Number Question

1 What is a light microscope used for?

2 What are the pros and cons of a light microscope?
3 What is a laser scanning confocal microscope used for?
4 What is a transmission electron microscope be used for?
5 What is a scanning electron microscope used for?
6 What
What are thedifference
is the pros and between
cons of ana electron microscope?
transmission and an scanning electron
7 microscope?
8 What is the difference between light and electron microscopes?
9 What is an eye piece graticule?
10 What is a stage micrometer?
11 Why do we stain specimens?
12 What is differential staining?
13 What is the formula to calculate magnification?
14 What is the formula to calculate actual object size?
15 How do we work out image size?
16 What is magnification?
17 What is resolution?
18 What are the maximum resolutions of the different microscopes?
19 What is the maximum magnification of the different microscopes?
20 What are the main structures of all eukaryotic cells?
21 What is the structure and function of the nucleus?
22 What is the structure and function of the nucleolus?
23 What is the structure and function of the nuclear envelope?
24 What is the structure and function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)?
25 What is the structure and function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)?
26 What is the structure and function of the Golgi apparatus?
27 What is the structure and function of the ribosomes?
28 What is the structure and function of the mitochondria?
29 What is the structure and function of the lysosomes?
30 What is the structure and function of the chloroplasts?
31 What is the structure and function of the plasma membrane?
32 What is the structure and function of the centrioles?
33 What is the structure and function of the cell wall?
34 What is the structure and function of the flagella?
35 What is the structure and function of the cillia?
36 Which structures are involved in the production of proteins?
37 What is the structure and function of the cytoskeleton?
38 What do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have in common?
39 What is different between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
40 How do prokaryotes divide?
41 List out the elements that make up proteins.
42 Explain the polar nature of water.
43 What allows water molecules to have cohesive and adhesive properties?
44 Describe the structure of amylose, including the bonds involved and the shape.
45 Describe the structure of amylopectin, including the bonds involved and the shape.
46 State the two structures that make up starch.
47 State the reaction that breaks down maltose.
48 What is the reaction to join monosaccharides together?
49 What are the 3 types of polysaccharides that α-glucose can form?
50 What are the two monosaccharides that join up to make sucrose?
51 1,6 glycosidic bonds are found on ........
52 β-glucose can only be found in ........
53 How
Basedare
onthe
themonosaccharides in cellulose
arrangement of cellulose arranged?
molecules, explain why cell walls provide
54 strength and support to plant cells.
55 What does the Benedict's test test for?
56 Explain how a positive result is formed in Benedict's test.
57 How can we test for starch?
58 How can we use a colorimeter to do a quantitative Benedict's test?
59 What are the two parts that make up a carboxylic acid?
60 How many water molecule(s) is/are needed when breaking down a triglyceride?
61 What is another term for the condensation reaction that makes lipids?
62 What is the difference in structure between saturated and unsaturated lipids?
63 Why do oils contain unsaturated triglycerides rather than saturated?
64 What is the difference in structure between triglyceride and phospholipid?
65 Describe the phospholipid bilayer arrangement.
66 Describe 2 similarities and 1 difference between phospholipids and sterols.
67 Describe the steps in identifying lipids and state the positive result.
68 State the monomer of a protein.
69 What are the components that make up an amino acid?
70 Name the bond formed between two amino acids.
71 What is the primary structure of a protein?
72 What is the secondary structure of a protein?
73 What is the tertiary structure of a protein?
74 What is the quaternary structure of a protein?
75 State the bond involved in the primary structure of a protein.
76 Stat the bond involved in the secondary structure of a protein
77 State the bond involved in the tertiary structure of a protein.
78 State the bond involved in the quaternary structure of a protein.
79 Name the reaction that breaks down proteins.
80 What is the solution used to test for the presence of proteins?
81 Describe a positive result for proteins.
82 What is thin layer chromatography?
83 Based on what principles are the amino acids separated in TLC?
84 Why should the chromatography plate be only handled by the edges?
85 What are the three types of proteins?
86 Explain why insulin is soluble in blood.
87 What are prosthetic groups?
88 Give an example of a conjugated protein.
89 Compare the haem groups in haemoglobin and catalase.
90 How many haem groups do a haemoglobin contain?
91 Explain why keratin is relatively strong, inflexible and insoluble.
92 Briefly describe the structure of collagen.
93 What bonds do DNA/RNA polymerase catalyse?
94 Name the monomer of a nucleic acid.
95 State the five possible bases of a nucleotide.
 96 State the three components to a DNA nucleotide.
97 The two strands of the double helix are ............. to each other.
98 Thymine, cytosine and uracil belong to a group of bases. Name the group.
99 Adenine and guanine belong to a group of bases. Name the group.
100 State the complementary base pairings.
101 State the number of hydrogen bonds formed between adenine and thymine/uracil.
102 State the number of hydrogen bonds formed between cytosine and guanine.
103 Why is DNA replication described as semi-conservative?
104 State the enzymes involved in DNA replication.
105 State the function of DNA polymerase.
106 State the function of DNA helicase.
107 The free nucleotides pair up with the exposed bases on the DNA strands based on ......
108 DNA polymerase can only build phosphodiester bonds on the daughter strand in a partic
109 In which direction of the template strand does the DNA polymerase move in?
110 Define 'genetic code'.
111 The genetic code is described as 'degenerate'. What does that mean?
112 Define 'gene'.
113 What is a codon?
114 What are the two differences between DNA and RNA?
115 Name the enzymes involved in transcription.
116 Why is the antisense strand needed even though it does not code for proteins?
117 Even
Whatthough
type ofDNA
bondcodes
does for
mRNA have?directly, why is mRNA needed to be made for
proteins
118 making proteins?
119 How is rRNA involved in catalysing translation?
120 Which part of tRNA binds to the mRNA?
121 Name the amino acid that is always at the start of a protein.
122 Describe what happens to the amino acid chain to make it a fully functional protein.
123 State the two stages of protein synthesis.
124 Name the product of transcription.
125 Name the product of translation.
126 State the location where translation occurs.
127 What are the three main types of activities in cells that require energy?
128 What does 'ATP' stand for and what is it?
129 Draw the structure of ATP.
130 How does ATP release energy?
131 State 3 properties of ATP.
132 What are metabolic reactions?
133 What are anabolic reactions?
134 What are catabolic reactions?
135 What are enzymes?
136 Name the energy that is required to start a reaction.
137 What are enzymes' effect on the activation energy of a reaction?
138 Name the area on the enzyme that binds to and reacts with the substrate.
139 The active site has a _____ shape to the substrate.
140 Name the two models used to illustrate enzyme actions.
141 Name the structure where the enzyme and substrate are bound together.
142 What is the difference between the lock-and-key model and the induced fit model?
143 Name an intracellular enzyme.
144 Name an extracellular enzyme.
145 Define the term ‘denaturation’.
146 Explain how an increase of temperature increases enzyme activity.
147 Explain how high temperatures can denature enzymes.
148 What is the temperature coefficient (Q10)?
149 How are the enzymes in organisms that live in cold environments adapted?
150 How are the enzymes in organisms that live in hot environments adapted?
151 How does a change in pH affect enzyme structure?
152 Explain why an increase in substrate concentration increases rate of reaction.
153 What does it mean by a ‘reversible’ inhibitor?
154 Most competitive inhibitors are reversible or irreversible?
155 Explain how Vmax of the enzyme can be unchanged in competitive inhibition.
156 What
Explaintypes of inhibitorbetween
the difference does aspirin belong to?
competitive and non-competitive inhibition
157 mechanisms.
Explain how an increase in substrate concentration affects the rate of reaction in
158 non-competitive inhibition.
159 State two examples of irreversible, non-competitive inhibitors for human use.
160 What is end-product inhibition?
161 How does ATP regulate its own production by end-product inhibition?
162 State the difference between cofactors and coenzymes.
163 From which chemical are cofactors derived from?
164 From which chemical are coenzymes derived from?
165 Name the cofactor found in amylase.
166 Name the cofactor invovled in photosynthesis.
167 Name the cofactor invovled in respiration.
168 State the difference between cofactors and prosthetic groups.
169 Name the prosthetic group in haemoglobin.
170 Name
What arethethe
prosthetic group
three ways in carbonic
that an enzyme anhydrase.
can be activated by changing the tertiary
171 structure?
172 Why is it important that some enzymes are produced in its inactive form?
173 What is an apoenzyme?
174 What is a holoenzyme?
175 What is the fluid mosaic model?
176 What is a glycolipid?
177 What is a glycoprotein?
178 State four functions of membranes at the surface of cells
179 State 3 functions
The principal of membranes
design of the plasma within cells consists of two layers; what name is
membrane
180 given to these two layers?
181 Explain the orientation of phospholipids within the bilayer
182 Describe the function of glycoproteins and glycolipids in the phospholipid bilayer
183 Give 3 examples of intrinsic proteins
184 Channel proteins and carrier proteins have what main role within the membrane?
185 Describe the position and role of cholesterol in the membrane
186 Describe the structure of a phospholipid
187 Describe the effects of temperature on membrane structure
188 Describe the effects of ethanol on membrane structure
189 Explain why alcohol is used in antiseptic wipes.
190 Define the term diffusion.
191 Define the term facilitated diffusion
192 What is a channel protein?
193 What is a carrier protein?
194 What types of molecules can diffuse directly across the phospholipid bilayer?
195 Describe the movement of water across the phospholipid bilayer
196 State 5 factors that affect the rate of simple diffusion
197 Define the term active transport
198 Describe how carrier proteins are used in active transport
199 Define bulk transport and give two examples
200 Define and describe phagocytosis
201 Define and describe pinocytosis
202 Define and describe exocytosis
203 Describe the role of ATP in bulk transport
204 What is the main difference between active transport and facilitated diffusion?
205 Define the term osmosis
206 What is water potential?
207 What substance has the highest possible water potential of 0 kPa?
208 State thesolute
As more equation that links
is added to a water
solution,potential, solute potential
what happens and pressure
to the solute potential potential
and
209 hence the water potential?
Describe what would happen to a red blood cell placed in a solution with a more
210 negative
Describe water potential
what would thanto
happen that of itscell
a liver cytoplasm
placed in a solution with a more positive
211 WP than its own cytoplasm
Describe what would happen to a root hair cell placed in a solution with lower WP
212 than its own
Describe what cytoplasm/vacuole
would happen to a guard cell placed in a solution of less negative WP
213 than its own cytoplasm
214 State three events that occur in G1 phase of the cell cycle
215 What happens during the S phase of the cell cycle?
216 What happens during the G2 phase?
217 State
Describe what
three cellmay
cyclehappen in G0 phase
checkpoints of thedescribe
and briefly cell cycle
what is being checked for at
218 each
219 State three purpose of mitosis in life cycles
220 Describe the main events of phophase
221 Describe the main events of metaphase
222 Describe the main events of anaphase
223 Describe the main events of telophase
224 Describe how cytokinesis differs between dividing animal cells and plant cells
225 Explain
Why would
whywe weuse
warmthethe
root tip tips
root for investigating
in hydrochloric mitosis?
acid when preparing a root tip
226 squash
227 Which stain would we use to stain chromosomes in a root tip squash?
228 What is meiosis?
229 Describe how meiosis produces genetic variation in the gametes produced
230 Describe the difference between anaphase I and anaphase II
231 In which stage of meiosis is the chromosome number halved
232 Explain why genetic variation is important for a population of organisms
233 What is differentiation?
234 Describe and explain how erythrocytes are adapted for their function
235 Explain why a neutrophil contains many lysosomes
236 Describe and explain how sperm cells are adapted for their function
237 Describe how guard cells open in sunny conditions
238 Describe
Describe the
howpurpose of cytoskeleton
a root hair threads and
cell plasma membrane is motor
adaptedproteins in palisade
for transport cells
of mineral
239 ions
240 Describe how cartilage is adapted for its function
241 Define the term tissue
242 State three types of muscle tissue, giving an example of where each is found
243 Give four features of meristematic cells that means they can differentiate easily
244 Describe the differences between multipotent, pluripotent and totipotent stem cells
245 State three characteristics of stem cells
246 State
Explainthe
whythree mainorganisms
smaller factors that affect
have the need
a lower for an
demand forexchange
oxygen thansystem
larger
247 organisms
248 Describe and explain three features of a good exchange surface
249 Describe how human alveoli are adapted to reduce diffusion distances
250 Describe the role of surfactant in alveoli
251 Describe the mechanism of inspiration
252 Why do alveolar walls contain elastic fibres?
253 Which tissueistype
The trachea linedcomprises alveolar
with ciliated walls?tissue and goblet cells. Describe the
epithelial
254 functions of these.
255 The trachea and bronchi are lined with cartilage. Describe why.
256 Describe how the nasal cavity is adapted for exchange
257 Describe the roles of smooth muscle and elastic tissue in the airways
258 Describe precautions that must be taken when using a spirometer
259 Describe what is meant by 'vital capacity' and state the factors that it depends upon
260 State the usual range for vital capacity
261 Describe what is meant by 'inspiratory reserve volume'.
262 Describe what is meant by 'expiratory reserve volume'.
263 Describe what is meant by 'residual volume' and state the standard volume
264 The
Describe
normalwhat is meantrate
breathing by of
'tidal volume'50and
a healthy state
year old awoman
typicalisfigure
18 breaths per minute
265 What is the difference between 'ventilation rate' and 'breathing ventilation
and her tidal volume is 500 cm3. During strenuous exercise, her rate'? rate
increases to 45 000 cm3min-1 and she is breathing 30 times a minute. Calculate her
266 State the equation
tidal volume duringfor
thisventilation
exercise andratestate how much higher than normal this figure
267 is.
Most bony fish have 5 pairs of gills which are covered by a bony flap, known as the
268 …? What is the function of this bony flap?
269 Describe the structure of gills in bony fish
270 Describe ventilation in bony fish
271 How is air supplied to respiring tisses in an insect?
272 How doesofairtracheoles
The ends enter the intracheal
insectssystem in an
are filled insect?
with tracheal fluid. What is the function of
273 When
this fluid?
an insect is active, what changes occur in the insect to increase their oxygen
274 supply?
275 Describe three features of an effective transport system
276 Describe three disadvantages of single circulatory systems, as seen in fish
277 Explain why fish do not need as much energy as mammals
278 Describe what is meant by the term open circulation
279 State two disadvantages of open circulatory systems
280 State four advantages of closed circulation over open circulation
281 What is the inner tissue lining of a blood vessel called? What is its role?
282 Describe the three structural layers of an artery
283 What is the role of arterioles?
284 Describe how capillaries are adapted for exchange
285 Describe the function of a venule
286 Describe how veins are adapted to carry blood back to the heart
287 Where is hydrostatic pressure created of the blood created?
288 What is oncotic pressure?
289 What substances
State the cell typesmight
that affect the likely
are most oncotic pressure
to be found of
in the blood?
blood plasma, tissue fluid and
290 lymph
291 Why can proteins known as plasma proteins not leave the blood plasma?
292 Why can neutrophils enter the tissue fluid but erythrocytes cannot?
293 Describe the role of the lymph fluid
294 How does tissue fluid facilitate exchange of substances to body cells?
295 Describe
What is thetheprocess
simple known
structure
as of
byhaemoglobin
which oxyhaemoglobin releases its oxygen to
296 respiring cells?
297 What is the main difference between foetal haemoglobin and adult haemoglobin?
298 Describe three ways in which carbon dioxide is transported
299 Describe
Describe the
howformation
the chargeofinside
hydrogencarbonate ions when hydreogencarbonate ions
a RBC is maintained
300 diffuse
Describe into
howthetheplasma
pH inside a RBC is buffered as hydrogen ions build up inside,
301 making the RBC very acidic
302 What is the net to
With reference result of the
protein Bohr effect?
structure, explain how increasing hydrogen ion levels
303 affects haemoglobin.
304 What is the purpose of semilunar valves?
305 Why is the left ventricular wall so much thicker than the right ventricular walls?
306 Why are there so many mitochondria in cardiac muscle?
307 What is the purpose of intercalated discs between adjacent muscle cells?
308 Briefly outline the events of atrial systole
309 Briefly outline the events of ventricular systole
310 Briefly outline the events of diastole
311 What is meant by the term myogenic?
312 What
What tissue
tissue is responsible
propagates thefor initiatingsignal
electrical the heartbeat?
from the atria to the ventricles, resulting
313 in ventricular systole?
314 Why is there a delay before the AVN depolarises the ventricular walls?
315 Describe the role of the Purkyne tissue
316 What do the letters PQRST indicate in an ECG?
317 What terms describe a slow and a fast heart rate?
318 What happens in atrial fibrillation?
319 What is an ectopic
Plant transport heartconsist
systems beat? of 2 major specialised vascular tissues. Name these,
320 state their transport material and the direction of transport
321 What tissue is found in between the xylem and phloem? What is its function?
322 What is the purpose of parenchyma cells in xylem tissue?
323 What is the purpose of lignin in xylem vessels?
324 How do bordered pits form and what is their purpose?
325 Describe three adaptations of xylem vessels that relate structure to function
326 What two components of phloem tissue are concerned with transport?
327 Why do sieve tube elements contain no nucleus and very little cytoplasm?
328 How are companion cells adapted for active loading?
329 What
Describe 2 major
allows water pathways
to movetaken
throughby cells
waterviatothe
move between
symplast cells and by which
pathway,
330 mechanism of movement?
331 What allows
Why does thewater to move
presence continuously
of starch via the apoplast
in the endodermis pathway?
suggest that an active process is
332 involved?
333 What is the Casparian strip?
334 Explain the significance of the Casparian strip
335 Describe how water is lost via stomata (refer to gradients)
 Describe the effects of light intensity, humidity and wind speed on the rate of
336 transpiration
State two precautions that should be taken to ensure no air bubbles are in the
337 potometer
The distance setup
moved by the meniscus in a potometer is 45mm in 5 minutes. The
338 radius of the capillary tube is 0.5 mm. Calculate the rate of transpiration.
339 Describe how water moves up the stem via the transpiration pull
340 What property of water causes cohesion?
341 Define the term translocation
342 State two sinks (for translocation) in a plant
343 What is the difference between active loading and active transport?
344 Describe the role of hydrogen ions in active loading
345 Why is sucrose transported in phloem and not glucose?
346 How does sucrose move from the companion cells into the sieve tube elements?
347 Based on what principle does mass flow work in sieve tubes?
348 Based on what principles does phloem unloading work?
349 Describe 3 adaptations of marram grass (xerophyte) and explain their importance
350 Cacti
Why isare succulents. What
it advantageous for does
somethis mean? to have a low water potential inside
xerophytes
351 their leaf cells?
352 Describe two adaptations of roots that could help a plant survive in arid conditions
353 What is classification?
354 Why do scientists classify organisms?
355 What is taxonomy?
356 What are the eight taxonomic groups in order of largest to smallest?
357 What is the binomial naming system?
358 Why is the binomial naming system important?
359 What are the 5 kingdoms in classification?
360 What are the general features of prokaryotae?
361 What are the general features of protoctista?
362 What are the general features of fungi?
363 What are the general features of plantae?
364 What are the general features of animalia
365 What are the 3 domains of classification?
366 Why
Whatare 3 domains
is the preferred
difference betweentoeukarya,
5 kingdoms?
bacteria and archaea in terms of
367 ribosomes?
What is the difference between eukarya, bacteria and archaea in terms of RNA
368 polymerase?
369 In the new system of classification, what are the 6 kingdoms?
370 Which group has been divided to form eubacteria and archaebacteria?
371 What is the difference between the habitats of archaebacteria and eubacteria?
372 What is phylogeny?
373 What are phylogenetics?
374 What
What isarea phylogenetic
the advantages tree?
of phylogenetic classification over hierarchical / Linnean
375 classification?
376 What
What isdidevolution?
Darwin observe to support his thory of evolution through natural
377 selection?
378 What
What did
did Darwin
Darwin notice about
determine the finches
about of the
the shape Galapagos?
of the Galapagos finchs' beaks and
379 their environment?
380 Who
Whenwas Alfred
Darwin Wallace?"On the Origin of Species" describing the theory of
published
381 evolution through natural selection, why was it originally extremely controversial?
382 What are the 3 main sources of evidence for evolution?
383 What is paleontology?
384 What evidence for evolution is shown in the fossil record?
385 Why is the fossil record not complete?
386 What is comparative anatomy?
387 What is a homologous structure?
388 What do homologous structures provide evidence for?
389 What is divergent evolution?
390 What is comparative biochemistry?
391 How are molecules used in comparative biochemistry?
392 Which molecules can be used in comparative molecular biochemistry?
393 What are the two types of variation between organisms?
394 What is interspecific variation
395 What is intraspecific variation?
396 What are the causes of variation?
397 What are the causes of genetic variation?
398 How do alleles cause genetic variation?
399 How do mutations cause genetic variation?
400 How does meiosis cause genetic variation?
401 How does sexual reproduction (2 partners) cause genetic variation?
402 How
Why does chance
is there muchcause
moregenetic variation?
variation in sexually reproductive organisms than those
403 which reproduce asexually?
Are animals or plants more likely to be affected by the environment and cause
404 variation? Why
405 Give an example of a purely environmental variation.
406 In
Givemost cases, what
an example of acauses variation that
charachteristic within
cana population?
be affected by both genetic and
It is hard to separate genetic and environmental factors from causing variation.
407 environmental factors.
What investigations are done to allow better understanding between nature and
408 nurture?
409 Into which 2 groups can data on characteristic variation be sorted?
410 What is another term for discontinuous variation?
411 What is discontinuous variation?
412 Give an example of discontinuous variation.
413 What causes discrete variation?
414 How is discontinuous variation displayed graphically?
415 What is continuous variation?
416 What is an example of continuous variation?
417 What causes continuous variation?
418 How is continuous variation displayed graphically?
419 Continuous variation typically show what distribution?
420 What is normal distribution?
421 What are the characteristics of normal distribution?
422 What is standard deviation?
423 What does the variation look like if there is a high standard deviation?
424 What does the variation look like if there is a low standard deviation?
425 In normal distribution, what are the typical values for the first 3 standard deviations?
426 What What do the symbols in the standard deviation formula stand for?
427 What is the Student's t test used for?
428 What is Spearman's rank correlation coefficient used for?
429 What are the purpose of statistical tests?
430 What is a null hypothesis in a Student's t test?
431 What is a null hypothesis in a Spearman's rank?
432 What are the degree of freedom in a Student's t test?
433 How do you determine significance in a Studen't t test?
434 What do the probability values in the significance tables mean?
435 How do you determine significance in a Spearman's rank?
436 What are adaptations?
437 What are the 3 types of adaptation?
438 What is an anatomical adaptation?
439 What is a behavioural adaptation?
440 What is a physiological adaptation?
441 Give an example of an anatomical adaptation.
442 How is Marram grass adapted to stop transpiration?
443 Give an example of a behavioural adaptation.
444 What are the two main types of behavioural adaptation?
445 What is an innate behaviour?
446 What is a learned behaviour
447 Give an example of physiological adaptations.
448 What is convergent evolution?
449 Why does convergent evolution occur?
450 What is natural selection?
451 What are the steps involved in natural selection?
452 What is a selection pressure?
453 What are examples of selection pressures?
454 What are modern examples of evolution?
455 How does anti-biotic resistant bacteria show modern evolution?
456 How do peppered moths show modern evolution?
457 How do sheep blowflies show modern evolution?
458 How do Flavobacterium show modern evolution?
459 What is biodiversity?
460 Why is biodiversity important?
461 Why do humans rely on balanced ecosystems?
462 How can human activities lead to a reduction in biodiversity?
463 What are the 3 ways of measuring biodiversity?
464 Why is it important to measure biodiversity?
465 What is habitat biodiversity?
466 What is species biodiversity?
467 What is species richness?
468 What is species evenness?
469 What is a community?
470 What is genetic biodiversity?
471 Why is genetic variation important?
472 What is sampling?
473 Why is sampling important?
474 What is sampling used for?
475 What are the 2 ways sampling can be carried out?
476 What is random sampling?
477 How is random sampling carried out?
478 What is non-random sampling?
479 What are the 3 main types of non-random sampling?
480 What is opportunistic sampling?
481 What is stratified sampling?
482 What is systematic sampling?
483 What are two techniques that could be used in systematic sampling?
484 What is a line transect?
485 What is a belt transect?
486 What is an interupted belt transect?
487 What is reliability?
488 What can decrease the reliability of the sampling being done?
489 What is sampling bias?
490 What is chance?
491 What are the techniques used in collecting live animal samples?
492 How is a pooter used?
493 How are sweep nets used?
494 How are pitfall traps used?
495 How is tree beating used?
496 How is kick sampling used?
497 How are plants generally sampled?
498 What is a point quadrat and how is it used?
499 What is a frame quadrat?
500 What
What is
is the
the most
most valid
valid way
way of
of sampling
sampling an
thearea?
change in distribution of species across
501 an area of land?
