VARIABLE LOAD PROBLEMS

Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems

Load Distribution Diagram of a Power Plant:
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Electric Power Substation:
A grouping of electrical equipment through which electric energy is passed for the purpose of
switching or of transforming voltage levels. General classifications includes primary substations
(interconnection between high voltage and medium voltage) and secondary substations
(interconnection between medium and low voltage).
Chronological Load Curve:
a graphical representation of the variation in demand with respect to clock time.
Variation in demand may be due to one or more of the
following factors:
• type of service (residential, industrial, commercial, etc.)
• day of the week
• season of the year
• weather conditions
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Load-Duration Curve:
represents the data of the chronological load curve with the ordinates rearranged in order of decreasing values.
The horizontal distance of any point from the load axis indicates the duration of all loads equal to and greater than
that indicated on the ordinate. The coordinates of any point on the curve are determined by the value of the load,
and the length of the horizontal line at that load level as limited by the chronological load curve.
Load-Energy Curve:
indicates the total energy for a given load and all values less than that load.
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Comparison of Ideal Load and Realized Load:

• Constant magnitude and steady duration • Load varies with time

Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Important Terms and Factors:

1. Load (on a machine or apparatus)

• the power which it delivers.
2. Power
• is the time rate of transferring or transforming energy.
3. Demand (of an installation or system)
• is the load at the receiving terminals averaged over a specified interval of
time.
4. Maximum Demand, MD
• is the greatest demand of loads on the power station during a given period
(say in 24 hrs.). It is also called “Peak Load”. It may be the maximum
instantaneous load or the maximum average load over a designated interval
of time.
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Important Terms and Factors:

5. Base Load, BL
• is the minimum load over a given period of time.
6. Connected Load, CL
• is the sum of all continuous ratings of all utilization equipment in the
consumer premises connected to the supply system.
7. Load Curve
• is a graph used to represent the relationship between the demanded load
and time sequence.
 Monthly Load Curve – is a curve representing the average of the daily load
curves over a one-month period used in establishing rates.
 Annual load curve – is a curve representing the average of the daily load curves
over a one-year period used for annual load factor.
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Example of a monthly load curve:
A comparison of the actual load curves of two towns A and
B of about 4000 population each, situated 45 miles apart,
and having similar community life. Both served by
municipality owned and operated Diesel plants. (Source:
Power Plant Engineering by Frederick T. Morse)
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Important Terms and Factors:
8. Average Load
– is the average of loads occurring on the power station in a given
period (say a day, a month, or minutes).
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦, 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
where:
Total Energy Produced = total area under the curve, kW-hr
Period = length of abscissa under the curve, hrs

Example:
10,620 𝑘𝑊−ℎ𝑟
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
24 ℎ𝑟

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 442 𝑘𝑊

Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Important Terms and Factors:
9. Load Factor
– is the ratio of the average load to the maximum demand during a given
period. peak load = 1040 kW

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = < 1.0
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
where:
Average load = 442 kW
Maximum demand or peak load = 1040 kW

Example:
442 𝑘𝑊
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
1040 𝑘𝑊

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 0.424

Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Important Terms and Factors:
10. Demand Factor
– is the ratio of the maximum demand on the power station to its
connected load.
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
Demand 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = , < 1.0
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠

11. Diversity Factor

– is the ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands of subdivision
systems to the simultaneous maximum demand on the power station.
σ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Diversity 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = , > 1.0
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Important Terms and Factors:
12. Coincidence Factor
– is the reciprocal of diversity factor.
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
Coincidence 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = , < 1.0
σ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
1
Coincidence 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = , < 1.0
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
13. Plant Factor
– is the ratio of the average load on the plant for the period of time
considered, to the aggregate rating of all the generating equipment
installed in the plant.
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = Note: Installed Capacity = Peak Load + Reserved Load
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Important Terms and Factors:
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Important Terms and Factors:
14. Capacity Factor
– is the ratio of the average load on a machine or equipment for the
period of time considered, to the rating of the machine or equipment.
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

15. Plant Use Factor or Plant Output Factor

– is the ratio of the actual energy generated to the product of plant
installed capacity and the number of hours for which the plant was in
operation.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙/𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
Plant 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Important Terms and Factors:
16. Utilization Factor
– is the ratio of the maximum generator demand to the generator
capacity.
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

17. Operating Plant Factor

– is the ratio of the average load for a given period of time to the
operating capacity in actual service only.

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
Operating Plant 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Important Terms and Factors:
18. Operating Load Factor
– is the ratio of the average load for a given period of time to the average
of daily maximum demand during the same period (say for 30 days period
of time).
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑)/30
O𝐿𝐹 = =
(𝑀𝐷1 + 𝑀𝐷2 + 𝑀𝐷3 + ⋯ + 𝑀𝐷30)/30 (𝑀𝐷1 + 𝑀𝐷2 + 𝑀𝐷3 + ⋯ + 𝑀𝐷30)/30

19. Plant Service Factor

– is the ratio of the Plant Capacity Factor to the Plant Use Factor.
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Plant Service 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Important Terms and Factors:
20. Plant Ratio
– is the per annum measure of the plant’s capacity factor. It is the ratio of
the net KWH output for the year to the nameplate capacity of the plant
times the number of hours in a year.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑/𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Plant 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 8760
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Sample Problems:
1. A 24-hr load curve is drawn to scale of 1 cm = 2 hr and 1 cm = 1000
kW. Determine the load factor if the maximum demand is 15,000 kW and
the area under the curve found using a planimeter is 75.60 sq. cm.
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Sample Problems:
2. A central steam power station with a rated capacity of 200 MW generates
962,000 MW-hrs of energy in a year. What is the capacity factor of the
plant?
A. 52% B. 55% C. 48% D. 45%
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Sample Problems:
3. The annual peak load on a 15,000 kW power plant is 10,500 kW. Two
substations are being supplied by this plant. Annual energy dispatched
through substation A is 27,500,000 kW-hrs with a peak at 8900 kW, while
16,500,000 kW-hrs are sent through substation B with a peak at 6650 kW.
Neglecting line losses, find the capacity factor of the power plant.
A. 0.335 B. 0.353 C. 0.533 D. 0.535
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Sample Problems:
3. The annual peak load on a 15,000 kW power plant is 10,500 kW. Two
substations are being supplied by this plant. Annual energy dispatched
through substation A is 27,500,000 kW-hrs with a peak at 8900 kW, while
16,500,000 kW-hrs are sent through substation B with a peak at 6650 kW.
Neglecting line losses, find the capacity factor of the power plant.
A. 0.335 B. 0.353 C. 0.533 D. 0.535
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Sample Problems:
4. A provincial power station supplies the following loads to its major
clients: Consumer A = 2500 kW ; Consumer B = 1250 kW; Consumer C = 500
kW; Consumer D = 700 kW. The station’s maximum demand is 3700 kW.
Determine the annual load factor and diversity factor if the annual
energy generated is 6,225,000 kW-hr.
A. 0.20, 1.37 B. 0.17, 1.24 C. 0.18, 1.31 D. 0.19, 1.34
Chapter 2: Variable Load Problems
Sample Problems:
4. A provincial power station supplies the following loads to its major
clients: Consumer A = 2500 kW ; Consumer B = 1250 kW; Consumer C = 500
kW; Consumer D = 700 kW. The station’s maximum demand is 3700 kW.
Determine the annual load factor and diversity factor if the annual
energy generated is 6,225,000 kW-hr.
A. 0.20, 1.37 B. 0.17, 1.24 C. 0.18, 1.31 D. 0.19, 1.34