C), moisture content of the timber approximately
19% or higher, the presence of oxygen, and a food source (eg. starches and sugars in the timber).

Wood which is kept dry with a moisture content below 19% will not be subject to fungal attack.
Occasional wetting during the construction phase or while in service, for example due to wind blown rain,
will not usually require preservative treatment. However, if the plywood or LVL is frequently wetted or
cannot dry out or be kept dry, then the plywood or LVL should be preservative treated to an appropriate
level for the decay hazard and required service life. Note that in applications or locations where high
relative humidity is experienced for extended periods of time, moisture content of the timber may be high
and preservative treatment required. FIGURE 15.1 (Error! Reference source not found.) shows timber
moisture content relative to temperature and humidity.

Surface Moulds: Moulds are a type of fungi whose activities are mainly confined to the wood surface.
When exposed to moisture, untreated or unprotected timber surfaces may develop surface moulds. These
surface moulds require the moisture content of the timber to be about 20 percent or greater and are
more prevalent in warm, humid conditions. Moulds are limited to the surface and can be cleaned off with
bleaches or wood cleaners commercially available. Surface moulds have no significant effect on
structural performance.

The surface mould becomes inactive when the timber dries out (below 20% moisture content), but will
reactivate if the timber is not protected and becomes wet again. Surface moulds can be avoided by
keeping the plywood or LVL dry or alternatively surface finishing the plywood with a coating containing
mouldicides or fungicides.

Typical example of surface mould

Detailing: If it allows moisture to saturate or become trapped in or on timber will cause untreated
timber to decay quickly and will considerably shorten the service life of the timber product. Good detailing
includes details that reduce or prevent the timber from and reduce moisture ingress through end grain.
Where timber will get wet, good detailing should ensure moisture is shed rapidly and that the timber is
able to dry out quickly. If moisture traps exist, preservative treatment to meet the intended service life will
usually be required.

16.10 Resistance to Insect Attack

The main insect destroyers of timber are termites and borers.

Termites are not usually a problem with plywood and LVL provided the application does not involve
ground contact and good building practices have been implemented in the design and construction
stages. Ongoing inspection and maintenance is essential. Where a termite hazard exists, for example, in
applications involving ground contact structural plywood or LVL should be preservative treated to an
appropriate level for the required service life.

254
Borers are rarely a problem with structural plywood or LVL except in the marine environment. The main
land borers which attack seasoned timbers are the lyctid borers, which only attack the sapwood of
some hardwoods, and the anobium borer which attacks both softwoods and hardwoods and is most
commonly a problem in old furniture. In New South Wales and Queensland, lyctid susceptible hardwood
products, from which a purchaser might reasonably expect a long life, must by law be treated against
lyctid borers.

Marine borers found in marine waters, can be highly destructive of timber products. It is advisable to
check with local marine authorities to determine the hazard level in any particular area. Some marine borers
bore holes in the wood for shelter rather than food and do not digest the wood, making it difficult to protect
the wood through chemical treatment. Other marine borers such as the Teredo borers, digest the wood
through which they tunnel and chemical preservative treatments are effective in protecting the timber.

Marine borer damage to a hardwood pylon

Preservative Treatments
Preservative treatment types and preservative retention levels for treatment of structural plywood and
structural LVL are specified in Australian Standard AS/NZS 1604.3 Specification for preservative treatment,
Part 3: Plywood and AS/NZS 1604.4 Specification for preservative treatment Part 4: Laminated Veneer
Lumber (LVL).

AS/NZS 1604.3 and AS/NZS 1604.4 describe six hazard level classifications, denoted by a hazard number
form H1 to H6 as shown in TABLE 16.13. Each hazard level is defined in terms of the expected service
exposure. H6 is the most severe hazard level. Where preservative treatment is required for plywood or
LVL, the appropriate standard and hazard level should be specified. It should be noted that there are several
different methods of incorporating preservative treatment into plywood and LVL products. Preservative
treatment methods for plywood and LVL include:

x
x
impregnation of veneers prior to manufacture,

x
a glueline preservative additive during manufacture,

x
pressure treating of the finished product,
preservative treating surfaces after manufacture.