502 How is species richness measured?
503 How is species evenness measured?
504 What are the different types of data that can be collected using frame quadrats?
505 How and when is density measured using a frame quadrat?
506 How and when is frequency measured using a frame quadrat?
507 How and when is percentage cover measured using a frame quadrat?
508 How is the use of quadrats made more reliable?
509 How is a mean calculated?
510 How is animal population size estimated?
511 Why is measuring animal population size difficult?
512 What are abiotic factors?
513 What are common abiotic factors?
514 What formula is used to calculate biodiversity?
515 In Simpson's index of diversity, what do D, n and N stand for?
516 When D is calculated in the Simpson's index of diversity, what does it mean?
517 What are the characteristics of a low biodiversity habitat?
518 What are the characteristics of a high biodiversity habitat?
519 What is genetic biodiversity?
520 Why is genetic biodiversity important?
521 What are the factors that affect genetic biodiversity?
522 How do mutations affect the genetic biodiversity?
523 How does interbreeding (gene flow) change the genetic biodiversity?
524 How does selective breeding (artificial selection) change the genetic biodiversity?
525 How does captive breeding change genetic biodiversity?
526 How do rare breeds change genetic biodiversity?
527 How does artificial cloning change genetic biodiversity?
528 How does natural selection change genetic biodiversity?
529 How do genetic bottlenecks change genetic biodiversity?
530 How does the founder affect change genetic biodiversity?
531 How does genetic drift affect genetic biodiversity?
532 What are polymorphic genes?
533 Why are most genes not polymorphic?
534 How can we measure genetic biodiversity?
535 What is the locus of a gene?
536 How does the proportion of polymorphic gene loci relate to genetic biodiversity?
537 Describe one way of how deforestation can affect biodiversity.
538 Describe one way of how agriculture can affect biodiversity.
539 Describe on way of how climate change can affect biodiversity.
540 Give three reasons for maintaining biodiversity.
541 Define
What is'keystone species'.
the difference between 'in situ' and 'ex situ' conservation? Give an example
542 for each.
543 What is the IUCN?
544 What is the CITES?
545 What is the Rio Convention?
546 What is the
State the Countryside
kingdom stewardship
of organism scheme?
that causes each of the following diseases:
547 tuberculosis, Black Sigatoka, Athlete's
State the kingdom of organism that causes each foot, malaria
of the following diseases: blight,
548 ringworm, ring rot, bacterial meningitis
549 Give one plant disease caused by each of the following: viruses, bacteria and fungi
550 State
State three
how thefactors that would
influenza virus isaffect
most the speed
likely to beoftransmitted
disease transmission in plants
between different
551 humans
State four different types of vector that can be used to transmit a communicable
552 disease
State three passive physical defences that prevent plants being infected by a
553 pathogen
State three active physical defences a plant would employ against an invading
554 pathogen
555 State three chemical defences a plant would employ against an invading pathogen
556 Describe the role of the skin as a primary non-specific defence
557 Describe the role of mucous membranes as a primary non-specific defence
558 Which enzyme catalyses the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin
559 Describe the role of thrombin in the clotting process
560 Describe the process of inflammation as a secondary non-specific response
561 Describe
Describe the
howprocess of phagocytosis
macrophages process antigens for presentation on their cell surface
562 membrane
What name is given to small protein molecules that act as cell-signalling
563 compounds?
564 Describe how neutrophils are specialised for their role
565 Opsonins are non-specific. Explain why
566 Where
What isdo B lymphocytes
meant by the term and T lymphocytesand
'autoimmunity' mature?
give two examples of autoimmune
567 diseases
568 What is the role of T regulatory cells?
569 Describe how an antigen presenting cell leads to large numbers of T helper cells
570 Describe how B lymphocytes are activated and the role of activated B lymphocytes
571 Describe how T killer cells destroy a virally infected cell
572 Dinstinguish
Antibodies are clearly
madebetween
by plasmaan cells.
antigen and an
Explain antibody
how plasma cells are specialised for
573 their role
574 Describe how opsonins function
575 Describe how agglutinins function
576 Describe how antitoxins function
577 Describe howit the
Explain why maystructure of andays
take several antibody
for theenables
primaryit immune
to perform its function
response to become
578 effective
Explain why a secondary immune response is so much faster than a primary immune
579 response
580 Give an example of both natural active immunity and natural passive immunity
581 Explain why passive immunity only provides short-term immunity
582 Give an example of artificial active immunity
583 Define the term epidemic
584 Describe the difference between herd vaccination and ring vaccination
585 Describe how a microorganism can become resistant to an antibiotic
586 What is a response?
587 What is a stimulus?
588 What is homeostasis?
589 Name 4 internal conditions that are maintained by an organism's homeostasis.
590 Put the following aspects of a feedback mechanism in order: processor, stimulus, effe
591 What are the 2 communication systems in mammals?
592 What is cell signalling?
593 What is an effector?
594 What are the 3 types of effector?
595 What is meant by the potential difference across a membrane?
596 What is meant if a membrane is polarised?
597 What is the resting potential value of a resting neurone?
598 What 3 things maintain the resting potential of a resting neurone?
599 Where is the highest concentration of Na+ at resting potential?
600 Name 3 types of neurone
601 Describe the structure and function of a motor neurone?
602 Describe the structure and function of a sensory neurone?
603 Describe the structure and function of a relay neurone?
604 What is meant by a myelinated neurone?
605 Describe any advantages of myelination of neurones?
606 Where are non myelinated neurones found?
607 What is a sensory receptor?
608 What do sensory neurones do?
609 Name 6 examples of sensory receptors.
610 Sensory neurones act as a tranducer. What is a tranducer?
611 What is a processor?
612 What is a Pacinian corpuscle?
613 Describe the structure of a Pacinian corpuscle?
614 How does a Pacinian corpuscle detect pressure changes?
615 How are cell membrane proteins involved in neural communication?
616 What happens if a stimulus is too weak?
617 Where is the highest concentration of K+ at resting potential?
618 Describe how a sodium/potassium pump in the cell menbrane functions?
619 What is meant if a membrane depolarises?
620 What causes a membrane to depolarise?
621 What happens in the neurone membrane if threshold potential is reached?
622 What is the action potential value of a stimulated neurone?
623 What happens in the neurone membrane at +40mV?
624 What is repolarisation?
625 What causes repolarisation?
626 What is hyperpolarisation?
627 What happens in the neurone membrane at -70mV?
628 What causes hyperpolarisation?
629 What is the refractory period?
630 What are the 2 purposes of the refractory period?
631 What is a local current in a neurone?
632 What is an electrochemical gradient?
633 What is saltatory conduction in a neurone?
634 How does changing the intensity of the stimulus affect the action potential?
635 What is a synapse?
636 What is a synaptic cleft?
637 What is a neurotransmitter?
638 What are 4 examples of neurotransmitters?
639 Name one example of an excitatory neurotransmitter.
640 Name one example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
641 What is the difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters?
642 What is a cholinergic synapse?
643 What are the 4 specialisations of the pre-synaptic bulb?
644 What is the specialisation of the post-synaptic membrane?
645 What is acetylcholinesterase?
646 What is the "all or nothing" principle?
647 What is an excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)?
648 What is summation?
649 What is temporal summation?
650 What is spatial summation?
651 What is an inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP)?
652 What are the 2 divisions of the nervous system?
653 What are the 2 organs of the central nervous system?
654 What organ connects the central and peripheral nervous systems?
655 What type of neurones is the brain mostly composed from?
656 What are the 2 divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
657 What are the 2 divisions of the motor nervous system?
658 What is the function of the somatic nervous system?
659 What are 2 structural features of the somatic nervous system?
660 What effectors are controlled by the somatic nervous system?
661 What is the function of the autonomic nervous system?
662 What are 3 structural features of the autonomic nervous system?
663 What 3 effectors are controlled by the autonomic nervous system?
664 What are the 2 divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
665 What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system?
666 What
What is
arethe function
3 effects ofof
thethe parasympathetic
sympathetic nervous
nervous systemsystem?
being more active than the
667 parasympathetic nervous system?
What are 3 effects of the parasympathetic nervous system being more active than
668 the sympathetic nervous system?
669 What are 3 structural features of the sympathetic nervous system?
670 What are 3 structural features of the parasympathetic nervous system?
671 What are 4 main regions of the brain?
672 What is the function of the cerebrum?
673 What part of the brain connects the 2 cerebral hemispheres?
674 What are the 4 lobes of the cerebrum?
675 What are the 3 areas found in each lobe of the cerebrum?
676 What is the function of the cerebellum?
677 What part of the brain connects the cerebellum to the cerebrum?
678 What is the function of the hypothalamus / pituitary complex?
679 What is the function of the medulla oblongata?
680 What is a reflex action?
681 What are 2 examples of a reflex action?
682 What is a cranial reflex?
683 What is a spinal reflex?
684 What does a corneal reflex do?
685 What part of the medulla oblongata controls heart rate?
686 What sympathetic nerve increases heart rate?
687 What parasympathetic nerve decreases heart rate?
688 What are 2 stimuli that would lead to an increase in heart rate?
689 What is a stimulus that would lead to a decrease in heart rate?
690 What are the 3 types of muscle?
691 What are 3 features used to identify smooth muscle?
692 What are 3 features used to identify cardiac muscle?
693 What is an intercalated disc?
694 What are 3 features used to identify skeletal muscle?
695 What is a sarcolemma?
696 What is a sarcoplasm?
697 What is a sarcoplasmic reticulum?
698 What is a myofibril?
699 What is the sarcomere?
700 What happens when the muscle contracts?
701 Decribe the structure of the myosin filaments?
702 Describe the structure of a actin filament?
703 Describe the sliding filament hypothesis of muscle contraction?
704 What causes a muscle contraction?
705 What does tropomysin do in a resting muscle?
706 What triggers a muscle contraction in the sacromere?
707 What is the function of Ca ions in triggereing a muscle contraction?
708 How is an actin-myosin cross bridge formed?
709 How is ATP released to provide the energy for a muscle contraction?
710 When ATP is hydrolysed in the sacromere, what does it trigger?
711 What is the endocrine system?
712 What are the 2 types of hormone?
713 Name 3 examples of non-steroid hormones.
714 Name 2 examples of steroid hormones.
715 What are the 2 types of gland?
716 Where does an endocrine gland secrete into?
717 Where does an exocrine gland secrete into?
718 Name 3 examples of endocrine glands.
719 Name 3 examples of exocrine glands.
720 What is a target cell of a hormone?
721 What do target cells of non-steroid hormones have?
722 What is a first messenger?
723 What is a second messenger?
724 Name an example of a second messenger.
725 What are the 2 main regions of the adrenal gland?
726 What hormone is secreted from the adrenal medulla?
727 What type of hormone is adrenaline?
728 Name 3 target cells of adrenaline.
729 Name 7 effects of adrenaline on the body.
730 What is the function of noradrenaline?
731 What type of hormones are secreted from the adrenal cortex?
732 What is the function of mineralocorticoids?
733 Name an example of a mineralocorticoid.
734 What is the function of glucocorticoids?
735 Name an example of a glucocorticoid.
736 What is the function of the androgens?
737 Name 2 examples of androgens.
738 What are the exocrine glands found in the pancreas?
739 What is secreted by acini?
740 What enzymes are found in the pancreatic duct?
741 What are the endocrine glands found in the pancreas?
742 What 2 cells make up the islets of Langerhans?
743 What hormone is secreted by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans?
744 What hormone is secreted by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans?
745 What range of blood glucose concentration is considered normal?
746 What hormone is secreted if blood glucose concentration is above normal?
747 What hormone is secreted if blood glucose concentration is below normal?
748 What is the effect of insulin on blood glucose concentration?
749 What is the effect of glucagon on blood glucose concentration?
750 What are the 2 target cells of insulin?
751 What 4 effects does insulin have on its target cells?
752 How does insulin cause an affect on target cells?
753 What is glycogenesis?
754 What is the target cell for glucagon?
755 What is the second messenger for glucagon?
756 What 3 effects does glucagon have on its target cells?
757 What is glycogenolysis?
758 What is gluconeogenesis?
759 What is meant by describing insulin and glucagon as antagonistic hormones?
760 How is negative fedback involved in the control of blood glucose levels in the blood?
761 At normal blood glucose levels, how do beta cells stop releasing insulin?
762 How do beta cells detect a change in glucose level to release insulin?
763 What
What two protein
condition channels
is caused byare involved
a long periodinbelow
the release of insulin
the normal bloodfrom beta cells?
glucose
764 concentration?
765 What are the symptoms of mild hypoglycaemia?
766 What
What are the symptoms
condition is causedofbyextreme hypoglycaemia?
a long period above the normal blood glucose
767 concentration?
768 What
Aboveiswhat
the symptom of hyperglycaemia?
blood glucose concentration is considered a diagnosis for diabetes
769 mellitus?
770 What is the cause of type 1 diabetes?
771 What is the cause of type 2 diabetes?
772 What are the 5 risk factors of early onset of type 2 diabetes?
773 What are the 5 possible treatments for type 1 diabetes?
774 What is the main treatment for type 2 diabetes?
775 How is the insulin used to treat diabetes produced?
776 WHat are the advantages of using insulin from genetically modified bacteria?
777 What is the 'fight or flight' response?
778 What is the survival value of pupils dilating?
779 What is the survival value of increasing the blood glucose levels?
780 What is the survival value of increasing ventilation rate and depth?
781 What is the survival value to the heart rate and blood pressure increasing?
782 Where is the 'flight or fight' response coordinated?
783 How is the 'fight or flight' response coordinated?
784 What is the role of the hypothalamus in respose to a threat?
785 Name the hormone released by the hypothalamus to cause the release of ACTH in the
786 Name the hormone released by the pituitary gland to activate the adrenal cortext to
787 What 2 effects result from the hypothalmus activating the sympathetic nervous syst
788 What happens next once adrenaline binds to the receptor on the cell surface?
789 What effects are caused on the cell by having more cAMP?
790 What is the role of cAMP in the action of adrenaline on a cell?
791 What part of the medulla oblongata controls heart rate?
792 What sympathetic nerve increases heart rate?
793 What parasympathetic nerve decreases heart rate?
794 Name the two types of receptors that detect stimuli to affect heart rate.
795 What are 2 stimuli that would lead to an increase in heart rate?
796 What is a stimulus that would lead to a decrease in heart rate?
797 What neurotransmitter is released at the SAN to increase the heart rate?
798 What neurotransmitter is released at the SAN to reduce the heart rate?
799 What effect could sensory input to the cardivascular centre from stretch receptors in
800 What do chemoreceptors in the carotid arteries and aorta do?
801 What is negative feedback?
802 What is positive feedback?
803 What is the difference between endotherms and ectotherms?
804 What is an ectotherm?
805 What is an endotherm?
806 What
Name is5 an exergonic chemical
physiological responsesreaction?
in an endotherm to an increase in body
807 temperature.
Name 4 physiological responses in an endotherm to an decrease in body
808 temperature.
809 What is vasodilation?
810 What is vasoconstriction?
811 What is pilorelaxation?
812 What
Name is4 piloerection?
behavioural responses in endotherms and ectotherms to an increase in
813 body
Nametemperature.
4 behavioural responses in endotherms and ectotherms to an decrease in
814 body
Whattemperature.
are 3 advantages of being ectothermic that are disadvantages of being
815 endothermic?
 What are 3 advantages of being endothermic that are disadvantages of being
816 ectothermic?
817 What is excretion?
818 Name 3 excretory products.
819 What are the 4 main excretory organs?
820 What is the effect on the blood of an increase in carbon dioxide concentration?
821 What is the response to an increase in carbon dioxide concentration in the blood?
822 What is the name for the basic functional unit of the liver?
823 What is another name for liver cells?
824 What are the 4 vessels associated with the liver?
825 Which liver vessel(s) is intra-lobular?
826 Which liver
What are vessel(s)
the chambersis inter-lobular?
in the lobules through which blood from the hepatic portal
827 vein and hepatic artery pass?
What are the chambers in the lobules through which bile is transported to the bile
828 duct?
829 What are the resident macrophages called in the liver?
830 What is the function of a Kupffer cell?
831 Name three key functions of the liver.
832 What is deamination?
833 What is transamination?
834 Why is transamination important?
835 What is the amine group converted into after deamination?
836 Ammonia is converted to urea by ………………………
837 What is the word equation for the ornithine cycle?
838 Name two enzymes found in hepatocytes that are involved in detoxification.
839 Name the two products of the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide.
840 How is the liver involved in regulating blood glucose level?
841 Where is bile stored?
842 What is the function of bile?
843 What are the two key functions of the kidneys?
844 What structures of the kidneys are involved in ultrafiltration?
845 What is the importance of selective reabsorption?
846 What are the 3 vessels associated with the kidney?
847 What are the 3 regions of the kidney (from outside to inside)?
848 What are the kidney tubules called?
849 What are the 5 components of the nephron?
850 What is the name for the knot of capillaries surrounded by the Bowman's capsule?
851 What arteriole enters the glomerulus?
852 What arteriole exits the glomerulus?
853 What is the difference in the structure of the afferent and efferent arterioles?
854 What is ultrafiltration?
855 What are the 3 layers through which ultrafiltration occurs?
856 What
What 52 substances
substances are
are able
unableto to
pass from
pass thethe
from glomerulus into
glomerulus thethe
into Bowman's capsule?
Bowman's
857 capsule?
858 Where does selective reabsorption mainly take place in the nephron?
859 What 4 substances are reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule?
860 What are the 5 specialisations of the PCT epithelial cells?
861 What cotransport occurs in the PCT?
862 What are the 2 sections of the loop of Henle called?
863 What substance(s) enter the descending limb of the loop of Henle?
864 What substance(s) leave the descending limb of the loop of Henle?
865 What substance(s) enter the ascending limb of the loop of Henle?
866 What
What substance(s)
happens to the leave
waterthepotential
ascendingoflimb of theas
the urine loop of Henle?
it passes through the
867 descending limb of the loop of Henle?
What happens to the water potential of the urine as it passes through the ascending
868 limb
Whatofhappens
the looptoofthe
Henle?
water potential of the tissue fluid of the medulla towards the
869 bottom of the loop of Henle?
870 What is the hairpin countercurrent multiplier effect in the loop of Henle?
871 What is the importance of energy in the loop of Henle?
872 What occurs in the distal convoluted tubule?
873 What happens in the collecting duct?
874 How does the body lose water?
875 What is osmoregulation?
876 What is ADH?
877 What are the target cells of ADH?
878 What is the effect of ADH on its target cells?
879 What
Whereisarean aquaporin?
aquaporins found in cells lining the collecting duct that have not been
880 affected by ADH?
Where are aquaporins found in cells lining the collecting duct that have been
881 affected by ADH?
882 What receptors detect changes in the water potential of the blood?
883 Where are osmoreceptors found?
884 Where is ADH produced?
885 Where
If waterisneeds
ADH released?
to be conserved, __________ ADH is secreted, __________ water is
886 reabsorbed
If water doesandnot__________ urine is produced.
need to be conserved, __________ ADH is secreted, __________
887 water is reabsorbed and __________ urine is produced.
888 If a urine sample contains glucose, what may be a possible diagnosis about the patien
889 What is the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)?
890 What are the units used to measure GFR?
891 What is considered the normal range for GFR?
892 Below what GFR value is an indication of kidney disease?
893 What are 5 substances that can be detected in the urine?
894 What hormone is detected using a pregnancy-testing kit?
895 What are monoclonal antibodies?
896 What is the purpose of the control zone on a pregnancy-testing kit?
897 What do monoclonal antibodies do in pregnancy testing?
898 Why should the pregnancy test be done early in the morning?
899 What methods are used to test for the presence of anabolic steroids in urine?
900 What is gas chromatography?
901 Why is it necessary to do another test after immunoassay when testing for illegal drug
902 What are the 2 most common treatments for kidney failure?
903 What is renal dialysis?
904 What are the 2 types of renal dialysis?
905 What is the membrane used in haemodialysis?
906 What is the membrane used in peritoneal dialysis?
907 How does the membrane used in haemodialysis determine what substances leave or s
908 Which process in the kidneys does haemodialysis replace?
909 How should the dialysis fluid be designed? What sort of chemicals and concentrations
910 Why
Whatisareit bad
the for the dialysis
4 main advantagesfluid of
tohaving
be purea water?
kidney transplant instead of renal
911 dialysis?
What are the 4 main disadvantages of having a kidney transplant instead of renal
912 dialysis?
913 State
Suggestthewhy
difference between
plant growth a tropicare
regulators andcalled
a nastic response.
hormones despite not being
914 produced in endocrine glands.
915 Explain why only certain tissues in a plant respond to a particular plant hormone.
916 State three functions of auxins.
917 State three functions of cytokinins.
918 State two functions of gibberellins.
919 State two functions of ethene.
920 State two functions of abscisic acid.
921 Describe the synergistic action of auxin and gibberellin.
922 Describe the antagonistic action of auxin and ethene.
923 Describe the antagonistic action of gibberellin and abscisic acid.
924 Describe the antagonistic action of auxin and cytokinin.
925 Describe how gibberellins stimulate seed germination.
926 State a specific example of an auxin.
927 Describe how auxins promote cell elongation.
928 Describe the contributions of auxins, cytokinins and abscisic acid to apical dominance.
929 Explain how roots behave in response to particular levels of auxin.
930 Where does IAA accumulate when a plant is exposed to unilateral light?.
931 What causes leaf loss in deciduous plants?
932 What is the term given to a plants' sensitivity to a lack of light?
933 What are the light-sensitive pigments that enables photoperiodism to happen?
934 What is the abscission?
935 Describe the process of abscission.
936 How do plants avoid freezing?
937 why do plants need to prevent their cells from freezing?
938 What are the 2 main abiotic stresses that plants must adapt to?
939 What effect does stomatal opening have on heat stress on a plant?
940 What effect does ABA have on the stomata?
941 State three chemical defences against herbivory (attack by insects).
942 State three physical defences against herbivory.
943 How do tannins prevent herbivory?
944 How do alkaloids prevent herbivory?
945 How
Whatdo tannins
is the name prevent herbivory?
for a chemical made by an organism which affects the behaviour
946 of other members of the same species?
947 Plants do not have pheromones, what do they have instead?
948 Give an example of a plant that produces a VOC and describe its' action.
949 How does the plant, mimosa pudica protect itself against herbivory?
950 Describe the functions of positive phototropism and positive geotropism.
951 What will is
If a shoot happen
exposedif ato
shoot
lightisfrom
grownoneinside,
light,where
shining from
will one
auxin beside?
found within the
952 shoot?
953 What effect does auxin have on the cells in a shoot?
954 What is etiolation?
955 Which hormones cause
What slow-rotating piecelonger internodes
of equipment caninbe
plants
usedgrown in the dark?
to demonstrate geotropism in
956 the lab?
What would you expect to observe if germinating beans are grown on a clinostat
957 over a a few days?
 What would you expect to observe if a potted plant shoot is grown on a clinostat
958 over a a few days?
959 Which plant hormone is involved in fruit ripening?
960 Which plant hormone is involved in encouraging root growth?
961 Which plant hormone(s) is/are involved in delaying senescence?
962 Which plant hormone is involved in preventing the ageing of ripened fruit?
963 What hormone is used in rooting powder?
964 What are climacteric fruits?
965 Why are climacteric fruits harvested before they are ripe?
966 How are auxins used as weedkillers?
967 Is photosynthesis endothermic or exothermic? What does that mean?
968 State the overall chemical equation of photosynthesis.
969 What is chemiosmosis?
970 In chemiosmosis, where does the energy to pump protons come from?
971 Chemiosmosis allows the transformation of ADP into ATP. This process in photosynthe
972 During photosynthesis, what is pumped across the membrane and into the thylakoid s
973 What pumps the hydrogen ions into the thylakoid space?
974 Where does chemiosmosis occur?
975 What is grana?
976 What is the stroma and its function?
977 What is the structure that connects grana together?
978 Describe the structure of a photosystem
979 Name one primary pigment and 3 accessory pigments
980 Describe the differences between photosystem I and photosystem II
981 Describe the light absorption of carotenoids, xanthophylls and chlorophylls
982 In which part of the chloroplast does the light-dependent reaction take place?
983 In which part of the chloroplast does the light-independent reaction take place
984 Suggest why the Rf values of some pigments show a range rather than a single figure
985 Rf values for the different pigments differ according to the solvent used. Suggest why t
986 What 4 processes occur in the light-dependent reaction?
987 Outline the role of water in photosynthesis
988 Suggest why a lack of iron in soil may reduce growth in plants
989 What is photolysis and where exactly does it take place?
990 Describe the differences between non-cyclic and cyclic photophosphorylation
991 Describe how a proton gradient develops between the thylakoid lumen and the stro
992 Describe the purpose of the proton gradient
993 Describe what happens to protons that have moved through ATP synthase
994 Describe how an electron moves through the electron transport chain
995 Explain why chloroplasts in guard cells only contain PSI
996 Describe the differences in the fate of electrons released from chlorophyll in both no
997 What is RuBisCo and its function?
998 Suggest why there are always only low levels of RuBP in the stroma of chloroplasts
999 Describe the role of carbon dioxide in the Calvin cycle
1000 Describe the conversion of GP into TP in the Calvin cycle
1001 Describe how RuBP is regenerated in the Calvin cycle
1002 Describe the fate of triose phosphate
1003 State 2 products of the light dependent reaction used in the Calvin cycle
1004 Describe how plants respond to water stress. Explain how this affects their abiity to
1005 Describe the effects of reducing the light intensity on the Calvin cycle
1006 Describe the effects of reducing carbon dioxide levels in the Calvin cycle
1007 Name all three enzymes involved in photosynthesis and their functions.
1008 Describe what is meant by the term compensation point
1009 Define 'limiting factor'.
1010 Name three factors that affect photosynthetic rate.
1011 Why does increasing light intensity also increases photosynthetic rate?
1012 Why does more carbon dioxide increases photosynthetic rate?
1013 Describe and explain how temperature affects photosynthetic rate.
1014 What is ATP synthesised from?
1015 Name three biological processes that require the use of ATP
1016 Draw a molecule of ATP
1017 What is a catabolic reaction?
1018 What is an analbbolic reaction?
1019 What is glycolysis?
1020 What is NAD?
1021 What is phosphorylation in glycolysis?
1022 What is hexose bisphosphate split into during glycolysis?
1023 What is triose phosphate converted into during the oxidation stage of glycolysis?
1024 How many carbons are found in a molecule of pyruvate?
1025 Which molecule accepts the hydrogen atoms from triose phosphate when it is oxidis
1026 What are the products of glycolysis for every molecule of glucose?
1027 What is the net gain of ATP in glycolysis?
1028 Why is glycolysis an anaerobic process?
1029 What is the cristae?
1030 What is the mitochondrial matrix?
1031 What is the average length of mitochondrion?
1032 Where does the link reaction occur in the mitochondria?
1033 What is the name of the two coenzymes found in the mitochondria?
1034 Where is the electron transport chain found in the mitochondria?
1035 What is the name of the enzyme found in the cristae of the enzyme that synthesises
1036 What is decarboxylation?
1037 What is dehydrogenation?
1038 What is substrate level phosphorylation?
1039 Why is pyruvate said to be decarboxylated and dehydrogenated during the link reacti
1040 What does the acetyl group in the link reaction join with before entering the Krebs cy
1041 Explain how 1 molecule of glucose is formed into two molecules of acetyl coenzyme A
1042 What molecule enters the Krebs cycle?
1043 How many carbons are found in a molecule of acetyl CoA
1044 What molecule does acetyl CoA join to in the Krebs cycle?
1045 How many carbons does citrate contain?
1046 What two molecules combine together to form citrate in the Krebs cycle?
1047 What happens to citrate in the Krebs cycle?
1048 What happens to the 5C compound in the Krebs cycle?
1049 Where does substrate level phosphorylation occur in the Krebs cycle?
1050 What are the products of one turn of the Krebs cycle?
1051 What is the final stage of aerobic respiration called?
1052 Define chemiosmosis
1053 What is oxidative phosphorylation?
1054 Where does oxidative phosphorylation take place?
1055 What is the electron transport chain?
1056 What is the name of the enzyme embedded in the cristae that is involved in oxidativ
1057 Which two coenzymes deliver hydrogen atoms to the ETC?
1058 How do reduced NAD & FAD relaese the hydrogen atoms they are carrying at the ETC
1059 What happens to the hydrogen atoms released at the ETC?
1060 When electrons are released at the ETC from reduced NAD and FAD, what is their fat
1061 Where are protons pumped into by the ETC?
1062 What forms when protons are pumped into the intermembrane space?
1063 What is the source of potential energy in the intermembrane space?
1064 As protons flow from the high concentration inside the intermembrane space, why m
1065 How does the flow of protons cause ATP to be formed?
1066 What is the final electron acceptor?
1067 How is water formed during oxidative phosphorylation?
1068 Which stage of photosynthesis also involves chemiosmosis?
1069 How many ATP can be formed from a molecule of reduced NAD?
1070 How many ATP can be formed from a molecule of reduced FAD
1071 How many molecules of ATP can be formed from glycolysis by 1 molecule of glucose?
1072 How many molecules of ATP can be formed from the link reaction by 1 molecule of g
1073 How many molecules of ATP can be formed from the Krebs cycle by 1 molecule of glu
1074 How many molecules of ATP can be formed from oxidative phosphorylation by 1 mole
1075 What is the total yield of ATP from one molecule of glucose during aerobic respiratio
1076 Why is the theoretical yield of 32 ATP per glucose molecule rarely achieved?
1077 Why is the pH of the intermebrane space lower that the mitochondrial matrix and th
1078 What are the two metabolic pathways used by eukaryotic cells to reoxidise NAD
1079 Which stage of respiration is the same for both aerobic and anaerobic respiration? W
1080 In ethanol fermentaion, what enzyme decarboxylates pyruvate into ethanal?
1081 The enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase converts pyruvate into what during ethanol ferme
1082 Which enzyme is used to help ethanal accept hydrogen from reduced NAD in ethanol
1083 Why is yeast described as a faculative anaerobe?
1084 Write out the two steps involved in ethanol fermentation
1085 What is the name of the enzyme that allows pyruvate to accept hydrogen from reduc
1086 Write out the equation for formation of lactate in anaerobic respiration in eukaryotic
1087 What is the fate of lactate?
1088 Lactate and ethanol fermentation do not produce any ATP. Suggest how these processe
1089 What is a respiratory substrate?
1090 How can glycerol be used as a respiratory substrate?
1091 How are fatty acids used as respiratory substrates?
1092 How are proteins used as respiratory substrates?
1093 Which respiratory substrate can be converted into acetate and enter the Krebs cycle vi
1094 Which molecule can be deaminated and the rest of the molecule enetrs the Krebs cycl
1095 Why do lipids have the highest a mean energy value per gram?
1096 What is the formula for the respiratory quotient?
1097 What is the RQ value for glucose?
1098 What is the RQ value for fatty acids?
1099 What is the RQ value for proteins?
1100 What does an RQ value of over 1 suggest?
1101 In an investigation into respiration, the RQ value was calculated as 0.82. Suggest whi
1102 In an investigation into respiration, the RQ value was calculated as 0.99. Suggest whi
1103 In an investigation into respiration, the RQ value was calculated as 0.70. Suggest whi
1104 In an investigation into respiration, the RQ value was found to be 2.3. Suggest what
1105 What is a mutation?
1106 What is a gene mutation?
1107 What is a mutagen?
1108 What is a triplet?
1109 What is a point mutation?
1110 What are the 3 types of point mutation?
1111 What is a silent point mutation?
1112 What is a missense point mutation?
1113 What is a nonsense point mutation?
1114 What is an indel mutation?
1115 What is a frameshift?
1116 Give an example of chromosome mutations.
1117 What is translocation in chromosome mutations?
1118 What is inversion in chromosome mutations?
1119 What is the main example of gene expression control in prokaryotic cells?
1120 What is the function of the enzyme lactose permease?
1121 What is the function of the enzyme beta-galactosidase?
1122 What are the 4 components of the lac operon?
1123 What is a structural gene?
1124 What is a regulatory gene?
1125 What does the gene lacI code for?
1126 What does the gene lacZ code for?
1127 What does the gene lacY code for?
1128 Where does the repressor protein bind in the lac operon?
1129 Where does RNA polymerase bind in the lac operon?
1130 What is the inducer for the lac operon?
1131 What is the effect of lactose on the repressor protein?
1132 What conditions are necessary for the lac operon to be switched off?
1133 What conditions are necessary for the lac operon to be switched on?
1134 How can the action of RNA polymerase in lac operon be up-regulated?
1135 How does cAMP levels within the cell affect the rate of lactose metabolism? Explain with reference to the lac o
1136 Give one way of transcriptional control in eukaryotic cells.
1137 What is heterochromatin?
1138 What is euchromatin?
1139 At which state would the DNA be during cell division - heterochromatin or euchromat
1140 At which stage of cell division would gene expression occur?
1141 Why can gene expression only occur with euchromatin?
1142 Explain how heterochromatin is converted to euchromatin.
1143 Explain how euchromatin is converted to heterochromatin.
1144 Give one way of transcriptional gene regulation.
1145 What are transcription factors?
1146 What 2 areas do transcription factors bind to?
1147 What has happened if a transcription factor has repressed a gene?
1148 What has happened if a transcription factor has up-regulated a gene?
1149 Give one way of post-transcriptional gene regulation.
1150 What is an intron?
1151 What is an exon?
1152 What is pre-mRNA?
1153 What is mature mRNA?
1154 What is alternative splicing?
1155 Give one way of translational gene regulation that up-regulates translation.
1156 Give one way of translational gene regulation that inihibits translation.
1157 Give one way of post-translational gene regulation.
1158 What enzyme catalyses the formation of cyclic AMP from ATP?
1159 What activates protein kinase A (PKA)?
1160 What is the function of protein kinase A (PKA)?
1161 What is a homeobox gene?
1162 Why are homeobox genes highly conserved in plants, animals and fungi?
1163 What is the homeobox sequence?
1164 What is the homeodomain sequence?
1165 What is a Hox gene?
1166 What type of genes are homeotic / homeobox / Hox genes?
1167 How many Hox gene clusters are found in humans?
1168 What is apoptosis?
1169 How is apoptosis different to cell death due to trauma?
1170 What is a bleb in terms of apoptosis?
1171 What are 4 cell signals that can induce apoptosis?
1172 What are 4 uses of apoptosis in plant and animal tissue development?
1173 What is a genotype?
1174 What is a phenotype?
1175 What is an allele?
1176 What are the 3 causes of genetic variation in a population?
1177 What are the 3 causes of genetic variation that occur during meiosis?
1178 When does allele shuffling due to crossing over occur during meiosis?
1179 When does independent assortment of chromosomes occur during meiosis?
1180 When does independent assortment of chromatids occur during meiosis?
1181 What are the 4 chromosomal mutations that can occur during meiosis?
1182 What are the 3 features of discontinuous genetic variation?
1183 What are the 3 features of continuous genetic variation?
1184 Name 2 examples of environmental variation.
1185 What is a gene locus?
1186 How many alleles are inherited for a single gene?
1187 How many dominant alleles are needed for its phenotype to be expressed?
1188 How many recessive alleles are needed for its phenotype to be expressed?
1189 What is meant if an individual is homozygous at a gene locus?
1190 What is meant if an individual is heterozygous at a gene locus?
1191 What is meant by a true-breeding individual?
1192 What
What does
is theitexpected
mean if aphenotypic
characteristic
ratiois for
monogenic?
monogenic inheritance in offspring from
1193 heterozygous parents?
1194 What is a test cross?
1195 What is the expected outcome for a test cross if the F2 individual is homozygous?
1196 What is the expected outcome for a test cross if the F2 individual is heterozygous?
1197 What is meant by codominance?
1198 What is meant if a gene has multiple alleles?
1199 What is the human male combination for the sex chromosomes?
1200 What is the human female combination for the sex chromosomes?
1201 What is meant by the homogametic sex?
1202 What is meant by the heterogametic sex?
1203 What is a sex-linked characteristic?
1204 What is an X-linked characteristic?
1205 How many alleles do males have for an X-linked characteristic?
1206 How many alleles do females have for an X-linked characteristic?
1207 Haemophilia is an example of which type of inheritance?
1208 Calculate the probability of the offspring being a female carrier if the father was a h
1209 Fur colour in cats is partly controlled by a gene on the X chromosome. The gene has t
1210 What
What isis dihybrid inheritance?
the expected phenotypic ratio for dihybrid inheritance in offspring from
1211 heterozygous parents?
1212 What are autosomes?
1213 What
What isis autosomal
the expectedlinkage?
phenotypic ratio for the inheritance of 2 autosomally linked
1214 genes in offspring from heterozygous parents?
1215 What is a recombinant genotype?
1216 What is epistasis?
1217 What is antagonistic epistasis?
1218 What is an epistatic gene?
1219 What is a hypostatic gene?
1220 What
What is recessive epistasis?
phenotypic ratio in offspring from heterozygous parents may suggest recessive
1221 epistasis?
1222 What
What is dominant epistasis?
2 phenotypic ratios in offspring from heterozygous parents may suggest
1223 dominant epistasis?
1224 Epistasis is shown in the inheritance of corn colour, with gene P that codes for a pu
1225 What
What is complementary
3 phenotypic ratiosgene action? from heterozygous parents may suggest
in offspring
1226 What
complementary genecan
statistical test action?
be used to determine whether the observed phenotypic
1227 ratio is significantly different from the expected ratio?
1228 What form should the null hypothesis for a chi-squared test take?
1229 What is the Hardy-Weinberg principle?
1230 What
What are
are the
the 25 Hardy-Weinberg
assumptions made equations?
if the Hardy-Weinberg principle applies to a
1231 population?