Veneer preservative treatments preservative treat each individual veneer prior to manufacture and no
further treatment will be required if the plywood or LVL is cut.

A glueline additive is a preservative added to the adhesive prior to bonding of the individual veneers.
The flow of moisture from the glueline into the individual veneers during the hot press phase of
manufacture, carries the preservative into the individual veneers ensuring each individual veneer is
preservative treated. Face veneers have only one associated glueline and thicker face veneers may require
additional preservative treatment, which is typically achieved in the manufacturing process by spraying face
veneers as the product exits the hot press.

Pressure treatment of the finished plywood or LVL results in an “envelope” type treatment. The outer
veneers and ends of the sheet or beam will have been preservative treated but the preservative may not
have penetrated through the gluelines to the inner veneers. If the plywood or LVL is cut after preservative
treating, a paint or preservative treatment should be applied to the cut edge. Where possible, pressure
preservative treatment of the finished product should be done after any machining, sawing and boring.

255
Fasteners: Hot dipped galvanised or stainless steel fasteners are recommended for use with
preservative treated plywood.

256
Hazard Exposure Specific service conditions Biological Typical uses Preservative
Class hazard Treatments
Inside, above Completely protected from the Lyctid Borers Flooring, furniture, CCA, ACQ
H1 ground weather and well ventilated, and interior joinery, wall Synthetic
protected from termites bracing, interior pyrethroids
beams, staircases,
stringers

Inside, above Protected fro wetting. Nil Borers and Flooring, wall CCA, ACQ
H2 ground leaching termites bracing, interior Synthetic
beams, joists, pyrethroids
trusses, staircases
Outside, Subject to periodic moderate Moderate Exterior decking, CCA, ACQ,
H3 above ground wetting and leaching decay, borers Claddings LOSP,
and termites Exterior beams Copper azole,
synthetic
pyrethroids
Outside Subject to severe wetting and Severe decay, Noise barriers at CCA, ACQ,
H4 In-ground leaching borers and ground level, Copper
termites bridges foundation Azole,
structures Creosote
Outside, in- Subject to extreme wetting and Very sever Cooling tower CCA, ACQ,
H5 ground contact leaching and/or where the critical decay, borers structure Creosote
with or in fresh use requires a higher degree of and termites Retaining wall
water protection structures, boat
hulls

Marine Waters Subject to prolonged immersion Marine wood Pontoons, landing CCA,
H6 in sea water borers and steps, boat hulls Creosote
decay

TABLE 16.13: Hazard Class Selection Guide for Preservative Treatments

(from AS1604 Specification for preservative treatment, Part 3: Glued
wood veneer-based products)

257
17 Finishing
17.1 Dry Interior Applications:
Structural plywood and LVL used in dry interior applications can be finished in any finishing products
suitable for wood surfaces. For plywood, A or B quality faces should be specified as a suitable substrate
for high quality interior finishes, stains or paints. An A quality face grade is suitable for clear finishing.

17.2 Exterior Applications

As a general rule all structural plywood and LVL exposed to the weather should be preservative treated
against decay and surface finished to prevent surface breakdown due to weathering.

weathering of unprotected wood surfaces is caused by exposure to sunlight and rain or other moisture
sources and is characterised by a change in colour of the exposed wood surface followed by a gradual
surface degradation. Rain and sunlight cause wetting and drying of the timber surface resulting in
swelling and shrinkage, stressing the wood surface and causing cracks and checks. The leaching and
bleaching of the timber surface from weathering eventually results in the timber surface turning grey. In the
case of plywood and LVL the small peeler checks produced in the back of the veneer during manufacture
become enlarged and break through to the face of the plywood when exposed to continuous wetting and
during cycles. This results in surface checking which allows more moisture to penetrate and can eventually
cause the surface veneers to breakup. All plywood and LVL surfaces should be protected from
weathering to achieve a long service life.