1232 The deer in a captive population vary in colour. 53 deer are brown and 14 are white. T
1233 What is genetic drift?
1234 What are the 2 causes of genetic drift?
1235 What is a genetic bottleneck?
1236 What is the effect of a genetic bottleneck on genetic diversity?
1237 What is the founder effect?
1238 What is the effect of the founder effect on genetic diversity?
1239 Selection pressure can affect homozygous individuals. The effect can be investigated
1240 What is natural selection?
1241 What is stabilising selection?
1242 What is directional selection?
1243 What is disruptive selection?
1244 What is speciation?
1245 What is meant by geographical isolation?
1246 What type of speciation is a result of geographical isolation?
1247 What is reproductive isolation?
1248 What type of speciation results in reproductive isolation?
1249 What is sympatric speciation?
1250 What can lead to sympatric speciation?
1251 What is artificial selection?
1252 What is inbreeding?
1253 Describe a problem with inbreeding.
1254 What is the effect of artificial selection on genetic diversity?
1255 What is a gene bank?
1256 What are the 2 main ethical objections to artificial selection?
1257 What is a DNA probe?
1258 Which part(s) of the genome are compared in DNA profiling for forensics
1259 Put these steps for creating a DNA profile in the correct order: Amplification, Visualis
1260 Give 2 uses of DNA profiles.
1261 State three potential sources of DNA at a crime scene
1262 Two primers are needed in PCR. What is a primer?
1263 The first step of a PCR cycle is to heat to 95oC. What happens in this step?
1264 What is special about Taq polymerase compared to other DNA polymerases?
1265 The second stage of PCR (after heating to 95oC) is to cool to around 55oC. What is the
1266 A PCR mixture must contain DNA polymerase, free nucleotides, buffer, primers and w
1267 If the number of DNA fragments doubles in each PCR cycle, how many fragments will t
1268 What does PCR stand for?
1269 In gel electrophoresis, is DNA attracted to the anode (+ve) or cathode (-ve)
1270 Decribe the movement of small fragments compared to larger fragments in gel electr
1271 In gel electrophoresis, what are DNA markers?
1272 In gel electrophoresis, what is the gel made of?
1273 What is the purpose of gel electrophoresis?
1274 What is a genome?
1275 Give two reasons why new DNA sequencing techniques have improved upon old met
1276 In order to use the Sanger sequencing method, apart from the DNA sample to be seq
1277 How is a terminator base different from a normal nucleotide?
1278 How are the terminator bases altered in order for the sequence of nucleotide to be s
1279 Why would the addition of the terminator base stop further extension of the DNA st
1280 What is the first step in sequencing a whole genome?
1281 How are the DNA fragments separated and read in DNA sequencing?
1282 Briefly describe how next-generation sequencing works.
1283 Explpain how genome sequencing can help identify evolutionary relationships.
1284 Bioinformatics is transforming epidemiology. What is epidemiology?
1285 What’s the difference between Bioinformatics and Computational Biology?
1286 Name one benefit to sequencing pathogens' genomes.
1287 What is proteomics?
1288 The amino acid sequence is not always what would be predicted from the genome seq
1289 What is DNA barcoding?
1290 Once scientists have sequenced a gene they can work out the amino acid sequence of
1291 What is synthetic biology?
1292 What is recombinant DNA?
1293 What is a restriction endonuclease?
1294 What is meant when a restriction enzyme recognition site is said to be 'palindromic'?
1295 What are 'sticky ends' in genetic engineering?
1296 Do restriction enzymes catalyse condensation or hydrolysis reactions?
1297 What is another method of getting the desired gene apart from using restriction end
1298 What is a reverse transcriptase?
1299 What does it mean when we say that two DNA fragments are 'annealed'?
1300 What process could you describe as the reverse of restriction digestion?
1301 Name a common vector used in genetic engineering.
1302 What is the role of DNA Ligase?
1303 How are restriction enzymes used in genetic modification?
1304 What is electroporation?
1305 What is electofusion?
1306 What is a transgenic organism?
1307 Suggest a reason for genetically modifying a plant.
1308 State a negative aspect of genetically modifying plants.
1309 What is 'pharming'?
1310 Give an ethical positive and negative to “pharming”.
1311 Give a positive and negative ethical issue of geneticially engineering pathogens
1312 What is gene therapy?
1313 What’s the difference between somatic cell therapy and germ line cell therapy?
1314 State a negative feature of somatic cell gene therapy.
1315 State a negative feature of germline gene therapy.
1316 Why is it harder to treat genetic disorders caused by dominant alleles than disorders
1317 State whether each type of gene therepy (somatic and germline) is legal or illegal.
1318 State 3 ways in which plants clone themselves.
1319 Define micropropagation
1320 Define tissue culture.
1321 In what circumstances would micropropagation be used?
1322 Outline the steps involved in micropropagation.
1323 State 3 advantages of cloning plants.
1324 State 3 disadvantages of cloning plants.
1325 Describe the difference between micropropagation and tissue culture.
1326 Describe how to take cuttings.
1327 What are explants?
1328 How are explants processed before cultured for cloning, and why?
1329 What chemicals need to be added to the nutrient agar plates to induce plant devel
1330 State the term given to a ball of unspecialised plant cells produced during micropropa
1331 What do we call natural human clones?
1332 Outline how twins / natural animal clones are formed.
1333 Outline how embryo twinning works.
1334 In artificial twinning, explain why the cow needs to be treated with hormones as the fi
1335 In artificial twinning,the offspring are genetically identical to whom?
1336 Which method is a type of reproductive cloning - Artificial twinning or somatic cell nu
1337 Outline how somatic cell nuclear transfer cloning works.
1338 In SCNT, which cell becomes enucleated?
1339 How is the enucleated egg cell fused with the somatic cell nucleus?
1340 Explain why the offspring in SCNT is not an exact clone of the nucleus donor.
1341 State 3 advantages of cloning animals.
1342 State 3 disadvantages of cloning animals.
1343 Give one use of animal cloning.
1344 Name the microorganism used in baking.
1345 Explain why bread rises.
1346 Name the microorganism used in brewing.
1347 Name the type of respiration used by microorganisms during brewing and state the pro
1348 Give the balanced symbol equation for fermentation of glucose.
1349 Name the type of organism used in making cheese.
1350 Which enzyme is used in cheese making and what is the source of this?
1351 Describe the steps involved in making vegetarian chymosin (by genetic engineering).
1352 Name the type of organism used in making yogurt.
1353 Name the type of organism involved in producing penicillin.
1354 Which microorganism is used to make single cell protein / mycoprotein?
1355 State the reactants and conditions in the fermenter when mycoprotein is made and e
1356 State 3 advantages of producing and consuming SCP.
1357 State 3 disadvantages of producing and consuming SCP.
1358 Is penicillin produced in batch fermentation or continuous fermentation?
1359 Where did insulin historically come from?
1360 What was the problem with using insulin from animals?
1361 Describe the steps involved in making synthetic insulin.
1362 Is insulin produced in batch fermentation or continuous fermentation?
1363 Define bioremediation.
1364 Describe how bioremediation works.
1365 What is the difference between in situ and ex situ bioremediation?
1366 Why is a source of carbon needed when growing microorganisms?
1367 Why is a source of nitrogen needed when growing microorganisms?
1368 What is the jelly-like substance called on which microorganisms are often grown?
1369 What is meant by a closed culture?
1370 Sketch and label the growth curve for a population of microorganisms in a closed cult
1371 Describe the lag phase of the bacterial growth curve.
1372 Explain the lag phase of the bacterial growth curve.
1373 Describe the log / exponential phase of the bacterial growth curve.
1374 Explain the log / exponential phase of the bacterial growth curve.
1375 Describe the stationary phase of the bacterial growth curve.
1376 Explain the stationary phase of the bacterial growth curve.
1377 Describe the death / decline phase of the bacterial growth curve.
1378 Explain the death / decline phase of the bacterial growth curve.
1379 Give 1 / 2 / 3 steps you'd take to work aseptically.
1380 Explain why you'd work near a Bunsen burner when working aseptically.
1381 How is the nutrient agar medium sterilised when preparing to grow microorganisms?
1382 How is the equipment sterilised when preparing to grow microorganisms?
1383 Describe the conditions when something is placed in an autoclave.
1384 Explain the conditions in an autoclave.
1385 What is meant by inoculation?
1386 Name 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 ways of inoculating a medium.
1387 Describe the plate streaking technique.
1388 Describe the plate seeding technique.
1389 Describe the plate spreading technique.
1390 How is the agar plate stored after inoculation?
1391 Explain the reasons for not sealing the lid to the agar plate using sticky tape after inoc
1392 Explain the reasons for incubating at 25oC after inoculation.
1393 Explain the reasons for storing the agar plate upside down after inoculation.
1394 When looking at your plate, how would you distinguish bacterial colonies from fungi?
1395 Why would serial dilutions be used in microbiology?
1396 Describe how you'd make a serial dilution that has a dilution factor of 10.
1397 Once you have made your dilution series, describe what can be done with it.
1398 Describe the difference between primary and secondary metabolites.
1399 Batch or continuous culture: carried out in a closed fermenter, with nothing added o
1400 Batch or continuous culture: microorganisms are left for a set period of time?
1401 Batch or continuous culture: carried out in an open fermenter, with nutrients added
1402 Batch or continuous culture: no idle time and greater product yields?
1403 Give an advantage of batch culture over continuous culture.
1404 Give a disadvantage of batch culture over continuous culture.
1405 Give a disadvantage of continuous culture over batch culture.
1406 How is penicillin produced - batch culture or continuous culture?
1407 How are bioreactors cooled?
1408 Why is it necessary to cool bioreactors?
1409 Which gas is added to aerobic fermenters?
1410 Describe and explain the condition of all reactants added to a fermenter.
1411 How are substrates and organisms mixed in a fermenter?
1412 How is the pH monitored in a fermenter?
1413 Why is it necessary to monitor and adjust the pH in bioreactors?
1414 How are fermenters sterilised?
1415 Define immobolised enzyme
1416 Give 1 / 2 / 3 advantages of using immobilised enzymes.
1417 Give 1 / 2 disadvantages of using immobilised enzymes.
1418 Name the method described: enzyme molecules are bound to a supporting surface by h
1419 Name the method described: enzyme molecules are separated from the reaction mixt
1420 Name the method described: enzyme molecules are bonded to a supporting surface b
1421 Name the method described: enzyme molecules are trapped in a matrix that does no
1422 What materials can be used as a supporting surface when using adsorption as a tech
1423 Give one disadvantage of using adsorption as a method of immobilising enzymes.
1424 Give one disadvantage of using covalent bonding as a method of immobilising enzyme
1425 Give one disadvantage of using entrapment as a method of immobilising enzymes.
1426 Why is it an advantage to convert glucose to fructose?
1427 What is the role of lactase?
1428 Define the term 'abiotic factor'
1429 Define the term 'biotic factor'
1430 Give 3 examples of abiotic factors
1431 Give 3 examples of biotic factors
1432 Describe the importance of soil for plants
1433 Explain how particle size affects the air content and permeability of soils
1434 Define the term ecosystem
1435 Define the term producer
1436 Define the term carnivore
1437 Define the term herbivore
1438 Define the term Omnivore
1439 Define the term primary consumer
1440 Define the term secondary consumer
1441 Define the term tertiary consumer
1442 Define the term trophic level
1443 Define the term biomass
1444 How do you find the dry mass of an organism?
1445 How do you calculate the net production of biomass made by a primary producer?
1446 A group of scientists measured the gross production of a grassland area as 60gm-2yr-1.
1447 Why can't plants use all of the sunlight that hits them?
1448 Why isn't all energy transferred to the next trophic level?
1449 approximately what % of energy is passed to the next trophic level
1450 How do you calculate % efficiency of energy transfer?
1451 What is the role of a herbicide?
1452 What is the role of a fungicide?
1453 What is the role of an insecticide?
1454 What is the role of fertiliser?
1455 Why is intensive farming beneficial?
1456 Define the term ecosystem
1457 Define the term Community
1458 What is meant by 'nitrogen fixation'?
1459 Give examples of two types of bacteria that are involved in nitrogen fixation
1460 Explain why Rhizobium bacteria can be described as mutualistic
1461 What is meant by ammonification?
1462 Describe the process of nitrification
1463 Give the role of nitrosomonas bacteria in the nitrogne cycle
1464 Give the role of nitrobacter bacteria in the nitrogen cycle
1465 What is denitrification and how does it occur?
1466 List 3 processes that return carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
1467 name a process that removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
1468 Give reasons for the levels of carbon dioxide increasing over the past 100 years
1469 Define the term global warming
1470 Give 3 consequences of global warming
1471 Give reasons for the levels of methane increasing
1472 Define the term succession
1473 State features of a pioneer species
1474 Define the term deflected succession
1475 Where does primary succession occur?
1476 What is meant by the term 'climax community'?
1477 When does secondary succession occur?
1478 Give the calculation for estimating population size using 'capture, mark, release and r
1479 Define the term abundance
1480 Define the term distribution
1481 How could you ensure that your sampling method is random?
1482 What is a transect?
1483 Name 2 types of quadrat
1484 How could you capture fish?
1485 How could you capture insects?
1486 How could you capture butterflies?
1487 Name 2 pieces of apparatus needed for calculating percentage cover of plant species
1488 How can distribution of organisms be measured?
1489 Should measuring distribution be random or non-random?
1490 Give the equation to calculate the estimated plant abundance within an area of 1m2.
1491 What method is used to find the animal abundance in an area?
1492 Name an assumption you make when you use the mark-release-recapture method
1493 What is the term to describe the maximum population size that an ecosystem can ma
1494 Why can't populations cannot reach an infinite size?
1495 True or false: exponential growth always takes place in real ecosystems.
1496 State the term for non living factors.
1497 What will happen to the population size when abiotic conditions are favourable?
1498 What is a limiting factor?
1499 Are limiting factors abiotic or biotic?
1500 What is happening at the lag phase of a populations growth?
1501 What is happening at the log phase of a populations growth?
1502 What ia happening at the stationary phase of popuation growth?
1503 What are the names given to the different stages of a population growth curve?
1504 What does it mean by 'density independent factors'?
1505 Suggest an example of a denstiy independent factor.
1506 Give 3 examples of limiting factors that are density dependent to birds?
1507 Name the type of competition between individuals of different species.
1508 Name the type of competition between individuals of the same species.
1509 In interspecifc competition, what biotic factors could be involved?
1510 Fill in the gaps: There is a limited supply of resources in ecosystems. Species have .....
1511 What is a predator?
1512 What are prey?
1513 What is the relationship between the numbers of a predator and a prey?
1514 What mechanism controls the predator and prey populations?
1515 Define Preservation.
1516 Define Conservation.
1517 Which strategy focuses on improving biodiversity, preservation or conservation?
1518 What is biodiversity?
1519 How is the human population threatening biodiversity?
1520 What is an important factor of a successful conservation strategy?
1521 Give 2 examples of the strategies that could be used for conservation?
1522 What ethics are involved in a conservation strategy?
1523 What economic or social reasons might influence the conservation of a species or hab
1524 Cutting down trees in a way in which lets them grow back is known as
1525 Without management, grassland would quickly turn into shrubs and then woodland by
1526 What is sustainable management mean?
1527 Why have humans had to use more intensive methods of agriculture?
1528 What problems has the increasing world population caused to ecosystems?
1529 How does coppicing provide sustainable timber production?
1530 What is pollarding of trees?
1531 What is the difference between coppicing and pollarding?
1532 Why is rotational coppicing good for biodiversity?
1533 Why is large scale clear felling of woodland not good for biodiversity?
1534 What land management problems could result from clear felling a large forest?
1535 Why is there an optimal distance for planting trees in woodland?
1536 What are the principles of modern sustainable forestry?
1537 What is selective cutting or harvesting in forests?
1538 How is selective cutting good for biodiversity?
1539 How do foresters manage the trees in sustainable woodland to maximise yields?
1540 Name two ways of managing fish stocks.
1541 List the prinicples of fish sustainability proposed by the Marine Stewardship Council.
1542 To allow sustainablity of fish populations, what must happen if there is over fishing?
1543 What would be the optimum strategy for managing fish populations?
1544 How can human activities affect populations of plant and animals?
1545 What protection areas have humans set up to protect plant and animal species aroun
1546 Why has the human population on the Galapagos islands increased?
1547 How has more building development and increased use of land for agriculture affecte
1548 Why has it been difficult to foster a culture of conservation and education on the Gal
1549 Large areas of the coastal zones have been designated 'No Take' zones. What are the
1550 What are financial incentives given to farmers for in national parks?
1551 How do they manage cliffs, rock and scree habitats in the Lake District?
1552
1553
1554
1555
1556
1557
1558
1559
1560
1561
1562
Answer Topic
Observing
Pros: Cheap, living and dead
portable, easyspecimins
to use, can study living specimens. Cons: Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Limited magnification,
Creating a high resolution, high poor resolution.
contrast image, at different depths Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
of the specimen.
Observing the internal ultrastructure of cells under high Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
magnification
Viewing thehigh and resolution
surface of objets under high magnification and Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Pros: Very magnification and excellent resolution. Cons:
resolution
specimen has to be dead, very expensive, very large, needs great Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
skill and training to use.
TEM sends a beam of electrons through the specimen, the SEM Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
bounces
Light uses electrons
lenses tooff the asurface.
focus beam of light. Electron Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
A small ruler fitted to a light microscope's eyepiece.uses a beam
It must be of
electrons,
calibrated focused
using by magnets. Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
A millimeter longa ruler
stage micrometer
etched onto abefore
slide. itbeing useddivisions,
has 100 to measureeach
specimens.
of 0.01mm or 10 micrometers. It is used to calibrate the eyepiece Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
graticule
To provide more contrast, and make either
it easier to distinguish certain Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Using a stain to distinguish between 2 different orgaisms, or
parts.
between organelles of a specimin due to preferential absorbtion of Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
stain. Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Magnification = Image size / Actual size Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Actual size = Image size / Magnification Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Use a ruler of
A measure and howmeasure the image.
much larger the image of a specimen looks under Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
the
The microscope
ability to distinguish between to adjacent individual points as Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
separate. Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Light: 200nm; SEM: 10nm; TEM: 0.2nm. Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Nucleus;
Surrounded nucleolus;
by a cytoplasm;
double membrane cytoskeleton;
(the plasma
nuclear envelope). Contains
Light: 1,500X; SEM: 100,000X;
membrane;mitochondria; GolgiTEM: 500,000X.
apparatus; smooththe endoplasmic Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
chromatin (DNA wound around histones). Stores human
reticulum;
genome, controls rough endoplasmic reticulum;
the cell by providing ribosomes.for protein
instructions Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
synthesis. Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
A
A double
system membrane
of fluid filledembeded
membranes withstudded
channelwith proteins forming pores.
ribosomes.
Made
Separatesof RNA, produces ribosomes. Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Continuousthe withnucleus from the
the nuclear rest of theLarge
membrane. cell. surface
Pores allowarea formed
ribosomes
A
bystack
folding, and
of flattened
enablesmRNA toofleave
membrane
lots the
protein nucleus.
bound sacs. Vesicles
synthesis. Proteinsfrom off in Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
the RER
pinched
join at
vesicles the cis face. Here they are modified, by adding sugar to make Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
A systemtransported
glycoproteins, of fluid filled
adding
tomembranes.
the Golgi apparatus.
lipids to form No ribosomes.
glycolipids. Contain
Folding enzymes
proteins into
for cholesterol,
their 3D shape. lipid and phospholipid
Modified synthesis.
proteins are pinched off from the trans Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
face
2 into
subunits, transport
large and vesicles.
small.Inner
Mademembrane
of rRNA . Proteins synthesised Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Double membrane bound. folded into cristae
here.
within a fluid filled matrix. Contain own DNA and 70s ribosomes. Site Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Double
of aerobicmembrane
respiration. bound. Inner membrane forms flat discs filled Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Membrane
with chlorophyll bound sacs thylakoids,
called containing hydrolytic (digestive)
in stacks glycoproteins,
called granum. enzymes.
These are
Phospholipid
break down by bilayer, cholesterol,
oldaorganelles proteins,
and foreign matter glycolipids.
surrounded
Separates cell contents fluid matrix
from called
external stroma.for
theenvironment. reuse.own DNA
Contain
Controls what
Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
and
enters70s ribosomes.
and leaves the Site of
cell. photosynthesis.
Identifies cell as self. Acts asata right
receptor Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Present
Present in
in animals
plants only.
and fungiTwo bundles
only. Bundlesof microtubules
of cellulose fibres in angles.
plants.
for
Used various chemicals. sitetoofseparate
chemical reactions. during cell Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Chitinas in an anchor
fungi. point
Provides support and chromosomes
strength, maintaining the cell's
division.
shape. Form the
prevents the basis of cilia.
cellsurround
from bursting when turgid. Permeable to Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
9
9 pairs
pairs of
of microtubules
microtubules surround 2
2 lone
lone microtubules.
microtubules. A
A membrane
membrane
allow solutions
covers through.Used for moving unicellular organisms Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
covers thethe whole
whole thing.
thing. Present in great numbers. Move together in
around.
a wafting pattern to move single celled organisms. When present on Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Microfilaments
tissues waft to move madefluids
of actinsuch- allow cell movement and cytokinesis. Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
as mucus.
Microtubules made of tubulinsscaffold like structures to give cell
Nucleus; RER; transport
shape. Intermediate fibresvesicle; Golgi apparatus
give mechanical strength, maintaining Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Prokaryotes
integrity. have no: Nucleus; centrioles; membrane bound Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
organelles (mitochondria, chloroplast, RER, SER, Golgi apparatus).
Plasma
Prokaryotes also have: peptidoglycan cell wall; smaller ribosomes; Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
membrane; cytoplasm; ribosomes; DNa and RNA
naked loop of DNA; plasmids. Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
Binary fission Ch.2 Basic components of living systems
- O is more electronegative than H / unequal share of e- / e- spend
C, H, O,
more N, Sorbiting around O than H
time Ch.3 Biological molecules
- give regions of slight positive and negative Ch.3 Biological molecules
Hydrogen bond Ch.3 Biological molecules
All 1,4-glycosidic bonds, straight helix Ch.3 Biological molecules
1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds, branched Ch.3 Biological molecules
Amylose + Amylopectin Ch.3 Biological molecules
Hydrolysis Ch.3 Biological molecules
- Amylose
Condensation
-Glucose
Amylopectin Ch.3 Biological molecules
-+Glycogen
Fructose Ch.3 Biological molecules
Amylopectin
-/cellulose
Glycogenmolecules form hydrogen bonds with each other to make Ch.3 Biological molecules
microfibrils Ch.3 Biological molecules
-Cellulose
microfibrils join to make macrofibrils Ch.3 Biological molecules
- macrofibrils join to make fibres
Alternative β-glucoseand
- fibres are insoluble molecules
tough are turned upside down Ch.3 Biological molecules
-Reducing Colorimeter measure the absorbance Ch.3 Biological molecules
sugar reacts with blue Cu2+ or transmission of light by a
Reducing
coloured --> to makesugar
solution
brick-red Cu+ Ch.3 Biological molecules
- More concentrated solution  more light absorbed / less light Ch.3 Biological molecules
transmitted
Iodine
- Compare solution
to data table (known concentrations vs. abs/trans value) Ch.3 Biological molecules
Ch.3 Biological molecules
Carboxyl group + Hydrocarbon chain Ch.3 Biological molecules
3 Ch.3 Biological molecules
- Saturated: all single C-C bonds in fatty acid chain
Esterification Ch.3 Biological molecules
-- Unsaturated
Unsaturated:fatty1 or more doublethe
acids cause C=C bonds intofatty
molecule acid chain
kink/bend
-- cannot pack closely together (ie. +Cannot form more H bonds) Ch.3 Biological molecules
-- phospholipid:
Hydrophilic 2 fatty
heads acidoutwards
point chains 1 phosphate group
hydrophilic/hydrophobic characteristics Ch.3 Biological molecules
-- Similarities:
Triglyceride:both have
3 fatty aciddual
chains
/ Hydrophobic
both make uptails the point
plasma inwards (shielded from aqueous
membrane Ch.3 Biological molecules
environment)
-- Difference:
mix sample sterols are complex alcohol molecules; phospholipids
with ethanol Ch.3 Biological molecules
-are mixlipids
solution with water and shake
- white emulsion layer formed  lipid present Ch.3 Biological molecules
Ch.3 Biological molecules
amino acids Ch.3 Biological molecules
Central carbon + H atom + Amine group + Carboxyl group Ch.3 Biological molecules
Peptide bond Ch.3 Biological molecules
Amino acid sequence Ch.3 Biological molecules
alpha-helix + beta-pleated sheets Ch.3 Biological molecules
Folding into a 3D shape Ch.3 Biological molecules
Binding with other subunits Ch.3 Biological molecules
peptide bond Ch.3 Biological molecules
hydrogen bond hydrogen, hydrophobic interactions, disulphide
ionic, covalent, Ch.3 Biological molecules
bridges
ionic, covalent, hydrogen, hydrophobic interactions, disulphide Ch.3 Biological molecules
bridges Ch.3 Biological molecules
hydrolysis Ch.3 Biological molecules
Biuret solution Ch.3 Biological molecules
aUsing
- depends
Biuret to
technique solution:
separateBlue
on interactions
to purple
individual
(H bonds)components
aa form with ofsilica
a mixture
in the(eg.
Ch.3 Biological molecules
Amino acids)
stationary phase Ch.3 Biological molecules
- depends on solubility in the mobile phase Ch.3 Biological molecules
prevent contamination with proteins on hands Ch.3 Biological molecules
Globular, conjugated, fibrous Ch.3 Biological molecules
Hydrophilic amino acids are folded on the protein surface Ch.3 Biological molecules
-non-protein
Hb: Fe2+ bond reversibly with O2 in blood
component in a conjugated protein Ch.3 Biological molecules
- Catalase: Fe2+ allows catalase to interact with H2O2 to speed up
Haemoglobin/Catalase
its breakdown Ch.3 Biological molecules
Ch.3 Biological molecules
4 Ch.3 Biological molecules
Many strong disulfide bridges Ch.3 Biological molecules
3 polypeptides wound together in a long, strong rope-like structure Ch.3 Biological molecules
Phosphodiester bonds Ch.3 Biological molecules
Nucleotide Ch.3 Biological molecules
Adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine, uracil Ch.3 Biological molecules
Deoxyribose + Nitrogenous base + Phosphate group Ch.3 Biological molecules
antiparallel Ch.3 Biological molecules
Pyrimidines Ch.3 Biological molecules
Purines Ch.3 Biological molecules
A-T/U, C-G Ch.3 Biological molecules
2 Ch.3 Biological molecules
Each new DNA molecule is made up of one new and one 3 Ch.3 Biological molecules
old/template strand Ch.3 Biological molecules
DNA helicase
Catalyses + DNA of
formation polymerase
phosphodiester bonds between DNA Ch.3 Biological molecules
nucleotides Ch.3 Biological molecules
Unzips DNA double helix, breaking hydrogen bonds Ch.3 Biological molecules
Complementary base pairing Ch.3 Biological molecules
5' to 3' Ch.3 Biological molecules
3' to 5' Ch.3 Biological molecules
The sequence of bases in DNA that codes for the sequence
Many different triplet codes/codons can code for the same amino of amino aCh.3 Biological molecules
acid
A section of DNA containing the base sequence that codes for a Ch.3 Biological molecules
Triplet bases on RNA
protein Ch.3 Biological molecules
-that
DNAcodes for an aminoRNA
has deoxyribose; acidhas ribose
- DNA has thymine; RNA has uracil Ch.3 Biological molecules
- it acts as the template strand Ch.3 Biological molecules
- to form the complementary mRNA with the same base sequence as
DNA helicase
the sense + RNA polymerase
strand Ch.3 Biological molecules
Ch.3 Biological molecules
phosphodiester bonds Ch.3 Biological molecules
- peptidyl transferase is an rRNA component
DNA is too large to leave the nucleus
- it transfers one amino acid to another through the nuclear pores Ch.3 Biological molecules
Ch.3 Biological molecules
anticodon loop Ch.3 Biological molecules
- The amino acid chain folds into secondary and tertiary structures
-Methionine
May undergo further modifications at Golgi Ch.3 Biological molecules
Ch.3 Biological molecules
Transcription + Translation Ch.3 Biological molecules
mRNA Ch.3 Biological molecules
Polypeptide (then becomes functional protein after modification in GoCh.3 Biological molecules
Ribosomes Ch.3 Biological molecules
Synthesis, transport, movement Ch.3 Biological molecules
Adenosine
Ribose sugar triphosphate,
(pentose with energy
O on currency
top) + adenine on C1 + 3 phosphate Ch.3 Biological molecules
groups on C5 (must show C5 as an angle off the pentose sugar) Ch.3 Biological molecules
Small - easy to move into and out of cells; Water-soluble; Releases
ATP is hydrolysed into ADP + Pi, releasing energy
energy in small quantities - so no heat loss; Easily regenerated by Ch.3 Biological molecules
phosphorylation of ADP Ch.3 Biological molecules
the sum of all reactions in the organism Ch.4 Enzymes
Building up larger molecules Ch.4 Enzymes
Breaking down molecules Ch.4 Enzymes
Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions Ch.4 Enzymes
Activation energy Ch.4 Enzymes
Enzymes lower Ea Ch.4 Enzymes
Active site Ch.4 Enzymes
Complementary/Specific Ch.4 Enzymes
Lock-and-key + Induced fit Ch.4 Enzymes
Enzyme-substrate
Lock-and-key: rigid, no movement; Induced fit: slight movement of Ch.4 Enzymes
complex
active site to allow better binding to substrate Ch.4 Enzymes
Catalase Ch.4 Enzymes
-Amylase/trypsin Increasing temperature increases particles’ kinetic energy Ch.4 Enzymes
-- Particles
High move faster
temperature and
leads to collide more often
more vibrations
Loss of active site shape Ch.4 Enzymes
-- More
Too muchsuccessful
vibrationcollisions
breaks (between
the bondsactive site the
that hold andprotein
substrate)
together Ch.4 Enzymes
-A measure
A change of how
in pHmuch
refersthe reaction
tohence
a change rate increases
instable
H+ with a 10oC
concentration Ch.4 Enzymes
- enzymes are more flexible, less
-increase
-- can H+ ions
moveare interact
more with
in low polar
KE (have and
environmentcharged R
to bind groups in tertiary Ch.4 Enzymes
enzymes
structures more stable more bonds in tertiary structure)
Ch.4 Enzymes
--- more resistant
This
Higherbreaks to denaturation
the
successful
by highbetween
bonds/interactions
collision rate
heat R groups, leading
to loss of tertiary structure Ch.4 Enzymes
- Between active site and the substrate
- Forming more enzyme-substrate complexes Ch.4 Enzymes
The inhibitor can be released from the enzyme to resume the Ch.4 Enzymes
-enzymes’ By adding
function more substrates to outcompete inhibitors Ch.4 Enzymes
-- Competitive:
More substrates inhibitor
leadsbinds to active
to more site collisions
successful substratebetween
can no
Reversible
longer
enzymes bind
andtosubstrates,
AS hence more ESC formed Ch.4 Enzymes
-- Non-competitive:
Therefore less enzymes inhibitor binds to
available forainhibitors
location other than the
to bind Ch.4 Enzymes
active site (allosteric site)  changes 3o structure, hence change AS
Irreversible,
shape competitive Ch.4 Enzymes
No change
Ch.4 Enzymes
-, as active site is altered byinsecticides
Organophosphates inhibitor binding in allosteric
and herbicides side AChE)
(inhibits
- Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs)  treat long term indigestion Ch.4 Enzymes
- ATP binds to the allosteric site of PFK Ch.4 Enzymes
-- Prevent
Cofactors second
=an phosphorylation
a non-protein of glucose
component to help enzymes carry out
The
-theirproduct
Glucose of
is not enzyme-catalysed
broken down to reaction
produce acts as
more ATPthe inhibitor Ch.4 Enzymes
functions
- Coenzymes = organic cofactors Ch.4 Enzymes
Ch.4 Enzymes
Minerals Ch.4 Enzymes
Vitamins Ch.4 Enzymes
Chloride ion Ch.4 Enzymes
NADP Ch.4 Enzymes
- Cofactors are temporarily bound to the enzyme
NAD + FAD groups are permanently bound
- Prosthetic Ch.4 Enzymes
Ch.4 Enzymes
-Iron
Adding a cofactor
ion in haem group Ch.4 Enzymes
- action of another enzyme (eg. Cleaving bonds to activate enzyme)
Zn2+
- Change in condition (eg. pH) Ch.4 Enzymes
Ch.4 Enzymes
Otherwise it may damage the cell it was produced in Ch.4 Enzymes
Inactive form of enzyme Ch.4 Enzymes
Compartmentalisation (separates cell's components from its
Active
The form
theory ofthe
of enzyme
cell membrane formed Ch.4 Enzymes
external surroundings
Compartmentalisation ensuring
(maintains specificfrom
conditions a sea
inside
conditionscellofremain
for metabolic
phospholipids
unaffected); emmeded
regulates with
transport proteins.
of material into
reactions to take place, e.g. photosynthesis in chloroplasts, and out of aerobic
cells Ch.5 Biological Membranes
(endocytosis
A lipid with in
respiration and exocytosis);
a carbohydrate has
mitochondria);molecule surface antigens so
attached. membrane is
inner mitochondrial the body's Ch.5 Biological Membranes
immune
highly system
folded recognises
providing a the cell
larger as 'self';
surface area contains
for electronreceptors
carrierfor
A protein signals
chemical with a carbohydrate
(hormones, molecule
drugs attached.
etc);chloroplasts
may be the house
site of chemical Ch.5 Biological Membranes
proteins; thylakoid membranes within
reactions
chlorophyll, the primary pigment required for light absorption in Ch.5 Biological Membranes
photosynthesis; vesicle production. Ch.5 Biological Membranes
Hydrophilic phosphate heads are orientated outwards (towards
Phospholipid bilayer fatty acid tails are orientated inwards (away
water); hydrophobic Ch.5 Biological Membranes
from
As water)or antigens; cell signalling; cell communication; call
markers Ch.5 Biological Membranes
adhesion Ch.5 Biological Membranes
Interspersed between
Channel proteins, phospholipid
carrier molecules; regulates fluidity of
proteins, glycoproteins Ch.5 Biological Membranes
membrane by coming between phospholipids preventing
Transport
As temperatureAlso
crystallisation. increases,
bonds to phospholipids
phospholipids, willpreventing
have moreitKE, so move
becoming Ch.5 Biological Membranes
faster
too fluid.backbone; one hydrophilic phosphate head; two to lose
and more, making the bilayer more fluid and it begins Ch.5 Biological Membranes
Glycerol
its structure. This loss of structure allows molecules to cross it more
hydrophobic
easily. Carrier fatty
and acid tailsproteins may become denatured,
channel Ch.5 Biological Membranes
Non-polar ethanol molecules can insert themselves into the bilayer
affecting
(hydrophobicmembrane transport.the structure, meaning the bilayer
tails) disrupting Ch.5 Biological Membranes
becomes
Alcohol more fluidand
anddissolve
permeable Ch.5 Biological Membranes
The net can disrupt
movement of a substance bacteria's
from an membrane
area of highdue to their
non-polar
concentrationnature,
to killing
an area them
of low concentration. It is passive, Ch.5 Biological Membranes
Movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low does
NOT require ATP.
concentration, across a partially permeable membrane, via specific Ch.5 Biological Membranes
channel or carrier proteins. It is passive, does NOT require ATP Ch.5 Biological Membranes
A
A protein
protein whichwhich creates
changesashape fluid filled
to allow porelarger
in themolecules
cell membrane to pass
through
through the membrane. In facilitated diffusion thisitpass.
Water is which
polar ions
and and small
insoluble inpolar
lipid, molecules
BUT because can is present
requires noin Ch.5 Biological Membranes
such
energy, high quantities,
in active such significant
transport direct,
it requires simple diffusion does
ATP. dioxide; lipid-soluble occur. Ch.5 Biological Membranes
Small
In molecules
membranes as oxygen
(e.g. collecting andwhere
duct) carbon a very high rate of water
molecules such as steroid hormones
movement is required, special channel proteins known as and alcohol Ch.5 Biological Membranes
aquaporins
Temperature, aresurface
inserted intodiffusion
area, the membrane. size of molecule, Ch.5 Biological Membranes
Movement of molecules, against theirdistance, concentration gradient (using
concentration
energy liberated gradient channels Ch.5 Biological Membranes
Molecule
The movement binds of tofrom
large
ATP site
specific hydrolysis)
molecules in carrier
that
using
are
specific
protein;
too bigATP
to
protein
binds
pass to
across the Ch.5 Biological Membranes
or carriersbinding site; carrier protein changes shape (conformational
separate
plasma membrane. Endocytosis (phagocytosis or pinocytosis) brings
change)
large and transports
molecules INTO the molecule
cell, across membrane
enclosed Ch.5 Biological Membranes
The intake of solid particles into the cellin byaengulfing.
vesicle. Exocytosis
Pseudopodia
transports
surround large
the molecules OUT of cells.fuses together, to form a Ch.5 Biological Membranes
The
The intake
bulk of particles,
liquidsofinto
transport
the the
particles
membrane
cell
too bylarge
engulfing.
to pass The plasma
through the
vesicle.
membrane invaginates, andItthe membrane fuses around the Ch.5 Biological Membranes
membrane,
ATP is required out toof provide
the cell. works
energy for like
thea movement
reversal of pinocytosis.
of vesicles A
substance,
vesiclemicrotubules formingthe
containing a vesicle. Ch.5 Biological Membranes
along of substance
cytoskeleton fuses(viawith
motortheproteins);
plasma membrane.ATP is
The
needed to fuse vesicle membrane and plasma membrane together Ch.5 Biological Membranes
fused site opens, releasing the contents of the secretory vesicle.