In exterior applications the plywood or LVL surface can be finished by:

x painting
x coating with water repellents
x overlaying with medium density phenolic impregnated papers (plywood only)

Plywoods with an A or B grade face veneer quality are suitable for a high quality paint or stain finish.
Plywood with C or D quality face veneer is not designed to provide a high quality paint substrate.
Plywood cladding products with machined or textured faces are also very suitable for paint or stain finishes.

Where paint systems are required in exterior applications, full acrylic latex paint systems are
recommended for structural plywood and LVL. Acrylic latex paint systems are more flexible than oil
based or alkyd enamel paint systems and better tolerate any expansion and contraction of the timber
substrate due to moisture movement.

Rigid paint systems, including oil based and alkyd enamel paint systems are not recommended for use on
plywood or LVL in weather exposed applications. However, they can be used on medium density
overlaid plywood because the overlay acts to prevent surface checking of the plywood face veneer.

Edge sealing of plywood and end sealing of LVL is considered good practice to minimise moisture uptake
through the end grain and reduce localised swelling and surface checking at the plywood panel edges or LVL
ends.

The back or unexposed face of plywood should be left unsealed if possible to prevent moisture being
trapped within the panel.

Orientation of the plywood or LVL needs to be considered when finishing requirements are being
determined. Horizontal surfaces are more exposed to sunlight and moisture ponding than vertical
surfaces, and consequently present a greater hazard to paint breakdown and surface checking. The hazard
will be increased if the horizontal surface is also subject to traffic.

258
17.3 Durability and Finishing Applications
Dry interior environments
Structural plywood and LVL used in dry interior environments where the plywood and LVL are installed and
kept in the dry condition (moisture content below 15%) will not be subject to the moisture related issues
of weathering, surface mould, or decay. No particular finish or treatment will be required for durability
provided that in termite susceptible areas, good building practices have been implemented including regular
inspection and maintenance.

Exterior exposed above ground

Structural plywood and LVL used in applications exposed to high moisture conditions should be
preservative treated to resist decay and insect attack and surface finished to minimise weathering. Good
detailing should include sealing of the end grain to minimise moisture ingress. Construction details and
installation should allow sufficient space for expansion and contraction of the plywood or LVL due to moisture
content changes.

In ground contact with water

Applications in which plywood or LVL are in contact with ground water for extended periods of time
provide conditions highly conducive to fungal or insect attack. Preservative treatment appropriate to
the hazard level must be specified. Typical applications might include tanks, cooling towers, retaining walls,
foundations etc.

Contact with sea water

Salt from sea water will have no adverse effect on plywood or LVL. The water will cause the wood to swell
as would exposure to moisture. The main durability issue for plywood or LVL in contact with sea water
is marine borers. Preservative treatment to H6 preservative levels will be required where marine borers are
present.

259
18 Revision History
x Added k 1 to the calculation of the bending strength limit state in
Revision Changes Date Who

x Updated stamps and logos to the current versions.

the table.

x Corrected ¨ max equations for Load Case 1 in the Critical Load

x Corrected equations in the table “Design Action Effects on

Action Effects in Section 7.5

Member due to factored loads” and in the “Deflection Criteria –

x Corrected equations in the table “Design Action Effects on

determine minimum required EI” in Section 7.6.

Member due to factored loads” and corrected results in Section

x Corrected “Check Panel Shear Capacity” equation and

7.14.

corrected the “Plywood Webbed Beam Dimensions” drawing in

x Corrcted nail slip equations in Section 8.4

Section 8.3.

x Added Section 8.5 – “Box Beam Portal Joints”.

x Corrected the equation for “A” in Section A8.
x Corrected the case of some symbols and corrected equations in
2 April 2010 MM

x Changed case of some symbols in Section 9.8.

the “Diaphragm Deflection” sub-section of Section 9.49.5.

x Corrcted an equation in Section 9.9.

x Replaced the following images with revisions to clarify various

x Made Photos of Section 10.5 into an Appendix, and clarified

points : Figures 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 11.9, 12.10 and 13.12.

x Corrected equations and results of the “Bending Moment”,

some headings of this section.