(PM is changing shape) Ch.5 Biological Membranes
The movement of water molecules from a region of higher water
Active
potential transport
to a region requires
of lowerATP;water facillitated diffusion
potential, across is passive
a partially Ch.5 Biological Membranes
permeable
The tendancy membrane
of water molecules to move from one region to Ch.5 Biological Membranes
another. Ch.5 Biological Membranes
Pure water Ch.5 Biological Membranes
WP = SP + PP Ch.5 Biological Membranes
Solute potential decreases, hence water potential decreases Ch.5 Biological Membranes
Water would move OUT, down a WP
Water would move IN, down a WP gradient, swelling the cell and gradient, shrinking to crenation Ch.5 Biological Membranes
causing
Water would it to burst
move(CYTOLYSIS)
OUT, downdue a WP togradient,
the presence causingof no thecellcellwall
to Ch.5 Biological Membranes
become
Water flaccid
would and IN,then plasmolysed swell Ch.5 Biological Membranes
Cells grow andmoveincrease down
in size; a WP gradient,
proteins fromcausing the cell to are
which organelles
and become
made TURGID (transcribed and translated); organelles
are synthesised Ch.5 Biological Membranes
replicate Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
Second growth phase, proteins which involved in making the
This is the synthesis
chromosomes condense phase, areDNA is replicated.
synthesised (transcribed and Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
translated). Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
G1/S - checks for size, growth factors, nutrients, DNA damage; G2/M
-Cells
checksmayDNA undergohas been apoptosis,
properly differentiation
replicated; spindle or senescence
assembly - Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
checks chromosomes have correctly attached to spindle fibres Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
Nuclear envelope breaks down; chromatin condenses (DNA
Asexual
supercoils); reproduction; growth; tissue
nucleolus disappears; repair;
spindle replacement
fibres start to form of cells
from Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
centrioles
Chromosomes line up along equator (metaphase plate); spindle Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
fibres chromatids
Sister attach through pulledcentromeres
to opposite poles of the cell by shortening Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
Animal
tubulin cells
spindle - cleavage
fibres furrow forms and plasma membrane is pulled Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
Nuclear
inwards,envelopesplitting the reforms aroundplant
cytoplasm; eachcellsset of chromosomes;
- vesicles assemble
chromatin relaxes; nucleolus reappears
around metaphase plate and fuse; new plasma membrane and Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
cellulose
It cell wallofare laid down tissue (source of stem cells) in a Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
Toisbreak
the location
the links between meristematic cellulose cell walls in plant cells; this
plant, i.e.the
ensures cells arepenetrates
stain actively dividing the cells and binds to the Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
chromosomes Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
Acetic orcein of gametes. Genetically unique with half the genetic Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
The formation
In anaphase
information I, a homologous pair of chromosomes is separated so Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
Crossing
the chromosome overofina prophase
somatic cell.
number halves I; independent
(2 haploid assortment
cells made); in metaphase
in anaphase
I; independent
II, sister chromatids assortment
of eachinchromosome
metaphase IIare separated so Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
chromosome number stays the same (haploid number maintained) Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
Anaphase/telophase
Very
Moresmall likelyso have
that some I individuals
a large SA:vol (biconcave
are adapted shape also ensures
to a change in thethis) Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
meaning
environment, oxygen can
sowhich reach
the population all regions
can surviveinside the cell; well-developed Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
The process by
cytoskeleton allows thea cell develops
erythrocytes to
to become
change shape more and distinct
move in
form andvery
through function
narrow capillaries; no nucleus or organelles so more Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
space for Hb molecules Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
Acrosome in head contains enzymes to penetrate the egg follicle
These
during contain
fertilisation;hydrolytic enzymes whichtodigest pathogens Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
Light energy --> ATP;many ATP usedmitochondria
to actively generate
transport ATP for flagellar
potassium ions
movement;
from epidermal largecellshaploid nucleus
into guard in head
cells; water topotential
fertilise haploid
of guardovum cells Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
lowered; water moves in by osmosis and guard cells become turgid Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
Moves
Contains the chloroplasts
specialised to areas
carrier proteins of appropriate
to transport light intensity
specific mineral Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
ions in by active transport Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
Connective tissue that contains elastin and collagen fibres; prevents
ends of bones
Multipotent from rubbing
- found in bone together
marrow and can form a range of Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
A group -ofcells
different
Skeletal cellsincluding
working
bicep/tricep together
blood
etc.; cells;
smooth to-pluripotent
perform
digestive atract,
particular
- found bloodinfunction
vessels; Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
early
Thin
embryoswalls(embryonic
with very little stem cellulose;
cells) andnocan chloroplasts;
form all tissue no large
typesvacuole;
except
cardiac
divide muscle -
by mitosis cells;heart
and have walls the ability to differentiate many cell Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
intopost-zygote
extra-embryonic totipotent - found in first 16 cells
types
and can form all tissue types including extra-embryonic tissue (e.g. Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
placenta, umbilicalallcord)
Undifferentiated; genes able to be expressed; self-renewing; able Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
Smaller
to differentiate into any acell
organisms have larger
typeSA:V ratio than larger organisms; Ch.6 Cell Division, Diversity and Organis
simple
Large SAdiffusion
(folded can
walls; be provides
sufficientmore for unicellular
space for organisms
relevant molecules but due
Size,
to SA:Vol
many-layered ratio and level
multicellular of activity
organisms, it(reduces
would bediffusion
too slow. Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
to pass through);
Alveolus wall one thin,
cell permeable
thick; capillary barriers
wall one cell thick; walls of
Multicellular
distance); good organisms
blood therefore
supply (keeps need
high transport
concentrationsystems gradientsare for Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
alveoli/capillaries contain squamous (flattened) cells; caoillaries
rapid
in closediffusion)
contact with alveoli walls; capillaries are narrow to restrict Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
Diaphragm
RBC contracts (moves down and flattens); external intercostal Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
Coatsmovement
muscles thecontract
internaltosurface push ribcageof the alveoli
up andtoout; reduce
volume cohesive
of thorax forces
between
increasedwater and somolecules,
pressure decreasespreventingbelow collapse atmospheric pressure; Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
air rushes into
To stretch during lungs down a pressure
inspiration and recoilgradient
, pushing air out, during Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
expiration Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
Goblet cells produce mucus onto the tracheal lining, trapping dust
Squamous
Large SA with epithelium
and microorganisms. a good The blood supply,
cilia then warming
beat air the mucus away Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
to body
andpreventing
move
C-shaped
temperature; ringslined
of cartilage
with hairline these
(which tubes,
secretes mucus) to collapse trap dust
from
during the lungs
inspiration. and towards
The C-shape the throat
allows foodsurfaces
to pass down the the Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
and
SmoothMOs, protecting
muscle can from
contract infection;
to moist
constrict airways (not to increase
under
oesophagus
humidity behind the trachea Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
consciousofcontrol,the incoming air, reducing
i.e. involuntary); evaporation
elastic fibres elongatefrom exchange
smooth
surfaces
muscle again, sizein the Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
Subject
The shouldrecoiling
maximum be free of
volume
theasthma;
of air
airway there
that
to its original
can be should
moved
shape
be
by no
the
and
air leaks
lungs in one Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
(dilates
apparatus; airway)
mouthpiece should
breath; measured by taking onebedeep sterilised;
breathsoda lime should
and expiring be
all the
fresh
possibleandair functioning
from the lungs. Depends on: size (height) of person; Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
age/gender; exercise levels. Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
2.5
The-maximum
5.0 dm3 volume of extra air you can breathe in forcibly (vital Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
capactiy
The - tidal volume of - ERV) forcibly (vital Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
The maximum
volume of volume air that remains extra air youlungs
in the can breathe
even after outforced
capacity
expiration, i.e. the air that remains in the airways and alveoli (usually Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
- tidal volume - IRV)
1.5
Volumedm3)of air moved in and out with each breath at rest. A normal Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
value
BR = no.would be 0.5 dm3
of breaths taken(500cm3)
per min; VR = total volume of air inhaled Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
per min Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
Ventilation rate = tidal volume x breathing rate (breaths per minute) Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
Two
TV = rows
1500 of cm3 gill...1
filaments;
dm3 higher these thanarenormal
slender branches of tissue Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
known
Buccal as primary
cavity (mouth) lamellae
can and
change are attached
volume; to aofbony
floor mouth arch. Each gill
moves
Operculum;
filament protects
is folded intothe gills andlamellae
secondary ensures a constantaflow of water Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
downwards, drawing water into the buccalproviding cavity; mouth verycloses
large and
surfaceisarea
water pushed through the gills. As water is pushed from the Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
buccal cavity through the gills, the operculum moves outwards Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
Tracheal system Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
Spiracle
Gaseous exchange occurs between air in tracheole and the tracheal Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
fluid
Tracheal thea Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
A
Blood tofluid
carrycan
fluidpressure drops
be withdrawn into the around
nutrients/oxygen/wastes
as bloodwall passes
body fluid
through thethe
to increase
gillbody (blood);
capillaries;
surface
pump area
to create of the tracheole
pressure that exposed to air Ch.7 Exchange Surfaces and Breathing
blood flows slowly through as will
it is push
underthe lowfluid aroundthe
pressure; theratebodyof
(heart);
delivery exchange surfaces (capillaries)
of oxygen/nutrients to respiring tissues is limited (and Ch.8 Transport in Animals
removal
They are of notCO2 and urea)
as metabolically active as mammals as they do not Ch.8 Transport in Animals
maintain
Blood their
is not bodyheld
always temperature
in vessels, but it circulates throughout the Ch.8 Transport in Animals
body
Blood cavity and the tissues and cells bathe directlyslow;in blood Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Blood pressure
travels atishigher low and blood
pressure flowtherefore
and is therefore flow is faster;circulation
can
Tunicabe intima
affected
oxygen/nutrients bysupplied
- thin body
layermovements
ofandelastic (or lack
tissue
CO2/urea whichof) allow
removed morewalls to
quickly; Ch.8 Transport in Animals
stretch and recoil (opposes
transport is independent of body movements. muscle); tunica media - thick layer of Ch.8 Transport in Animals
smooth muscle; tunica adventitia - thick layer of collagen and elastic
Endothelium;
tissue providing reduced
strength friction with thethe
to withstand flowing blood and
high pressure Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Narrow
recoiling lumen
against (squeezes
the muscle red blood cells against walls so transfer of Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Take
oxygen blood fromto
is better artery to capillary;
the tissues); wallsthey haveofasingle
consist layer of layersmooth
of
muscle which contracts restricting and
endothelial cells (reduces diffusion distance); walls are permeable slowing blood flow Ch.8 Transport in Animals
(allows blood plasma and dissolved substances to leave the blood) Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Wide lumen to ease blood flow; thin layers of
Takes blood from the capillaries
elastic/muscle/collagen in walls as to no
theneedveinsto stretch and recoil; Ch.8 Transport in Animals
valves to prevent backflow of blood Ch.8 Transport in Animals
In the ventricles of the heart Ch.8 Transport in Animals
The pressure created by the osmotic effects of the solutes Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Dissolved
Blood plasma solutes
- redsuchbloodas cells,
mineral ions, sugars
neutrophils, and proteinstissue fluid
lymphocytes; Ch.8 Transport in Animals
-They
neutrophils
are toocan (especially
large to pass during
betweeninfection); lymph
the squamous - lymphocytes
cellsnucleus)
of the and Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Neutrophils change shape very easily (multilobed
capillary wall
squeeze themselves between cells. Erythrocytes cannot change Ch.8 Transport in Animals
shape
A system as much
of tubes that returns excess tissue fluid to the blood Ch.8 Transport in Animals
system
Tissuesubunits
fluid surrounds body cells so exchange occurs across plasma Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Four (each with a polypeptide chain and a haem group);
membranes
haem groups each contain an Fe2+ ion at the centre; iron ions can Ch.8 Transport in Animals
attract and hold an oxygen molecule Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Dissociation Ch.8 Transport in Animals
5%
Carbondissolved
dioxidedirectly
from the in the plasma; 10% directlyintowith haemoglobin
It
in has
the aformhigher affinity forblood
oxygen
of carbaminohaemoglobin;
plasma diffuses
than adult haemoglobin
85%(catalysed
in
RBCs anf
the formbyofcarbonic Ch.8 Transport in Animals
combines with water to form carbonic acid
hydrogencarbonate
anhydrase); carbonicions acid then dissociates into hydrogencarbonate Ch.8 Transport in Animals
ions and protons Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Chloride
Hydrogenions ionsmove into the
are taken outRBCs from the
of solution andplasma
combined (chloride
with shift) Ch.8 Transport in Animals
haemoglobin
More oxygen to form haemoglobinic
is released where moreacid carbon(HHb) dioxide is produced in Ch.8 Transport in Animals
respiration
More hydrogen ions --> lower pH (more acidic cytoplasm); tertiary Ch.8 Transport in Animals
structure of Hb altered which reduces its affinity for oxygen Ch.8 Transport in Animals
To
Bloodprevent backflow
is pumped of blood
throught thefrom
aortaarteries
and needs to the ventricles
sufficient pressure to Ch.8 Transport in Animals
overcome the resistance of the systemic circulation Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Supply energy for contraction Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Left and right atria contract together; blood is squeezed from the
Ensures
atria an even,
through the synchronised
atrioventricular contraction
valves into tothea ventricles, Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Ventricular blood pressure rises very quickly level abovedown the a
pressure gradient.
arteries; semilunar valves open and blood rushes out of ventricles Ch.8 Transport in Animals
into the
Once arteries contraction is complete, heart muscle starts to
ventricular Ch.8 Transport in Animals
relax, heart starts to fill with blood again and semilunar valves close Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Cardiac muscle can initiate its own contractions Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Sinoatrial node (SAN) Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Atrioventricular node (AVN) Ch.8 Transport in Animals
To allow the
Specially atria to
adapted finishfibres
muscle contracting
that conduct the wave of excitation Ch.8 Transport in Animals
from the AVN down the septum to the ventricles Ch.8 Transport in Animals
P = atrial excitation; QRS = ventricular excitation; T = diastole Ch.8 Transport in Animals
Bradycardia;
Atria beat more tachycardia
frequently than ventricles, meaning no clear P wave Ch.8 Transport in Animals
can be seen on ECG Ch.8 Transport in Animals
An
Xylemearly ventricular
- water, soluble beatmineral ions (upwards); phloem - assimilates Ch.8 Transport in Animals
(up or down) Ch.9 Plant Transport
Meristematic tissue (source of stem cells) Ch.9 Plant Transport
ToDead
1) separate cellsand support
aligned end the vessels
to end (act aascontinuous
to form packing tissue) column; (2) Ch.9 Plant Transport
Where
Tubes lignification
are narrow so iswater
incomplete,
column leaving
doesn't gaps
breakin the celland
easily wall; the
capillary
Strengthens
bordered vessel
pits in 2 wall andvessels
adjacent prevents arecollapse
aligned to allow water to Ch.9 Plant Transport
action can be effective; (3) Bordered pits allow sideways movement
leave
of water onebetween
vessel and pass into
vessels; the next,
(4) Lignin as well
allows as leave
stretching of the xylem
xylem Ch.9 Plant Transport
(spiral, annular or reticulate patterns) as plant grows Ch.9 Plant Transport
Sieve-tube elements and companion cells Ch.9 Plant Transport
Allows space for mass flow of sap to occur Ch.9 Plant Transport
Apoplast - through spaces in cell walls and between cells (mass
Many
flow…not mitochondria to produce
osmosis); symplast ATP through cytoplasm and
- moves Ch.9 Plant Transport
between cells
Different watervia plasmodesmata
potential of cytoplasm of adjacent cells; Water Ch.9 Plant Transport
moves by osmosis Ch.9 Plant Transport
Cohesion,
Starch actsby asdiffusion
a store of sugars, which can be released and respired Ch.9 Plant Transport
Waterproof
to release hencefor
energy locks theprocesses
active apoplast pathway between the cortex Ch.9 Plant Transport
A
andbandtheof waterproof,
medulla, forcing waxy suberin
water around each
and dissolved endodermis
mineral cell
ions to pass
(on cell wall)
through the selectively permeable membrane into the cytoplasm, Ch.9 Plant Transport
filtering
Water vapour out toxic chemicals
in higher concentration in air spaces than in space Ch.9 Plant Transport
outside leaf; water diffuses down water vapour potential gradient Ch.9 Plant Transport
Light intensity (increased LI…increased rate as stomata more open);
humidity (incr. humidity in air…decr. Rate as lower water vapour
potential gradient); wind speed (incr. wind…incr. rate as maintaining
high water vapour potential gradient) Ch.9 Plant Transport
Loss of water by evaporation
Set up u/w; cut stem u/w to prevent air entering xylem at the top of the plant must be Ch.9 Plant Transport
replaced by water from the xylem. This puts water at the top of
7.1mm3/min
xylem under tension. Tension pulls the column of water up the Ch.9 Plant Transport
xylem
The polarity
Active as water
transport of themolecules
water
is the are cohesive.
molecule,
movement ofwhich produces
particles againsthydrogen
their bonds Ch.9 Plant Transport
between the molecules
concentration gradient using metabolic energy (ATP). Active loading Ch.9 Plant Transport
Roots
is a more growing
extensive or active
processuptaking
which mineral
involves ions;
active actively
transportdividing
at some
Transport
The
meristematic hydrogen of assimilates
ions are
tissue; part from
pumped
plants source
out
that tothe
ofare sink (tissue
companion
laying down that needs
cells,
food them) Ch.9 Plant Transport
creating
stores
stage.
a(e.g. hydrogen In this case,
ion active
concentration loading uses
gradient active
across transport
the cell to pump
membrane.
hydrogen developing
ions ions seeds,
out of fruits etc) Ch.9 Plant Transport
The hydrogen canthe companion
diffuse back into cells.
theThis results incells
companion movement
through
of
special sucrose molecules
transport by facilitated
proteins – but they diffusion
only move andifdiffusion.
sucrose is carried Ch.9 Plant Transport
Increasing
in withstable sucrose
themhence conc
(cotransport). causes water to also
8 to be metabolised in the move into companion Ch.9 Plant Transport
More
cells,
Leaf which
rolled builds
longitudinally less
up likely
turgor pressure
trapping air (and
inside water
(air transport
potential).
becomes The
humid and
Turgor
process pressure difference - sieve tubes at source has higher turgor Ch.9 Plant Transport
water carrying
reduces
pressure water
due to assimilates
loss from the
"intake" of(sucrose)
leaf); thick
sucrose then
and enters
waxy
water, sieveontubes
cuticle
whereas upper
sieve down
tubes
Diffusion
the
epidermis of(reduces
pressure/WP sucrose - by rapidly
gradient through
evaporation); moving into
plasmodesmata
stomata on surrounding
lower cells or
epidermis by Ch.9 Plant Transport
inside
at
converting sinks hasinto lower turgordecreasing
glucose, pressure due to theconc cellswithin
removing the
rolled
sucrose leaf
from(protected
the sieve enclosed airsucrose
bytubes space); stomata arecells hence
in pits in Ch.9 Plant Transport
maintaining
lower epidermis which is folded and covered by hairs (reducessieve
sucrose conc difference between cells in sink and air
tube
movement and hence water loss); spongy mesophyll very dense Ch.9 Plant Transport
with few air spaces (less surface area for evaporation of water) Ch.9 Plant Transport
Reduces evaporation of water from the cell surfaces as the water
They
potential store water
gradient in their stems which become fleshy and swollen
is be Ch.9 Plant Transport
Roots could be verybetween the cells
long to reach anddeep
water the leaf air spaces
in soil; roots could
reduced
very widespread to absorb water from a large area when it does Ch.9 Plant Transport
rain. Ch.9 Plant Transport
It makes identification of organisms simpler. It predicts
The
characteristics, process of putting comparing livingone things intowith
species groups others from the group. It Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
identifies
A hierarchical grouping system, where each group is subdivided into Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
evolutionary links.
smaller groups. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
-Domain;
A namingKingdom;
Unicellular system Phyllum;
or multicellular
devised by Class; Order; Family;
Karl Linnaeus. It usesGenus;
two (bi)Species.
names. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
-- Mainly A nucleus unicellular
and membrane bound organelles
-The
-- Unicellular
A genusmay
species and have species. Thebound
genusorganelles
has a capitalised
names,first butletter. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
--scientific
Nucleus
A
No cell wall
nucleus
and made
orwill ofmany
membrane
membrane chitindifferent common
bound organelles
the
-- No Some name
have
chloroplasts be
chloroplasts universal.
of chlorophyll Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
--Prokaryotae,A ring of naked
Multicellular
Some sessile,
Multicellular DNA
others have cilia or flagella or move through
--amoeboid No
No
A mechanisms
feeding
nucleus andprotoctista,
mechanism
membrane fungi,
for locomotion
(nutrients
bound plantae, animalia
absorbed
organelles or created through Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
A
Bodynucleus
--photosynthesis) or mechanisms
and
mycelium membrane
made ofbound
threads organelles
or hyphae
-- Cell No wallwall
Nutrients
cell made
aquired from cellulose
either by photosynthesis, ingesting material)
of other Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Saprotrophic
--organisms
All contain (absorb
chlorophyll nutrients mainly from decaying
Some No chloroplasts
aremoveor both. Some are parasitic
parasitic Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
-- Do not (some gametes have cilia proteins
or flagella)
-- Move
Most
Autotrophic
usingfood
store cilia, flagella
as
(nutrients glycogenor contractile (sometimes in the Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
form of muscular organs)created through photosynthesis)
-- Store
1 Fits food
better as
with
Heterotrophic (nutrients starch
phylogeny aquired by ingestion) Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
2 There are key
- Store food as glycogen differences between prokaryotes and the Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
eucaryotes (other 4 kingdoms)
Bacteria,
3 All of the archaea,
4 eucaryoticeukarya kingdoms have a nucleus Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Eukarya have 80s
4 There
Bacteria are
have 12key differences
70sproteins between bacteria and archaea Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Eukarya have
Archaea
Bacteria have have 70s between 8 and 10, very similar to eukaryotic ribosome Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Archaea have 5 -proteins
Archaebacteria ancient bacteria, live in extreme conditions, such as Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
hydrothermal vents
Eubacteria, archaebacteria, or anaerobic conditions,
protoctista, fungi,they can make
plantae, animalia Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
methane.
Prokaryotae
Eubacteria - true bacteria found in all environments, bust bacteria Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
are
The in namethis kingdom.
given to the evolutionary relationships between Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
organisms.
Phylogenetic
The study of classification
the evolutionary conneects groups
historyhistory
of groups based on their How Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
of organisms.
A diagram
relationships showing
rather the
than evolutionary
thair characteristics; ofPhylogeny
groups of organisms.
produces a Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
closesly
They arerelated
branched, theyshowing
are to one whichanother.
groups have evolved
continuum rather than discrete groups; Phylogony gives from
a bettera
common
discription of the variety present within groups, rather than giving Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
He realised ancestor.
that organisms best suited to the environment were
more
the likely to survive
impression all groups andareto reproduceand therefore pass on their Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
The theory thatto
characteristics describes howequal
their offspring.
in age and
organisms
Thereforechange
differentiation.
a species overovermany timeyears
will
through
become natural
more selection.
adapted to it's environment by having a more Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
He
He noticed
linked thethat different
shape of the islands
finchs' had different
beaks to the finches,
food thatthat
theyalthough
ate. He
advantageous
they were very phenotype. beaks and Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
concluded that similar,
the birdsand withtherefore
beaks most related,
suited thatto their
the available
claws
He read werethat different
fossils shapes
were and
evidence sizes.
of
food would survive longer and be more likely to reproduce and animals from millions pass Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
of years
ago.
on He also read
characteristicsoftoDarwin about the principle
their offspring. of uniformitarianism. That the Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
A contemporary
Earth is shaped by processes who stillindependently
occuring today, developed
erosion, a theory
of evolution.etc. This gave Darwin the idea that evolution was a very Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
weathering
slow process. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Paleontology; comparative anatomy; comparative biochemistry. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
The study of fossils and what they can tell us about the Earth's past. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
- Ecological sequencing is consistent. I.E. fossil plants appear
before fossil animals (animals need plant to survive)
-- Studying
Many the similarity
organisms are softinbodied
fossil anatomy, we can
and therefore see the links
decompose
between
- organisms and the evolution from a
The conditions aren't right for fossilisation common ancestor.
-- Fossils may be destroyed by the Earth's movementbe
The link between living and extinct organisms can
investigated. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
The study ofwhichsimilarities and differences in the anatomy of living Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
A structure appears differently in different organisms, but has
species.
the same underlying structure, eg the pentadactyl limb of Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
vertebrates. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Divergent
The description evolutionof different organisms evolving from a common Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Some
ancestor. molecules are important for all life and remain highly Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
The study of
conserved similarities
(don't changeand differences
much). in the proteins
Slight changes in theseand other
molecules
molecules
over time and thatbetween
control life proceses.
species can be used to identify relationships. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
The
Cytochrome greater the similarity,
C (used the closer the relationship.
in respiration) Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Ribosomal RNA. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Interspecific and intraspecific Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Variation
1 - Allelesbetween organisms of different species Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
2 - Mutations
Variation between organisms of the same species Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
1
3 -- Genetic
Meiosis
2
4 -- Environmental
Sexual Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Alleles arereproduction
varient forms(2ofpartners)a gene. Different alleles produce
5 - Chance
different affects and different characteristics. Individuals of a species Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Mutations
Meiosis are
is the changes
formation to the DNA
of gametes. sequence,
During thisandprocess
thereforethe the
may
proteins inherit
the different
genes alleles.
code for. this can affect the physical and Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
independent assortment of chromosomes and the crossing over
metabolic
(creating chiasmata) characteristics.occurs. This leads to genetically unique sex Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
cells.
During sexual reproduction, the offspring inherits genetics from both Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
During
Meiosis, sexual
sexualreproduction,
reproduction any 2 of the many
(2own
partners) gametes
andorganism.
chance areare
all aspects
parents,
produced therefore being
could end up combining.their different
This is random fertilisation, Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
of sexual reproduction. There is therefore more likelyhood of it is
why
variation siblings differthis
through from one another.
process. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Asexual reproduction results in the creation of clones. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Plants, as they lack mobility. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Height
The presence - you can inherit the
or absence of genes to allow
scars. these canyou
nottobegrow, but if your
inherited. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
diet is poor, you may not be able to reach your potential height.
Both
Skin colour genetic- your
and environmental causes.
skin colour is determined by genes, though Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
exposure
Twin studies, especially twins who have beenthe
to sunlight and UV rays will darken skin. and brought
separated Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
up in different environments. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Discontinuous and continuous variation. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Discrete
Variation variation
thatsex,
can only be put into particular categories, or results in Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
- An animals
certain values.
- The shape of a bacteria Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
-A Human blood purely
characteristic group determined by genetics, typically a single Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
gene. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Using a bar chart.
A characteristic that can take any value within a range. Thare is a Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
gradual
- Height change from one extreme to another. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
-- Mass Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
- Multiple
Collectedgenes determining
on a frequency that characteristic (polygenes) also
table
-influenced
Histogrambydrawn the environment. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Curve drawn
- Mean, medianonto andgraph
mode are the same Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
-Normal
Distribution
distribution. curve, symetrical about the mean
is a bell Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
- 50% of values are less than the mean, and 50% greater
Data
- Most that creates
values areaclose
bell curve
to thewhenmean,plotted.
the values at the extremems Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
are low. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
A measure of how spread out the data is. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
A -large
σ amount
Standard of variation.
Deviation Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
1
∑ SD
- - 68%
Sum of of values
(add all
A
2 small amount of the numbers together)
variation. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
x -SD - 95%
measured of value
values
3 SD
x ̅- - 99.7%
mean value of values Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
n - total number
Comparing the averages of valuesof data values between two populations. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
(Are two populations
Considering statistically similar orsets
different?) Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
To determinethe relationship
wether between
any relationship two
or outcome of data.
is due(istothere a
chance,
correlation or not, if so is it positive or negative?)
or an outside factor effecting the organisms. It determines the Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
significance
The prediction of the
thatdata.there is no significant difference between the Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
populations.
The prediction that there isdifference
Any observed is due
no significant to chance.between the
relationship Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
data. Any observed relationship is due to chance. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
The value of "t" is looked up in the Student's t test significance
It describes
tables comparing how much data was collected.
the probability value to the It isdegrees
calculated by (n1 +
of freedom.
n2)
The -2
value of the correlation coefficient is
For the data to be significantly different to chance alone, the value looked up in the Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Spearman's
of "t"likely
mustthe rank
be lowersignificance tables comparing
that a probability 5% or 0.05.the probability value Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
how
to the number effect observed
of values, "n". Foris down to chance.
the data We use the 5%
to be significantly
(0.05)
different probability
to chance value.
alone, the value of "t" must be lower that a Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
probability
Characteristics 5% or that0.05.
allow an organism to survive and reproduce in Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
it's environment. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Anatomical;
Body coverings behavioural;
- such as aphysiological.
shell, hair or feathers Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
A physical feature,
Camouflage - to blend internal
in withor the
external.
environment so as not to be seen Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Teeth - the shape and type
The way an organism acts, either inherited allows different or food to be from
learned eatenparents. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Mimicry
Curled - copying
leaves another organisms appearance or sound to fool
A process
predators that- goesminimise exposed
on inside area of leaves
an organism. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Hairs on inside - trap moist air increasing humidity
Sunken stomata - less likely to loose water Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Survival - eg playing dead
Thick
Courtship waxy- cuticle
eg mating - reduces
danceswater loss through evaporation Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Seasonal - eg migration or hibernation Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Innate;
Poison
Instinctive, learned
production
it is inherited through genes, e.g. avoiding light, building Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Antibiotic
webs.
1 - Organisms production
withinexperience
a species show variation; e.g. use of tools, Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Developed
Water storing through and observation,
2 - Organisms
language. best adapted to a selection pressure are more likely to Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Reflexes
survive and reproduce;
Homeostasis
Where
3 two unrelated
- Successful organisms species
pass thedevelop
alleletraits
encodingor characteristics.
the advantageousSame Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
function,
characteristic
The unrelated but different
to their genetic
offspring; origin. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
THe
4 process
- This proccess byorganisms
which
is repeated
live in similar
organisms each best environments
suited
generation, toand
their and are
theenvironment
frequency of
experiencing
survive similar
and reproduce, selection pressures Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
the advantageous allelepassing
increases; on their characteristics to their
offspring
5 - Over athrough very long their
time genes.
period, this process may lead to the Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Predation;
Changes
evolution toof the
a newenvironment
species. changed the allele frequency in the Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Factors
Competition
peppered which affect /anresources);
(mates
moths. organisms chance of survival mor
Anti-biotic
reproductive resistant
success. bacteria; Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Disease;
Before
Peppered
A pesticide themoths;
industrial
was used revolution
to kill off the pale moths were camoulfaged
blowflies.
Methicillin-resistant
Etc.
against pale trees. Staphylococcus aureus has become resistant to Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
Sheep
A resistance
many blowflies; quickly
anti-biotics. Asappeared,
the thiswere
was passed though generations
During the
Flavobacterium.
allowing revolution,
a resistant thebacteria
population treesto were exposed
black
evolve.
to them,
with soot. Darksome
moths Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
which
were were
better resistant,
adapted survived
and their and reproduced.
frequency incresed. They passed on the
When
allele
An studied
for
example ita was
resistance.
of revealed
positive that pressure.
selection blowflies had a resistance to a Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
After
previous the pesticide.
clean air act, the trees are now clean again, and the pale
The
moths bacteria
have are foundininfrequency.
increased the waste water of nylon producing Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
The mutation
factories. of the old allele allowed much more rapid evolution to
occur.
A mutation has allowed them to use the waste as an energy source. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
The bacteria can now be used in bioremediation. Ch.10 Classification and Evolution
The variety of
Biodiversity livingaorganisms
allows in an area. Many organisms rely on
balanced ecosystem. Ch.11 Biodiversity
one another, they are interconnected. Ch.11 Biodiversity
They supply us with oxygen, food, and other materials for survival. Ch.11 Biodiversity
1 - Habitat biodiversity;
Farming,
2 - Species clearing
biodiversity; land for housing can remove biodiversity. Ch.11 Biodiversity
3 - Genetic
Supports biodiversity.giving a baseline for scientists to monitor Ch.11 Biodiversity
This
A refersconservation,
measure to
of the
the number of habitats
species present found
within withinMade
an area. an area.
of 2In
changes.
general the greater the habitat biodiveristy, the greater the species Ch.11 Biodiversity
components:
biodiversity.
1 - Species richness; Ch.11 Biodiversity
2 - Species evenness. Ch.11 Biodiversity
The number ofofdifferent
A comparison the numbers species of living withinofaneach
individuals area.species in a Ch.11 Biodiversity
community. Ch.11 Biodiversity
This refers to the variety of genes making up an organism. It also
All of the
takes intopopulations
account theofdifferent living organisms
alleles that in aexist
particular
for thosehabitat.
genes. Ch.11 Biodiversity
This is what created variation within
Greater genetic variation within a species allows for better a species. Ch.11 Biodiversity
adaptation to a changing environment. Ch.11 Biodiversity
Taking
It measurements toofcount
a limited number allofoforganisms of aninarea. Ch.11 Biodiversity
It is
can often
be used impossible
to: / measure the organisms a
particular
1 - estimate area.
the number of organisms of an area; Ch.11 Biodiversity
2 - estimate a particular characteristic of an organism. Ch.11 Biodiversity
Random
Selecting and non-random. Ch.11 Biodiversity
A randomindividualsnumber generator by chance, each individual
is used, The scientist hasisan equal
not involved in
likelihood of being selected.
choosing at all. Often 2 tape measures are laid out as a grid, random Ch.11 Biodiversity
numbers generate coordinates. Samples are taken here. Ch.11 Biodiversity
1 - Opportunistic;
This is where the sample is chosen, or selected.
2 - Stratified; Ch.11 Biodiversity
3 - Sytematic. Ch.11 Biodiversity
Weakest form of sampling. May not be representative of the
population.
Separating Measures the
populations organisms conveniently available. Ch.11 Biodiversity
Different areas within a into strata
habitat are(sub-groups).
defined, and e.g.thenmale / female.
sampled
Random sampling is done on these
separately. e.g. the change in organisms as you move inland fromproportional to their size. Ch.11 Biodiversity
the sea. Ch.11 Biodiversity
Line
A linetransect
is marked andbetween
belt transect. Ch.11 Biodiversity
2 parallel lines are marked,two andpoints.
samples Samples are taken
are taken in the at specified
area
points. Everything touching the line
between the lines. More information gathered than with a line is counted. Ch.11 Biodiversity
transect.
A line transect is drawn. A quadrat is placed at regular intervals. A Ch.11 Biodiversity
sample
A measure is taken
of how from within the quadrat.
representative of the organisms present in the Ch.11 Biodiversity
habitat
1 - Sampling biasthe sampling is. How accurate the sampling is. Ch.11 Biodiversity
2
1 Chance or deliberatly choosing a particular area to sample. This
- Pooter;
Accidental Ch.11 Biodiversity
The
2 - organisms
Sweep nets;selected may not be representative of the whole
effect
population. is reduced Chance by can
random not be sampling.
removed, but its effect can be Ch.11 Biodiversity
3 - Pitfall traps;
reduced
4 - Tree beating; by having a large sample size. Ch.11 Biodiversity
5
It -collects
Kick sampling.small insects by drawing them into a holding chanber by Ch.11 Biodiversity
sucking on a mouthpiece. Ch.11 Biodiversity
By
They sweeping
collect small long grass,
crawing they collect insects.
invertebrates. A hole is dug in the ground Ch.11 Biodiversity
which they fall into
A large white cloth is laid under and can't climb outor
a tree of.bush. This collects Ch.11 Biodiversity
invertebrates
The riverbed isknocked gently kickedoff as the tree is substrate.
to disturb shaken. A net is held just Ch.11 Biodiversity
downstream to collect organisms released into the water. Ch.11 Biodiversity
Using
A frame a quadrat. Either frame
with a horizontal bar. quadrat
Down which or point
longquadrat.
pins can be Ch.11 Biodiversity
dropped. Any plant touching
A square frame, divided into smaller equal sections. the pin will be recorded. The type and Ch.11 Biodiversity
number of each species within a section is recorded. Ch.11 Biodiversity
A varietysampling
Random of sampling using techniques
quadrats.is used to identify all species Ch.11 Biodiversity
present
A variety in a habitat.
of sampling A list is created and totheidentify
total number
Laying
calculated. quadrats alongtechniques
a line or is used
keybelt transect. both the species, Ch.11 Biodiversity
and numberAn ofidentification
idividuals in those may be used
species to accurately
present in a givenidentify
habitat.
organisms.
They are then number of individuals per species is compared to Ch.11 Biodiversity
1 - Density;
identify
2 - Frequency; how evenly distributed they are. Ch.11 Biodiversity
This is an absolute measure of individual plants in a specific area.
3
E.G. - Percentage cover. of dandelions in 1m2 gives density per Ch.11 Biodiversity
If the plantsthe
count arenumber
too small to count. Count the number of squares in
squarethey
which meter. are present. Giveisthis as a percentage of the Ch.11 Biodiversity
Used for speed when there abundant plants which aretotal
difficult to
number
count. of squares in the quadrat. Ch.11 Biodiversity
Multiple samples are taken from an area. The mean is then quadrat
An estimation of the cover is done by eye, using the
and its squares
calculated. as a guide.
To calculate the total cover for that area, the mean value Ch.11 Biodiversity
per m2 is multiplied by the total area. Ch.11 Biodiversity
Add
- Wind thespeed
individual results, then divide by the number of repeats. Ch.11 Biodiversity
-Using
Light capture
intensity
The animals move - mark - release
about, they -mayrecapture.
be hidden, they go through Ch.11 Biodiversity
-different
Humiditystages of development, so may be hard to identify. Ch.11 Biodiversity
- pH
Non-living
- Temperature conditions in a habitat. Ch.11 Biodiversity
- Oxygen content in water. Ch.11 Biodiversity
D - Is the measure of diversity
Simpson's
1
n -- Few
1 index
is thesuccessful
Many
Mutations sum ofspecies
biodiversity.
of organisms
successful speciesof a particular species Ch.11 Biodiversity
2
N -
- stressful
is the total/ extreme.
number Few
of ecological
organisms niches
2
The
3
-
-
Benign
Interbreeding
value falls
Species
environment,
have
(gene
between
very 0many
flow)
specific 0 is of
andadaptations
1. noall
ecological species 1 is infinite
niches
diversity, Ch.11 Biodiversity
3 - Species
Selective
diversity. have
Afood few
breeding
higher specific
(artificialadaptations
selection)
value means a more diverse habitat. Ch.11 Biodiversity
4
4 -- Simple
Complex
Captive food
breeding webs
webs
5 -- Environmental
5 Environmental change has
change has aa relatively
major effect on the ecosystem Ch.11 Biodiversity
ThisRare refers breeds
to the variety of genes making minor effect
up an organism. on the
It also
ecosystem
6 -
takes Artificial
into cloning
account the different alleles that exist for those genes. Ch.11 Biodiversity
Species
7 - Natural with greater genetic biodiversity are more likely to survive
selection
This
changes is what to created
their variation within
environments. They awill species.
be more likely to Ch.11 Biodiversity
8 - Genetic bottlenecks
reproduce,
9 - The founder effectand then allow the species to survive. Ch.11 Biodiversity
10 - Genetic
They change drift
the DNA, and can create new Ch.11 Biodiversity
Individuals moving from one population to alleles.
anotherIncreases genetic
and breeding,
biodiversity.
will Ch.11 Biodiversity
Onlycause a fewalleles
individualsto transfer between
are selected frompopulations.
a population Increases
to breed genetic
due
biodiversity.
to their advantageous characteristics. Decreases genetic Ch.11 Biodiversity
Only
Selective a fewbreeding
individuals hasare presenta in
produced zoosof
breed ordomestic
conservation centers,
animal/plant
biodiversity.
the gene pool is relatively small. Wild population is often Ch.11 Biodiversity
which is no longer popular. Therefore the population number is
endangered
small, and asor it exdtinct.
has been Decreases
selected for genetic biodiversity.
particular traits, the gene pool Ch.11 Biodiversity
is very low. Decreases genetic biodiversity.
Cloning animals and plants produces genetically identical organisms. Ch.11 Biodiversity
Decreases genetic biodiversity. Ch.11 Biodiversity
Species evolve to
Few individuals fromcontain the alleles
a population whichacode
survive for advantageous
catastorphic event.
characteristics. Over time the alleles for less
Therefore the gene pool is reduced. Only the alleles of the survivinig advantageous
characteristics
Due to theare
members randombecome
available natureremoved.
to of passed
be allelesDecreases
being genetic
passed onbiodiversity.
to subsequent Ch.11 Biodiversity
A small number
generations, the of individuals
frequency of start
a aonnew
particular
to population.
their
allele
offspring.
can They
vary
Decreases
fromare
genetic
geneticallybiodiversity.
isolated. The gene pool cases
is small, andeven
genedisappear.
flow does not Ch.11 Biodiversity
generation to generation. In some it may This
happen. Decreases genetic biodiversity.
effect is more pronounced in populations with a low genetic Ch.11 Biodiversity
biodiversity. Decreases genetic biodiversity. Ch.11 Biodiversity
Genes
By which have allele
more for than onegenes,
allele. the basic structure of an Ch.11 Biodiversity
By having
measureing a singlethe proportion most of genes that are polymorphic.
individual
Proportionwithin a species remains
of polymorphic gene lociconsistent.
= (number of polymorphic gene Ch.11 Biodiversity
loci / total number of loci) Ch.11 Biodiversity
The
The position
greater of the
the gene onof
proportion a chromosome.
polymorphic Ch.11 Biodiversity
Trees' species diversity decreases; Habitats gene loci, the
destroyed, greater
leading to the
genetic
decline in
Asthetic biodiversity
animal (for
reasons within
speciespeople thetopopulation.
population/diversity; Forced migration,
enjoy, provide inspirations etc.); Ch.11 Biodiversity
increasing
Economic
Deforestation; biodiversity
reasonsHedgerow in other
(Deforestation
removals,areas
leads to soil erosion
destroying habitatsandof small Ch.11 Biodiversity
desertification,
animals; Use of fail to growand
pesticides crops, potentialMonoculture
herbicides; loss of useful species in Ch.11 Biodiversity
research and medicine); Ecological reasons (affect keystone species
Global
which warming leading to habitats onorother
foodspecies
sourcesand destroyed Ch.11 Biodiversity
Speciesthen thathas areaessential
knock-on foreffect
maintaining biodiversity, the a
have
environment)
disproportionately largehabitat
effect (eg.
on their environment relative to their Ch.11 Biodiversity
in situ = within natural wildlife reserves, marine
abundance
conservation zones); ex situ = out of natural habitat (eg. zoos, Ch.11 Biodiversity
botanic gardens, seed banks)
The IUCN updates conservation status of threatened species and Ch.11 Biodiversity
also established
A treaty CITES the international trade of wild species and
that regulates Ch.11 Biodiversity
their
Madeproducts
up of 3 parts to prevent over-exploitation
- sustainable development, stabilise greenhouse Ch.11 Biodiversity
gas conc to tacklescheme
UK conservation climatetochange, combat desertification
make conservation a part of normal Ch.11 Biodiversity
faming and land management practice Ch.11 Biodiversity
Bacteria, fungi, fungi, protoctists Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Protoctists, fungi, bacteria, bacteria Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Tobacco mosaicpoor
Overcrowding; virus, ring rot,
mineral black sigatoka
nutrition; damp, warm, humid Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
conditions; climate change Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Respiratory droplets (inhalation)
Water (e.g. diarrhoeal diseases); animals (e.g. mosquito transmits Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Callose synthesised and deposited between
Plasmodium); wind (carries spores); humans (hands, clothing etc.) plasma membrane and Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
cell wall; callose blocks sieve plates in phloem; callose deposited in
Bark, waxy cuticle,
plasmodesmata thorns,infected
between spines, lignified
cells andcell walls,
their cellulose lignin
neighbours; etc. Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
added to
Antibacterial cell walls;
compounds tyloses block
like xylem
phenols, vessels
alkaloids;entry;
terpenes; hydrolytic Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Dead outer layer of keratin prevents pathogen skin flora
enzymes
outcompete like pathogens
glucanasesfor andspace;
chitinases; caffeine;inhibit
oil secretions tannins etc.
pathogenic Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
growth
Mucuscells
Mast traps pathogens
release and contains lysozymes; phagocytes engulf Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
histamines;
and digest pathogens
histamines in mucus of capillaries meaning plasma leaks Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
increase permeability
into tissue fluid (pain
Thromboplastin and swelling);
(thrombokinase)
Causes the conversion
vasodilation of arterioles of so
soluble
morefibrinogen
blood reaches into insoluble
infected areafibrin(heat Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
fibres
and redness); Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Phagocyte engulfs pathogen into a phagosome; lysosomes fuse with
neutrophils
phagosome attractedto form a to area for enhanced
phagolysosome; enzymes,phagocytosis
hydrogen peroxide Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
and nitricfragments
Antigen acid breakcombined down thewith pathogen
MHC (special glycoproteins in Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
cytoplasm) Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Plasma
Opsonins membrane
can attach contains
to many receptors
types of for opsonins,
pathogen and well
help developed
the
Cytokines
cytoskeleton for phagocytosis, many Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
process of phagocytosis, by giving themitochondria
phagocyte somethingfor respiration,
to bind
many
to. Theyribosomes
must be to make enzymes,
non-specific, so they manycanlysosomes.
attach to many different Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
pathogens. Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Bone marrow and thymus respectively Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Destruction
Dampen down of self-tissue;
the immune rheumatoid arthritis, lupus,
response; prevents type Iof
destruction diabetes
self Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
tissue
APC (autoimmunity)
binds specifically to toa Th cell (clonal selection). This selected Th Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Th cell binds specifically B lymphocyte; B lymphocyte
cell then proliferates
differentiates intowhich by mitosis
a plasma (clonal
cell.holes
Plasma expansion)
cellsmembrane
release antibodies Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Release
An antigen perforins
is aparticular
cell-surface punchmolecule in the
that is specific to theof the
cellcell;
(andTka Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
specific
cell to the
insertsantibody);
channels through antigenwhich it floods hydrogen
particular an antibody is an immunoglobulin
peroxide/nitric acid/hydrolytic enzymes
manufactured by the plasma cells (which binds specifically to an Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Opsonins
antigen). bind specifically to an antigen on a pathogen (via the Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Plasma
variablecells haveclearly
region), a lot ofmarking
ribosomes, rough endoplasmic
the pathogen reticulum,
for destruction by a
Golgi apparatus
neutrophil. and
A neutrophil mitochondria.
will bindbytobinding
the constant regionviaoftheir
the Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Agglutinins cross link pathogens specifically
opsonin and destroy
variable regions. the pathogen
Pathogens are clumpedby phagocytosis
together (agglutinated), Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
meaning they cannot enter host cells and are easier to phagocytose Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
The variable region is specific to the antigen – it has a shape that is
complementary
After infection, to the shape of thebe antigen; theand disulfide bridges
B memory
hold the four Tthe
andpolypeptide pathogen
memory cells
chains
must detected
aretogether;
circulating the inhinge attacked
the blood.
region On by
allows
macrophages;
Neutralise toxinsoantigen
molecules presentation
released the occurs
by to select the correctcellBis
second
some
and T
encounter
flexibility
cells (clonal
with the
that a pathogen,
selection); molecule
these canacorrect
cells
pathogen
bind
must toB/T through
more
reproduce
memory
than
in
direct
one
clonal
binding
clonally
antigen; selected
thethen
constant and can verymay
region quickly
havedifferentiate
atoshape that into
cancorrect
be the Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
expansion;
specific Th/Tk/plasma they must cell. differentiate
Plasma cells can form
produceplasma cells;
antibodies
recognised
plasmasoonercellsby mustthe neutrophils. takes Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
faster, andstart
in much to produce
greater the antibodies
quantity. – eachare
Pathogens stepwiped
time.
out before symptoms are experienced; level of antibody stays higher Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Natural
Passive active
immunity - antibodies
is provided madeby byexternal
an immune system
supply ofinantibodies
response to
–
for longer natural passive - antibodies provided via placenta/breast Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
infection;
these are proteins and will not last long in the body. They may even
milk
act as(useful
antigens in developing
and be attacked immune system) from our immune
by antibodies Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
system.