“Shear Flow” and “Horizontal Shear” sub-sections in Section

x Section 16 rewritten and updated.

11.6.

x Added information to section 7.10 regarding 17.4 kN/m plywood

bracing sheathed both sides and the restrictions to panel

x Various other equation changes / clarifications and spelling

lengths in these cases.

correctons.

x Initial Release
MM,
1 June 07 JM,
LP

260
 EWPAA Members

Plywood and Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL)

Member Name Location Phone Fax Web
Ausply Pty Ltd. Australia / NSW +612 6922 7274 +612 6922 7824 www.ausply.com
Austral Plywoods Pty Ltd. Australia / QLD +617 3426 8600 +617 3848 0646 www.australply.com.au
Big River Group Pty Ltd. Australia / NSW +612 6644 0900 +612 6643 3328 www.bigrivertimbers.com.au
Boral Hancock Plywood Australia / QLD +617 3432 6500 +617 3281 5293 www.boral.com.au
Brown Wood Panels Australia / SA +618 8294 3877 +618 8294 6871 www.bwp.com.au,
Carter Holt Harvey Woodproducts Australia
Australia / Vic +613 5751 9201 +613 5751 9296 www.chhwoodlogic.com.au
(Plywood) – Myrtleford
Carter Holt Harvey Woodproducts Australia –
Australia / SA +618 8721 2709 www.chhfuturebuild.com
Nangwarry LVL
Wesbeam Australia / WA +618 9306 0400 +618 9306 0444 www.wesbeam.com,
Carter Holt Harvey Woodproducts - Marsden
New Zealand +649 432 8800 +649 432 8830 www.chhfuturebuild.com
Point LVL
Carter Holt Harvey Woodproducts (Plywood) - www.shadowclad.co.nz
New Zealand +647 886 2100 +647 886 0068
Tokoroa www.ecoply.co.nz
Fiji Forest Industries Fiji +679 8811 088 +679 8813 088
IPL (West Coast) Ltd New Zealand +643 762 6759 +643 762 6789
Juken New Zealand Ltd. (Gisborne) New Zealand +646 869 1100 +646 869 1130
Juken New Zealand Ltd. (Wairarapa) New Zealand +646 377 4944 +646 377 1166
Nelson Pine Industries Ltd New Zealand +643 543 8800 +643 543 8890 www.nelsonpine.co.nz
PNG Forest Products Ltd PNG +675 472 4944 +675 472 6017
RH Group (PNG) Ltd PNG +675 325 7677 +675 323 0522 www.rhpng.com.pg
Valebasoga Tropikboards Ltd. Fiji +679 8814 286 +679 8813 848
Wesbeam Australia / WA +618 9306 0400 +618 9306 0444 www.wesbeam.com,

Particleboard and MDF

Member Name Location Phone Fax Web
Alpine MDF Industries Pty Ltd Australia / Vic +613 5721 3522 +613 5721 3588 www.alpinemdf.com.au
Carter Holt Harvey Woodproducts Australia Australia / NSW 1300 658 828 +612 9468 5793 www.chhwoodlogic.com.au
D & R Henderson Pty Ltd Australia / NSW +612 4577 4033 +612 4577 4759 www.drhenderson.com.au
The Laminex Group Australia / Vic +613 9848 4811 +613 9848 8158 www.thelaminexgroup.com.au
Tasmanian Wood Panels (Aust) Australia / TAS +613 9460 7766 +613 9460 7268

Visit the EWPAA Website to get the latest information. www.ewp.asn.au

Visit www.ewp.asn.au/register to ensure your products carry genuine EWPAA certification