Immunity provided by antibodies made in response to vaccination Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
Herd vaccination
(dead/inactive is where injected)
pathogens everyone, or almost everyone, is Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
A rapid spread
vaccinated. Ring ofvaccination
disease through a high proportion
is vaccinating people of a population
around thethe
site of
Bacteria
(usually that
withinso survive
a country) a treatment will be slightly resistant to Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
the outbreak,
antibiotic and thethat the pathogen
antibiotic acts as awill not be force
selective transmitted across
which selects
that ring to the
the resistant whole population.
individuals. When they reproduce, some of their Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
offspring
A behavioural may be more resistant,
or physiological thus resistance
change in an organism evolves.as a result of a Ch.12 Communicable Diseases
stimulus. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
A change inthat
Responses the maintain
internal or external environment
a constant internal environment of an organism.
inside an Ch.13 Neuronal communication
organism. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Body temperature, blood glucose concentration, blood water potentiaCh.13 Neuronal communication
stimulus, receptor, processor, effector, response Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Nervous,
The release hormonal
of a chemical from a cell that is complementary to a Ch.13 Neuronal communication
receptor in a target cell, bringing about a response in the target cell. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
A cell or tissue that bring about a response to a stimulus. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Muscle cell, gland cells, liver cells Ch.13 Neuronal communication
The difference in potential between inside and outside the cell. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
The inside of the cell has a more negative potential than outside. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
-60mV of large organic anions inside the cell, 3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in by Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Presence
Na+/K+ pump, membrane is more permeable to K+ Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Outside the cell Ch.13 Neuronal communication
motor,
Their sensory isand relay in the CNS and they have a long axon Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Have acell longbodydendron locatedcarrying the action potential from a sensory
carrying thethe
receptorto action potential
cell body, to the effector.
positioned outside the CNS. They have a Ch.13 Neuronal communication
short axon carrying the action
They connect the sensory and motor neurones potential into theinCNS.the CNS. They Ch.13 Neuronal communication
have short dendrites
The neurone is insulaterd and short axon sheath, which is schwann cells Ch.13 Neuronal communication
by a myelin
wrapped
An actiontightlypotential around
can be thetransmitted
neurone. much quicker as the signal Ch.13 Neuronal communication
jumpsare
They between
often used the nodes of Ranvier.
to coordinate body functions such as breathing Ch.13 Neuronal communication
or
A cell or tissue that monitors an aspect over
digestion, carrying action potentials of anshorter
organism'sdistances.
internal or Ch.13 Neuronal communication
external environment. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
They convert the energy of a stimulus into electrical energy. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Thermo, chemo, baro, photo, proprio, osmo Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Something
A tissue or organ that coordinates the input from sensory receptors Ch.13 Neuronal communication
that converts one form of energy into another.
and communicates
A pressure sensor that the detects
output response
changes intopressure
the relevant effector.in
or vibration Ch.13 Neuronal communication
the
The skin.
corpuscle is oval shaped with a series of ringstat ofdeform
concentric Ch.13 Neuronal communication
The
Some corpuscle
proteins isaresensitive
channels to allowing
changes in
the pressure
movement of ions the rings
across
conective
of tissue, wrapped around nothe end of when
a nerve cell. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
theconnective
membranes tissue. Therefore
by facilitated response
diffusion, while othersthe arepressure
transport is
constant.
proteins that actively move ions across the membrane requiring Ch.13 Neuronal communication
energy in formpotential
The generator of ATP. will not reach the threshold level and so Ch.13 Neuronal communication
there is no action potential Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Inside
3 Sodium theions
cell are actively pumped out of the cell, with 2 potassium Ch.13 Neuronal communication
ions going into the cell Ch.13 Neuronal communication
The
Some inside
Na+ of the cellopen,
channels has aallowing
less negative
Na+ to potential than outside.
diffuse down its Ch.13 Neuronal communication
concentration gradient. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Voltage-gated Na+ channels open for bigger influx of Na+ Ch.13 Neuronal communication
+40mV Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Voltage-gated Na+ channels close, voltage-gated K+ channels open Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Return of membrane potential difference to more negative inside
the cell than outside. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Diffusion
OvershootofofK+membrane
out of the potential
cell downdifference
their concentration gradient.
so that inside is more Ch.13 Neuronal communication
negative than outside than at resting potential. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Voltage-gated
Voltage-gated K+ K+ channels
channels close
only close at -70mV so K+ continues to Ch.13 Neuronal communication
diffuse
A out of the cell. after an action potential when it is impossible Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Toshort period
restore of time
the resting potential Na+/K+ concentrations on either
to stimulate
side the membrane
of the membrane, ensureinto another
action action potential.
potentials only transmit in one Ch.13 Neuronal communication
direction
Diffusion of Na+ from point of entry to area of low concentration Ch.13 Neuronal communication
adjacent to the next region of membrane. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
A concentration
Elongated gradientinofmyelinated
local currents ions neurones so that action Ch.13 Neuronal communication
potentials only occur at nodes of Ranvier. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Makes them more frequent. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
A junction between 2 or more neurones. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
A
A small
chemicalgapreleased
betweenfrom2 neurones.
the pre-synaptic neurone that causes a Ch.13 Neuronal communication
new action potential in the post-synaptic neurone. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Acetylcholine, adrenaline, dopamine, GABA Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Acetylcholine Ch.13 Neuronal communication
GABA Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Excitatory: causes depolarisation of postsynaptic neurone, causes actiCh.13 Neuronal communication
A synapse
Many that uses acetylcholine
mitochondria, complex SER,as a neurotransmitter.
many vesicles containing Ch.13 Neuronal communication
neurotransmitter, voltage-gated Ca2+ channels Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Neurotransmitter-gated Na+ channels Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Enzyme that hydrolyses acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
A small depolarisation in the post-synaptic neurone caused by a
Each
smallaction
number potential is the same size
of neurotransmitter and intensity.
molecules being released from Ch.13 Neuronal communication
the
The pre-synaptic neurone. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
The reaching
reaching of of threshold
threshold potential
potential in
in the
the post-synaptic
post-synaptic neurone
neurone
due
due to
to the
the combination
combination of several
several EPSPs.
ofpotential EPSPs Ch.13 Neuronal communication
The reaching of threshold in theconsecutively
post-synapticfrom the
neurone
sametopre-synaptic
due neurone. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
A smallthe combination
hyperpolarisation ofinseveral EPSPs from neurone
the post-synaptic the several different
caused by a
pre-synaptic neurones.
small number of neurotransmitter molecules being released from Ch.13 Neuronal communication
the pre-synaptic neurone. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Central, peripheral Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Brain, spinal cord Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Spinal cord Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Relay Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Sensory, motor Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Somatic, action
Conduct autonomic
potentials to effectors that are under voluntary / Ch.13 Neuronal communication
conscious control.
Mostly myelinated neurones, single neurone connects CNS to Ch.13 Neuronal communication
effector Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Skeletal
Conductmuscles
action potentials to effectors that are not under voluntary / Ch.13 Neuronal communication
conscious
Mostly control.
non-myelinated neurones, at least 2 neurones connects CNS Ch.13 Neuronal communication
to effector, connections between neurones called ganglia Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Smooth muscle, glands, cardiac muscle Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Sympathetic, parasympathetic Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Prepare the body for activity. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Conserve energy. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Increased
Decreasedheart
heartrate,
rate,increased
decreasedventilation
ventilationrate,
rate,decreased
increaseddigestion Ch.13 Neuronal communication
digestion
Ganglia close to CNS, 1:1 nerve:effector ratio, acetylcholine as Ch.13 Neuronal communication
neurotransmitter
Ganglia close to effector, 1:many nerve:effector ratio, noradrenaline Ch.13 Neuronal communication
as neurotransmitter
Cerebrum, cerebellum, hypothalamus / pituitary complex, medulla Ch.13 Neuronal communication
oblongata Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Coordinates higher functions such as conscious thought & actions,
emotions, speech and memory. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Corpus callosum Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Sensory, association, motor Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Coordinates balance and fine movement control. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Pons
Coordinates homeostatic mechanisms such as thermoregulation and Ch.13 Neuronal communication
osmoregulation.
Coordinates physiological processes such as heart rate, blood Ch.13 Neuronal communication
pressure and ventilation rate. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
A response that requires no processing from the brain. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Blinking,/knee jerk/spinal/cramial/corneal Ch.13 Neuronal communication
A reflex action with a nervous pathway through the brain. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
A
A reflex
reflex action
action with
with aa nervous
nervous pathway
pathway through
through the
the spinal cord.
brain, causing Ch.13 Neuronal communication
the eyelid to blink. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Cardiovascular centre Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Accelerans Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Vagus Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Muscle stretch, low blood pH Ch.13 Neuronal communication
High blood pressure Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Skeletal, smooth, cardiac Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Small, discrete cells, non-striated, longitudinal / circular layers Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Long, branched
Specialised fibres, striated,
cell surface membrane intercalated
that allowdiscs
action potentials to be Ch.13 Neuronal communication
easily conducted. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Long, unbranched fibres, striated, multinucleate Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Cell surface membrane of a muscle fibre. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Cytoplasm of a muscle fibre. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Endoplasmic reticulum of a muscle fibre. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
The contractile units of skeletal muscle, containing two proteins; ligh Ch.13 Neuronal communication
The distance between the two Z lines, where the filaments are held t Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Contraction of sacromeres as the myosin and actin filaments slide oveCh.13 Neuronal communication
They have globular heads and are hinged so they can move back and fort Ch.13 Neuronal communication
They have binding sites for myosin heads, called actin-myosin bindingCh.13 Neuronal communication
During contraction of the muscle the light band and H zone gets shortCh.13 Neuronal communication
The myosin heads attach to the actin and move causing the actin filamCh.13 Neuronal communication
It blocks the actin-myosin binding site, so the myosin heads cannot bi Ch.13 Neuronal communication
An action potential from a motor neurone tiggers an influx of CalciumCh.13 Neuronal communication
They bind to troponin, changing it's shape pulling the attached tropomCh.13 Neuronal communication
It is formed when a myosin head binds to an actin filament. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Calcium ions activate the enzyme ATPase. Ch.13 Neuronal communication
Provides energy for the myosin head to return to its original position Ch.13 Neuronal communication
A communication system using hormones as signalling molecules. Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Steroid, non-steroid Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Adrenaline, insulin, glucagon Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Oestrogen, testosterone Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Endocrine, exocrine Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Blood Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Through ducts into organs or surface of body Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Pituitary, adrenal, pancreas, (thyroid, ovaries, testes) Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Salivary, liver, pancreas, (stomach) Ch.14 Hormonal communication
A cell in which the hormone causes an effect. Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Complementary receptors on their cell surface membrane. Ch.14 Hormonal communication
A non-steroid hormone. Ch.14 Hormonal communication
A signalling molecule that stimulates a change in a cell. Ch.14 Hormonal communication
cAMP Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Adrenal cortex, adrenal medulla Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Adrenaline / noradrenaline Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Non-steroid Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Increased tidal volume, increased stroke volume, increased heart
Smooth muscle, cardiacpupil
rate, vasoconstriction, muscle, hepatocyte
dilation, piloerection, inhibition of Ch.14 Hormonal communication
digestion Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Works with adrenaline to respond to stress Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids,
Regulate the concentration of sodium androgens (sex hormones)
and potassium ions in the Ch.14 Hormonal communication
blood (affecting blood pressure). Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins in the
Aldosterone
liver / regulate immune response and suppress inflammatory Ch.14 Hormonal communication
reactions Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Cortisol
Regulate/ the
corticosterone
production of gametes and development of secondary Ch.14 Hormonal communication
sexual characteristics. Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Oestrogen, testosterone Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Acini Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Digestive enzyme precursors Ch.14 Hormonal communication
pancreatic amylase, trpsinogen and lipase Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Islets of Langerhans Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Alpha, beta Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Glucagon Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Insulin Ch.14 Hormonal communication
4-6 mmol dm-3 OR 90mg 100cm-3 Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Insulin Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Glucagon Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Decrease Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Increase Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Glucose transporter proteins added to cell surface membrane,
Hepatocytes,
glycogenesis, glucose converted to lipids / proteins, increased rate of Ch.14 Hormonal communication
muscle cells
cellular respiration Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Insulin binds to the glycoprotein receptor, which causes a conformati Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Condensation of glucose molecules to form glycogen. Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Hepatocytes Ch.14 Hormonal communication
cAMP
Glycogenolysis, increased rate of fatty acid respiration, Ch.14 Hormonal communication
gluconeogenesis Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Hydrolysis of glycogen to produce glucose. Ch.14 Hormonal communication
The hormones
Conversion are antagonistic,
of amino having
acids and lipids theglucose.
into opposite effects on the Ch.14 Hormonal communication
blood glucose concentration. High glucose, inslin released to bring
They
downhave opposite effects
the concentration, onglucose,
low blood glucose concentration.
glycogen release to increase Ch.14 Hormonal communication
concentration Ch.14 Hormonal communication
potassium channels of beta cells are open and K+ cells constantly dif Ch.14 Hormonal communication
At high BGL, glucose enters beta cells by glucose transporters, which Ch.14 Hormonal communication
ATP-sensitive potassium channels + voltage-gated calcium channels Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Hypoglycaemia Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Tiredness, irritability Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Seizures, unconsciousness, due to impairment of the brain activity Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Hyperglycaemia Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Organ damage Ch.14 Hormonal communication
7
Anmmol dm-3 disease where the immune system destroys the
autoimmune Ch.14 Hormonal communication
beta cells of the pancreas.
Receptors on the surface of insulin target cells become less Ch.14 Hormonal communication
responsive
Obesity, lack toof insulin.
regular exercise, diet high in sugar, Asian / Afro- Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Caribbean
Insulin origin, family
injections, history
insulinintake,
pump,increase
islet cellexercise
transplantation, pancreas Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Regulate carbohydrate levels, take drugs
transplant,
that stimulate stem cells production/slow down rate of glucose
insulin Ch.14 Hormonal communication
absorption Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Escherichia coli bacteria that have undergone genetic modification. Ch.14 Hormonal communication
An exact copy of human insulin so more effective, less chance of deveCh.14 Hormonal communication
Detecting a threat to survival leading to physiological changes to pre Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Allows more light to enter the eyes making the retina more sensitive. Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Energy supplied for muscular contraction Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Increases gaseous exchange so that oxygen enters the blood to supplyCh.14 Hormonal communication
Increases the rate of blood flow to deliver more oxygen and glucose Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Cerebrum Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Receptor input to the sensory centres in the cerebrum, passing signalsCh.14 Hormonal communication
Increases activity in the sympathetic nervous system and stimulated rCh.14 Hormonal communication
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Impulses activate gland and smooth muscle and activate adrenal medu Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Activates adenylyl cyclase to convert ATP to cAMP Ch.14 Hormonal communication
cAMP activates protein kinases to phosphorylate and activate other en Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Second messenger Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Cardiovascular centre Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Accelerator nerve Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Vagus nerve Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Baroreceptors (blood pressure) + chemoreceptor (chemical in blood) Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Muscle stretch, low blood pH, low blood pressure Ch.14 Hormonal communication
High blood pressure Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Adrenaline / Noradrenaline Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Acetylcholine Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Extra oxygen may be needed for movement increasing the heart rate Ch.14 Hormonal communication
Monitor
A response thethat
pH of the bloodto the stimulus, returning conditions
is opposite Ch.14 Hormonal communication
back
A to the that
response optimum.increases the stimulus, taking conditions further Ch.15 Homeostasis
away from the optimum.
- Endotherms generate own heat by metabolic reactions Ch.15 Homeostasis
- Ectotherms
An organism that reliesis on environment
unable to controltoitscontrol body temp and is
body temperature Ch.15 Homeostasis
reliant on external
An organism sourcesits
that controls of body
heat.temperature in a narrow range Ch.15 Homeostasis
using physiological or behavioural adaptations. Ch.15 Homeostasis
A chemical reaction that releases thermal energy.
Sweating, pilorelaxation, vasodilation, reduced liver metabolism, Ch.15 Homeostasis
panting Ch.15 Homeostasis
Piloerection,
Relaxation ofvasoconstriction,
smooth muscle toincreased liver metabolism,
widen arterioles and allow shivering
blood Ch.15 Homeostasis
flow close toofthe
Contraction skin's muscle
smooth surface.to narrow arterioles and restrict Ch.15 Homeostasis
blood flow close to the skin's surface. Ch.15 Homeostasis
Relaxation of the skin's hair erector muscles so hair lies flat. Ch.15 Homeostasis
Contraction of the skin's hair erector muscles so hair stands erect. Ch.15 Homeostasis
Seek shade, reduce surface area, inactivity, wet skin Ch.15 Homeostasis
Seek sunlight,
Ectotherms can:increase
use lesssurface
energyarea,
fromactivity,
food forkeep dry
respiration, use more Ch.15 Homeostasis
energy from food for growth, survive long periods without food Ch.15 Homeostasis
Endotherms can: remain active in low temperatures, inhabit colder
parts of the planet, maintain a constant internal temperature Ch.15 Homeostasis
The removal of metabolic waste from the body. Ch.15 Homeostasis
Carbon dioxide, urea, bile pigments Ch.15 Homeostasis
Lungs, liver, kidneys, skin Ch.15 Homeostasis
Decrease in pH. Ch.15 Homeostasis
Increase in breathing rate. Ch.15 Homeostasis
Lobules Ch.15 Homeostasis
hepatocytes Ch.15 Homeostasis
Hepatic vein, hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery, bile duct Ch.15 Homeostasis
Hepatic vein Ch.15 Homeostasis
Hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery, bile duct Ch.15 Homeostasis
Sinusoids Ch.15 Homeostasis
Canaliculi Ch.15 Homeostasis
Kupffer cells Ch.15 Homeostasis
- carbohydrate metabolism
Break down and recycle old red
- deamination of excess amino acids blood cells. Ch.15 Homeostasis
- detoxification Ch.15 Homeostasis
Removal of the amine group from an amino acid. Ch.15 Homeostasis
Conversion of one amino acid into another Ch.15 Homeostasis
To make essential amino acids that are not normally in our diet Ch.15 Homeostasis
Ammonia (then urea) Ch.15 Homeostasis
ornithine cycle Ch.15 Homeostasis
Ammonia + carbon dioxide → urea + water Ch.15 Homeostasis
Catalase; Alcohol dehydrogenase Ch.15 Homeostasis
Oxygen and water Ch.15 Homeostasis
Interacts with insulin and glucagon to convert between glucose and g Ch.15 Homeostasis
Gall bladder - increases surface area for more lipase to work on --> Ch.15 Homeostasis
Emulsification
speeds up lipid digestion
ultrafiltration Ch.15 Homeostasis
+ selective reabsorption
Glomerulus Ch.15 Homeostasis
+ Bowman’s capsule Ch.15 Homeostasis
Get the useful substances back into the body Ch.15 Homeostasis
Renal artery, renal vein, ureter Ch.15 Homeostasis
Cortex, medulla, pelvis Ch.15 Homeostasis
Nephrons
Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal Ch.15 Homeostasis
convoluted tubule, collecting duct Ch.15 Homeostasis
Glomerulus Ch.15 Homeostasis
Afferent Ch.15 Homeostasis
Efferent Ch.15 Homeostasis
Afferent
The has of
pushing a wider lumen
fluid out / Efferent
of the has ainto
glomerulus narrower lumen.
the Bowman's Ch.15 Homeostasis
capsule.
Endothelium of capillary, basement membrane, podocytes Ch.15 Homeostasis
(epithelium of Bowman's capsule) Ch.15 Homeostasis
Water, amino acids, glucose, urea, mineral ions Ch.15 Homeostasis
Red / white blood cells, plasma proteins Ch.15 Homeostasis
Microvilli on surface in
Proximal convoluted contact with lumen, lumen membrane has
tubule Ch.15 Homeostasis
many cotransporter proteins, highly folded membrane on surface in
Glucose, amino
contact with acids, mineral
capillaries, ions, water,
capillary-facing vitamins,has
membrane hormones
many Ch.15 Homeostasis
Na+/K+ pumps, many mitochondria Ch.15 Homeostasis
Glucose and Na+ from the lumen into the epithelial cells. Ch.15 Homeostasis
Descending limb, ascending limb Ch.15 Homeostasis
Mineral ions (Na+ and Cl-) Ch.15 Homeostasis
Water Ch.15 Homeostasis
None Ch.15 Homeostasis
Mineral ions (Na+ and Cl-) Ch.15 Homeostasis
Decreases / becomes more negative Ch.15 Homeostasis
Increases / becomes less negative Ch.15 Homeostasis
The transfer of mineral ions from the ascending to descending limb
Decreases
creating a water potential gradient between urine and tissue fluid at Ch.15 Homeostasis
/ becomes more negative
all points along the loop of Henle. Ch.15 Homeostasis
To do active
Active transport
transport to reabsorb
of minerals out of Na+ and Cl- intothe
the nephron ascending
further limb Ch.15 Homeostasis
increase
the water potential. Ch.15 Homeostasis
Reabsorption of water, affected by ADH concentration Ch.15 Homeostasis
Urine, sweat, exhaled air, faeces Ch.15 Homeostasis
Control of the blood water potential. Ch.15 Homeostasis
Anti-diuretic hormone Ch.15 Homeostasis
Collecting
A cascade duct epithelial cells reactions resulting in vesicles
of enzyme-controlled Ch.15 Homeostasis
containing aquaporins fusing with the cell surface membrane. Ch.15 Homeostasis
Water permeable channel Ch.15 Homeostasis
In the membrane of vesicles. Ch.15 Homeostasis
In the cell surface membrane. Ch.15 Homeostasis
Osmoreceptors Ch.15 Homeostasis
Hypothalamus Ch.15 Homeostasis
Hypothalamus Ch.15 Homeostasis
Posterior pituitary gland Ch.15 Homeostasis
More, more, less Ch.15 Homeostasis
Less, less, more Ch.15 Homeostasis
High blood of
A measure pressure / kidney
the volume failure
of fluid (problem
passing withnephrons
into the selective every
reabsorptCh.15 Homeostasis
minute. Ch.15 Homeostasis
cm3 min-1 Ch.15 Homeostasis
90-120 cm3 min-1 Ch.15 Homeostasis
60 cm3 min-1 Ch.15 Homeostasis
Glucose, alcohol, recreational drugs, hCG, anabolic steroids Ch.15 Homeostasis
Human chorionic
Antibodies gonadotrophin
produced by clones of(hCG)
a single plasma cell, usually Ch.15 Homeostasis
specific to a single epitope of an antigen. Ch.15 Homeostasis
To determine if the kit is working. Ch.15 Homeostasis
Binds specifically to hCG and to the immobilised antibodies in the te Ch.15 Homeostasis
Highest concentration - as more water has been reabsorbed overnightCh.15 Homeostasis
Mass sepctrometry
A separation and used
technique gas chromatography
to determine the compounds in a liquid Ch.15 Homeostasis
mixture based on their volatility. Ch.15 Homeostasis
To confirm the presence of the drug Ch.15 Homeostasis
Renal dialysis,
Treatment usedkidney transplant
to artificially regulate the concentrations of solutes Ch.15 Homeostasis
in the blood. Ch.15 Homeostasis
Haemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis Ch.15 Homeostasis
Artificial dialysis membrane Ch.15 Homeostasis
Abdominal (peritoneal) membrane Ch.15 Homeostasis
The size of the gaps within the membrane Ch.15 Homeostasis
Ultrafiltration Ch.15 Homeostasis
Should imitate concentrations of solutes in healthy blood/plasma Ch.15 Homeostasis
Lose
Freedom useful fromsubstances
ongoing due to steepfeeling
treatment, concentration
physicallygradient (eg. gluc Ch.15 Homeostasis
fitter, better
quality
Regularof life, improve
doses self image
of immunosuppressants, requires major surgery, Ch.15 Homeostasis
possible rejection, side effects of immunosuppressants Ch.15 Homeostasis
Because, like animal hormones, they are chemical messengers that
Tropic
can -transported
directional; away nastic - non-directional Ch. 16 Plant responses
Onlybe the target tissues willfrom havetheirthe site of manufacture
necessary complementary- to act on
other
shapedparts of the on
receptors plant.
their Theycell also
surfaceact on specific receptors
membranes to which the Ch. 16 Plant responses
particular
Promotes cell elongation, prevents leaf fall (abscission), maintains Ch. 16 Plant responses
hormone molecule can bind.
apical
Promote dominance,
cell division, inhibits
delayethene release overcome apical
leaf senescence, Ch. 16 Plant responses
dominance Ch. 16 Plant responses
Promote stem elongation, promote seed germination, Ch. 16 Plant responses
Inhibits seed germination (maintains dormancy), stimulate stomatal
Causes
closure in times of water stress, stimulate production of antifreeze Ch. 16 Plant responses
fruit ripening, promotes leaf abscission
molecules
Auxin
1.) Auxin in cold weather
andmolecules
gibberellin arework together
produced at to
thepromote stem elongation
tip and diffuse down the Ch. 16 Plant responses
(giberellins
shoot; 2.) Auxin havebindsa greater effect on
to specific this) on cell surface
receptors Ch. 16 Plant responses
membranes;
Auxin inhibitspromote 3.) Protons
leaf abscission, actively pumped
ethene promotes into cellulose cell
leaf abscission walls; pH Ch. 16 Plant responses
Gibberellins
falls to about 5water seed
in cellactivating germination,
wall providing ABA inhibits
an optimum pH forseed expansins;
Seed absorbs
germination gibberellin production; enzymes like Ch. 16 Plant responses
Auxin
4.)
amylase maintains
Expansins break
and protease apical
crossdominance,
links and
produced cytokinin
tohydrogen
break down overcomes
bonds
foodbetween apical
stores; these
dominance
cellulose molecules; 5.) Lower pressure
food stores are respired to produce ATP for growth of a root and in cell wall compared to cell Ch. 16 Plant responses
means
shootauxin levels --> high abscisic acid levels --> low cytokinins in5.) Ch. 16 Plant responses
High water moves into cell wall and it expands and stretches;
as hormone
lateral buds --> levels fall further
lateral bud growth downinhibited
the shoot, pH rises
(apical and
dominance
IAA
expansins denatured; 6.)levels
cellulose crosstip linking can now occur and Ch. 16 Plant responses
maintained)…low auxin (if shoot removed) --> low abscisic
cell
acid levels --> higher cytokinin levels in lateral buds --> lateral bud Ch. 16 Plant responses
wall becomes rigid
growth
Low auxin occurs (apical dominance
concentrations promote overcome)
root growth; high concentrations Ch. 16 Plant responses
of auxin inhibit root growth Ch. 16 Plant responses
when the amount of glucose needed by the plant for respiration to
The shaded
maintain side
thelevels
leaves is less by Ch. 16 Plant responses
Falling light result in than
fallingthe amount
conc. of auxin.of glucose
Leavesproduced
respond by
photosynthesis
producing ethene. Ethene stimulates production of enzymes that Ch. 16 Plant responses
photoperiodism
digest and weaken cells at the base of the leaf stalk. vascular Ch. 16 Plant responses
bundles
phytochromes are sealed off and a layer of fat is deposited. Cells in Ch. 16 Plant responses
separation zone swell by retaining water. This strains weakened
Leaf fall zone. Wind and low temps also help to separate leaf
separation Ch. 16 Plant responses
solutes in cytoplasm reduce the freezing point. Some produce
from plant.
sugars, polysaccharides, amino acids and proteins to act as Ch. 16 Plant responses
antifreeze Ch. 16 Plant responses
their cell membranes would be ruptured and they would die. Ch. 16 Plant responses
Heat
It coolsand the water
plant/ availabilitythe temperature. Water leaves the Ch. 16 Plant responses
ABA (from leaf andreduces
root cells) causes stomatal closing by activating
stomata and evaporates, reducing the temperature
changes in ionic conc of guard cells, reducing water potential and of the plant. Ch. 16 Plant responses
turgor of cells and closing stomata Ch. 16 Plant responses
Tannins,
thorns, barbs,alkaloids, Terpenoids
spikes, spiny leaves, fibrous and inedible tissue, hairy Ch. 16 Plant responses
leaves, stings Ch. 16 Plant responses
bitter taste to deter animals and toxic to insects (inactivate digestive Ch. 16 Plant responses
bitter
Cabbages,tasting underand attack
sometimes from poisonous
cabbage white butterfly caterpillars, Ch. 16 Plant responses
toxins to VOC's
produce insectstoand fungithe wasp cotesia glomerata. wasp lays eggs Ch. 16 Plant responses
attract
in caterpillars eggs, killing them. The VOC's deter the femal cwb
Pheromones
Volatile
from Organic
laying moreChemicals
eggs on the (VOCs).
plant. produced
Apple by plants,
trees, when which actby Ch. 16 Plant responses
attacked
contains
between alkaloids
themselves and stem
and other has sharp
organisms prickles, but if leaves are
Positive
spider
touched,
phototropism
mites,
they produce
fold down
- plant
VOC'sand
shoots
to attract
collapse.
grow towards
predators
dislodges of light which
the mites.
insects and Wheat Ch. 16 Plant responses
scares
enables
produces them to
VOC's, when carry out the
attacked light dependent
by aphids, reaction of
off larger animals.
photosynthesis. Caused
Positive by movement
geotropism - rootsofto deter other
potassium
grow downwards ionsaphids
andinto Ch. 16 Plant responses
changes in water
the soil, giving thempotential
anchorage of the and cells.
enabling them to obtain water Ch. 16 Plant responses
and mineral ions Ch. 16 Plant responses
There will be less auxin on the light side and a greater concentration
It
ofwill
auxingrowon towards
the shadythe light/
side. positive
Auxin migratesphototropism
laterally away from the Ch. 16 Plant responses
light.
it causes cell elongation and growth on the dark side so the shoot Ch. 16 Plant responses
bends away from
When plants the shaded
are grown in theside darkand towards
or partial the lightproducing
darkness, Ch. 16 Plant responses
rapid growth upwards. plants are tall, thin and pale. Ch. 16 Plant responses
Gibberellins Ch. 16 Plant responses
Clinostat Ch. 16 Plant responses
The roots will curl as they try to grown 'downwards' Ch. 16 Plant responses
The shoot will grow horizontally outwards from the pot. Ch. 16 Plant responses
Ethene Ch. 16 Plant responses
Auxins Ch. 16 Plant responses
In leaves - cytokinins; in citrus fruits - gibberellins Ch. 16 Plant responses
Cytokinins Ch. 16 Plant responses
Auxin
Fruits that continue to ripen after harvesting e.g. bananas, avocados, Ch. 16 Plant responses
tomatoes,
The unripemangoes
fruit is hard and much less easily damaged during Ch. 16 Plant responses
transport
they causethan the
rapid andripe fruit.
unsustainable growth in the dicot weeds so Ch. 16 Plant responses
they die Ch. 16 Plant responses
Endothermic - overall reaction takes in energy Ch.17 Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O --> C6H12O6 + 6O2 Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Movement (diffusion) of protons across ATP synthase down the elect Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Energy given off by an electron passing down the first electron transpCh.17 Photosynthesis
Photophosphorylation Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Hydrogen ions Ch.17 Photosynthesis
A cytochrome complex (electron carrier) Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Along the membrane Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Stacks of thylakoids that contain photosynthetic pigments Ch.17 Photosynthesis
The fluid enclosed in the chloroplast; Site of light-independent stage Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Intergranal lamella Ch.17 Photosynthesis
A light-harvesting complex that channels light towards a reaction cen Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Primary - chlorophyll A; accessory - xanthophylls, carotenoids, chloropCh.17 Photosynthesis
PSI contains chlorophyll a that absorbs light at a peak of 700nm (P700). Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Carotenoids absorb blue light; xanthophylls absorb blue and green lighCh.17 Photosynthesis
Thylakoid membrane Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Stroma Ch.17 Photosynthesis
There are different types of these, with slightly different molecular maCh.17 Photosynthesis
The molecules of pigment will have different solubilities in different s Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Light harvesting at the photosystems; photolysis of water; photophosCh.17 Photosynthesis
Electron donor; source of protons/hydrogen ions; source of by-product, Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Iron is needed for electron carriers in the chain (on thylakoid membraCh.17 Photosynthesis
The enzyme-catalysed splitting of water molecules, in the presence ofCh.17 Photosynthesis
NC - involves PSI and PSII; produces ATP, oxygen and reduced NADP (NA Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Energy from electrons moving through chain of electron carriers is u Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Protons can diffuse down their gradient through ATP synthase channeCh.17 Photosynthesis
They are accepted along with electrons from the electron transport Ch.17 Photosynthesis
A photon excites an electron from PSII, the electron rising to a higher Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Produces ATP which actively pumps potassium ions into the cell, lowerCh.17 Photosynthesis
Cyclic - pass via electron carriers back to PSI (little ATP generated); Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxidase; an enzyme found in the stCh.17 Photosynthesis
It is being continually regerated and then combined with CO2 Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Combines with 5C-RuBP to form a 6C intermediate. This is unstable and Ch.17 Photosynthesis
3C-GP is converted into 3C-TP using ATP and the H atom from reduc Ch.17 Photosynthesis
5/6 of TP is converted back into RuBP through reshuffling of the arr Ch.17 Photosynthesis
1/6 leaves the Calvin cycle and is converted into sucrose, starch, celluCh.17 Photosynthesis
ATP and reduced NADP Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Leaves lose more water by transpiration than can be replaced by uptak Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Light dependent reaction cannot occur, so less ATP/NADPH; less GP --> Ch.17 Photosynthesis
RuBP cannot accept it and RuBP accumulates; GP cannot be made; T Ch.17 Photosynthesis
ATP synthase (allows chemiosmosis to occur to join ADP and Pi toget Ch.17 Photosynthesis
When the rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration. ThCh.17 Photosynthesis
A factor that limits the rate of reaction when in short supply Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Temperature; Carbon dioxide conc; Light intensity Ch.17 Photosynthesis
More energy absorbed by photosystems to excite electrons, so more Ch.17 Photosynthesis
Higher rate of carbon fixation at Calvin cycle for more GP and TP prodCh.17 Photosynthesis
At lower temp, enzymes are inactive hence low PS rate. As temp incr Ch.17 Photosynthesis
ADP + inorganic phosphate (P) Ch 18 Respiration
active transport, endocyctosis, DNA replication Ch 18 Respiration
Check book Ch 18 Respiration
Occurs within a cell. Large molecules are broken into smaller moleculeCh 18 Respiration
Small molecules are combined into larger molecules Ch 18 Respiration
The first stage of respiration, glucose is converted into pyruvate. Ch 18 Respiration
A coenzyme (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) Reduced NAD carriesCh 18 Respiration
Where glucose has 2 phosphategroups attached to form hexose bisphCh 18 Respiration
2 molecules of triose phosphate Ch 18 Respiration
Pyruvate Ch 18 Respiration
3 Ch 18 Respiration
NAD Ch 18 Respiration
2 x pyruvate, 2 molecules of ATP, two reduced NAD Ch 18 Respiration
2 (four are made but two are used) Ch 18 Respiration
It occurs in the cytoplasm without the need for oxygen Ch 18 Respiration
the inner highly folded mitochondrial membrane Ch 18 Respiration
fluid filled inner part of the mitochondria Ch 18 Respiration
2-5 micromiters Ch 18 Respiration
the mitochondrial matrix Ch 18 Respiration
NAD & FAD Ch 18 Respiration
The cristae of the inner membrane Ch 18 Respiration
ATPsynthase Ch 18 Respiration
removal of a carboxyl group from a substrate molecule Ch 18 Respiration
the removal of a hydrogen atom from a substrate molecule Ch 18 Respiration
production of ATP from ADP and P during glycolysis and the Krebs cycCh 18 Respiration
The pyruvate loses a molecule of carbon dioxide and reduces NAD to Ch 18 Respiration
Coenzyme A Ch 18 Respiration
Glycolysis then the link reaction summary Ch 18 Respiration
Acetyl CoA Ch 18 Respiration
2 Ch 18 Respiration
oxaloacetate Ch 18 Respiration
6 Ch 18 Respiration
Oxaloacetate and acetyl CoA Ch 18 Respiration
It is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated into a 5C compound Ch 18 Respiration
It is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated into a 4C compound Ch 18 Respiration
The 4C molecule combines temporarily with coenzyme A to produce aCh 18 Respiration
3 reduced NAD, 1 reduced FAD, 2 molecules of CO2 and 1 molecule o Ch 18 Respiration
oxidative phosphorylation Ch 18 Respiration
the flow of protons, down their concentration gradient, across a me Ch 18 Respiration
the formation of ATP using energy released from the ETC and in the pCh 18 Respiration
in the mitochondria Ch 18 Respiration
A chain of electron carrier proteins that contain an Fe ion. As elect Ch 18 Respiration
ATP synthase Ch 18 Respiration
Reduced NAD & reduced FAD Ch 18 Respiration
They are reoxidised Ch 18 Respiration
They are split into protons and electrons Ch 18 Respiration
They are passed along the chain of electron carriers. They are finall Ch 18 Respiration
The intermembrane space Ch 18 Respiration
A proton gradient Ch 18 Respiration
The proton gradient accumulates and creates a chemiosmotic potentia Ch 18 Respiration
The protons cannot easily flow through the lipid bilayer of the mito Ch 18 Respiration
The protons cause a conformational change in the ATPsynthase whichCh 18 Respiration
oxygen Ch 18 Respiration
Oxygen accepts the electrons and combines with protons from chemiCh 18 Respiration
Photophosphorylation in the light dependent reaction Ch 18 Respiration
3 ATP (2.5) Ch 18 Respiration
2 ATP (1.5) Ch 18 Respiration
2 Ch 18 Respiration
0 Ch 18 Respiration
2 Ch 18 Respiration
28 Ch 18 Respiration
32 Ch 18 Respiration
Some ATP is used, some portons may leak through the mitochondria Ch 18 Respiration
There is an accumulation of protons. Ch 18 Respiration
Ethanol fermentation and lactate fermentation Ch 18 Respiration
Glycolysis, it occurs in the cytoplasm Ch 18 Respiration
pyruvate decarboxylase Ch 18 Respiration
ethanal Ch 18 Respiration
ethanol dehydrogenase Ch 18 Respiration
It can respire aerobically or anaerobically depending on the environmCh 18 Respiration
1. Pyruvate --> Ethanal + CO2; 2. Ethanal + H+ from reduced NAD --> Ch 18 Respiration
lactate dehydrogenase Ch 18 Respiration
Pyruvate + H+ from reduced NAD --> lactate Ch 18 Respiration
It is moved to the liver where it is eitehr converted back into pyruvateCh 18 Respiration
Both processes allow glycolysis to continue which has a net gain of 2 Ch 18 Respiration
an organic substance that can be oxidised by respiration, releasing e Ch 18 Respiration
It is converted to triose phosphate and then respired Ch 18 Respiration
They combine with acetyl Co A and enter the Kreb cycle Ch 18 Respiration
Different amino acids can enter different stages of aerobic respiratio Ch 18 Respiration
fatty acids Ch 18 Respiration
amino acids Ch 18 Respiration
Lipids contain large chains of hydrocarbons which are a source of pro Ch 18 Respiration
CO2 produced/ O2 consumed Ch 18 Respiration
1 Ch 18 Respiration
0.7 Ch 18 Respiration
0.8 Ch 18 Respiration
Anaerobic respiration is taking place Ch 18 Respiration
Protein Ch 18 Respiration
Glucose Ch 18 Respiration
Fatty acids Ch 18 Respiration
Anaerobic respiration has occurred Ch 18 Respiration
A random change to the genetic material. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
A random change to base sequence of a gene. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
A substance or radiation that can cause a mutation. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
A
A set of the 3 bases
substitution of oneinDNA
DNA.nucleotide for another, changing the Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
triplet. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Silent,
A changemissense, nonsense
to the DNA base triplet sequence that has no effect on the Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
amino acid sequence
A change to the DNA base in a protein.
triplet sequence that leads to a change in Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
the aminotoacid
A change thesequence
DNA baseintriplet
a protein.
sequence resulting in a termination Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
triplet that leads to a truncated protein. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Insertion
A change or to deletion
every DNA of one
baseDNA nucleotide
triplet downstreamcausing a frameshift.
of an indel Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
mutation. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Deletion / duplication / translocation / inversion Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
A section of a chromosome breaks off and joins another non-homol Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
A section of a chromosome breaks off and is reversed before joinin Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
lac operon Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Allows lactose to enter a bacterial cell. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Hydrolyses lactose into glucose and galactose. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
promoter, operator, lacZ structural gene, lacY structural gene Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
A
A gene that codes for a transcription factor which initiates/inhibits Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
gene that codes for a functional protein.
transcription of structural genes Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Repressor protein Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Beta-galactosidase Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Lactose permease Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Operator Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Promoter Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Lactose
Binds to the repressor protein, altering its shape and preventing it Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
from binding to the operator region of the lac operon. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Glucose present, lactose absent Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Glucose absent, lactose present Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Binding of the CRP-cAMP complex to RNA polymerase Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Move glucose into cell decreases cAMP levels --> less transcription of Ch.19 lac operon
Genetics
--> less
of living
lactose
systems
metabolised
Converting heterochromatin to euchromatin Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Tightly wound DNA around histones during cell division, visible under Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Loosely wound DNA during interphase, invisible under light microsco Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Heterochromatin Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Interphase (G1 + G2) Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Loosely wound DNA, therefore RNA polymerase can access/bind to g Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Aceylation or phosphorylation of histones --> decrease its positive chaCh.19 Genetics of living systems
Methylation of histones --> make histones more hydrophobic to bind Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Transcription factors Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Proteins or non-coding RNA that regulate the transcription of genes. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Promoters, enhancers
The TF has attached to the promoter, preventing the attachment of Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
RNA
The TFpolymerase
has attachedandtoexpression of theaiding
the enhancer, gene.the attachment of RNA Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
polymerase to the promoter and expression of the gene. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Maturing of mRNA through removal of introns. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
A non-coding region of DNA / RNA. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
A coding region of DNA / RNA. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
mRNA containing both introns and exons. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
mRNA containing
The joining of exonsonly
in exons (introns
a region of mRNAhaveinbeen removed).
different combinations Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
resulting in one gene encoding more than one protein. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Activating initiation factors (through phosphorylation by kinases) to Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Degrade
Cyclic AMP mRNA / Inhibition
to activate proteins
CRP or kinasesbind to mRNA
/ protein to preventorit from Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
modification
further folding Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Adenyl cyclase Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Cyclic AMP Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Activate enzymes /the
A gene controlling transcription
anatomicalfactor proteins of
development by an
phosphorylation.
animal, plant Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
or fungus.
Highly conserved anatomical structure ensures survival and Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
reproduction
A sequence of 180 DNA base pairs found in all homeotic / homeobox Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
genes --> codes for the homeodomain of regulatory proteins Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
A sequence of 60 amino acids encoded by the homeobox sequence. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
A homeobox / homeotic gene found only in animals. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Regulatory Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
4 Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Programmed cell death Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Apoptosis does not involve hydrolytic enzymes. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
A protusion from a cell early on in apoptosis. Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
Separation of limbs and digits in embryonic development, removal
Cytokines, hormones, growth factors, nitric oxide
of anti-self T/B lymphocytes, immune response to viral infection, Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
prevent tumour growth Ch.19 Genetics of living systems
An
Theindividual's unique genome
visible characteristics of an /individual
collectionasofaalleles.
result of their Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
genotype interacting with the environment. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
A version of a gene (as a result of mutation). Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Mutation,
Crossing overmeiosis, random/ fertilisation
/ chiasmata allele shuffling, independent assortment Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
in meiosis I, independent assortment in meiosis II Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Prophase I Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Metaphase I Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Metaphase II Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Deletion,
Qualitative inversion, translocation,
differences in phenotype,duplication
no intermediate phenotypes, Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
usually monogenic
Quantitative difference in phenotypes, a range of phenotypes, Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
polygenic Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Dialect / accent, scar Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
The position of a gene on a chromosome. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
2 Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
1 Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
2 Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Alleles are identical. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Alleles are different Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
An individual homozygous for a particular trait. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
It is controlled by one gene. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
A cross between an individual from the F2 generation and a true-
3:1
breeding recessive individual in order to determine the F2 Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
individual's genotype. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
100% dominant phenotype. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
50% dominant, 50% recessive phenotype. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Both alleles contribute to the phenotype in a heterozygous
individual. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
There are 3 or more possible alleles within the gene pool. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
XY Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
XX
Sex chromosomes that are fully homologous and so result in only Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
one type of gametethat
Sex chromosomes e.g.are
XX not fully homologous and so result in 2 Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
types of gamete e.g. XY Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Characteristic with a gene locus on a sex chromosome. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Characteristic with a gene locus on the X chromosome. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
1 Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
2 Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Sex Linkage Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
50% Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
1 black female: 1 tortoiseshell female: 1 black male: 1 ginger male Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Inheritance involving 2 genes with loci on different chromosomes. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
9:3:3:1 Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Chromosome
Multiple gene (pairs) that are
loci located on non-sex
the samechromosomes
non-sex chromosome and Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
inherited together. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
3:1 Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
A genotype only possible due to meiotic crossing
Where one gene masks or suppresses the expression of another over. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
gene. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Where one gene suppresses the expression of another gene. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Gene that prevents the expression of another gene. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
A gene whose expression is prevented by another
Where the epistatic gene locus must be homozygous recessive ingene. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
order to prevent the expression of the hypostatic gene. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
9:3:4
Where the epistatic gene locus must have at least 1 dominant allele Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
in order to prevent the expression of the hypostatic gene. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
13:3, 12:3:1 Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
25% Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Where 2 genes contribute to a final phenotype. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
9:7, 9:3:4, 9:3:3:1 Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Chi-squared
There is nopopulation
significant with
difference betweenfactors,
the observed Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
In a stable no disturbing the alleland
expected
frequencies data.
willAny difference
remain constant is due
fromtoone
chance.
generation to the next, Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
and there will be no evolution Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
p + mutation,
No q = 1, p2 +random
2pq + q2mating,
= 1 no migration, large population size, no Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
selection (natural of genetic drift) Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
0.54 Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Changes in allele frequencies caused by chance events. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Genetica bottleneck,
When founder effect
population dramatically shrinks in size and then increases Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
again. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Decrease
Establishment of a new, small population of a species derived from a Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
larger, parent population. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Decrease Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
So the effect of chance variation in gene frequencies
Changes in allele frequencies caused by environmental selection are minimised. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
pressures favouring
Natural selection the
that survival
favours of some
normal individuals
phenotypes over
due to others.
unchanged Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
environmental
Natural selection selection pressure
that favours one extreme phenotype due to a Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
change
Natural selection that favours both extremes of a given phenotype Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
in environmental selection pressure
due to a of
Splitting change in environmental
a population selection
into 2 or more pressures isolated
reproductively Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
populations. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
A population that is separated and reproductively isolated by
geographical barriers such as rivers, lakes, mountains. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Allopatric
A population that is separated due to biological and behavioural Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
changes. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Sympatric Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Speciation that occurs within populations in the same habitat Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Members of two different
Selective breeding species
of a species interbreed
by humans and form
resulting in afertile
change offspring
in Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
allele frequency. Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Breeding of closely related individuals Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Reducing the gene pool and hence genetic diversity --> reduces their Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Decrease
Storage of genomes within organisms so as to provide possible new Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
alleles
Loss offor future artificial
a species' selection.
natural characteristics / behaviour, inbreeding Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
depression Ch.20 Patterns of inheritance and variat
Single stranded piece of DNA that is complementary to a gene of interes Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Non-coding regions (introns, STRs, VNTRs, minisatellites, microsatellitCh.21 Manipulating genomes
Extraction, Amplification, Digestion, Separation, Visualisation Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Paternity testing, forensic investigations, determining how closely rel Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Hair, blood, skin cells, semen, saliva etc. Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Short, single-stranded DNA fragment (used to 'tell' the DNA polymeraCh.21 Manipulating genomes
Double stranded DNA is searated into two single strands (hydrogen b Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Very stable at high temperatures so does not denature Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Allow primers to anneal (bind) Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
The target DNA sequence to be amplified Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
32768 Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Polymerase chain reaction Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Anode (DNA is negatively charged) Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Smaller fragments move further/faster Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Mixtures of DNA molecules of known size. They are run in one lane anCh.21 Manipulating genomes
Agarose Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Separate DNA fragments in order of size Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Quicker, cheaper Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Taq DNA polymerase, a primer, normal nucleotides, chain terminator Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Has a hydrogen instead of hydroxyl group on C3 of the deoxyribose s Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Has a coloured fluorescent tag - 4 different colours for different basesCh.21 Manipulating genomes
Terminator bases do not have hydroxyl group on C3 of deoxyribose, t Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Cut the genome into smaller fragments (and clone into BACs to make Cah.21 Manipulating genomes
Gel electrophoresis in minute capillary tubes --> separate DNA fragmeCh.21 Manipulating genomes
Automated, high-throughput sequencing process: millions of DNA fragCh.21 Manipulating genomes
Closer % match of genome sequence means less time since the two s Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
The incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases (and otherCh.21 Manipulating genomes
Bioinformatics – development of software to process large amount ofCh.21 Manipulating genomes
Find out the source of an infection / Identify antibiotic-resistant bac Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Study and amino acid sequencing of an organism's entire protein co Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
1.) Genomes have exons and introns --> introns are removed + spliceos Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Identifying particular DNA sections that are common to all species bu Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Triplet code has been worked out (i.e. all 64 combinations of three Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Creating biological molecules from scratch (e.g. "printing" a sequenc Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
DNA molecule artificially generated from different origins (often diffe Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Enzyme that cuts a double stranded DNA fragment at a specfic place (it Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
It has the same sequence on both strands (reading from 5' to 3') Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Complementary single stranded 'overhangs' of DNA which can be usedCh.21 Manipulating genomes
Hydrolysis Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Use reverse transcriptases Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Enzyme that makes a complementary DNA (cDNA) from the isolated Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Joined together (compatable sticky ends) Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
DNA Ligation Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Plasmids (also cosmids, viruses, artificial chromosomes such as BACS, Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Joins DNA backbone/sugar phosphate backbone (makes phosphodiestCh.21 Manipulating genomes
Cut plasmid, isolate gene, producing sticky ends Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Using an electrical current to make cell membranes more porous (to aCh.21 Manipulating genomes
Pass tiny electric currents to the membranes of two different cells to Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
One that has been genetically altered to include genetic material fr Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Insect resistance, drought tolerance, pesticide resistance, faster growtCh.21 Manipulating genomes
Create monocultures (susceptible to extinction), chance of gene tran Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Making medicinal drugs (pharmaceuticals) from genetically modified Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Positive– easier/cheaper production of medicine. Negative – long ter Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Positive - may be able to engineer them to attack cancer cells. Negaiv Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Altering alleles to treat genetic diseases Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Somatic - altering genes in body cells. Germ Line – altering genes in Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Effects are often short-lived, multipple treatments may be needed, harCh.21 Manipulating genomes
Offspring will also carry altered genes - may be unknown long term effCh.21 Manipulating genomes
Recessive allele treatment just needs addition of the "correct" allel Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Somatic = legal. Germline = illegal. Ch.21 Manipulating genomes
Sending out runners, making suckers, producing bulbs, producing corm Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Growing large numbers of plants from meristem tissue taken from a Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Growing new tissues, organs or plants from certain tissues cut from s Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
If the plant doesn't produce many seeds, doesn't respond well to natur Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Cells removed from the shoot > cells /explants are sterilied before be Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Can produce lots of plants quickly, if aseptic technique is followed theCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Expensive, can fail due to microbial contamination, all cloned offsprinCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Micropropagation produces a large number of plants from a small sample Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Cut a 10cm section from a non-flowering stem of the plant > remove th Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Small pieces of plants cuttings taken Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Sterilised using bleach/ethanol/sodium dichloroisocyanurate --> avo Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Plant hormones: Auxins for shoot growth, cytokinins for root growth Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Callus Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Twins. Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
One sperm fertilises one egg > mitosis produces a ball of cells called Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
One sperm fertilises one egg > zygote divides to form an embryo > theCh.22
e Cloning and biotechnology
So it super-ovulates to release mature eggs (for collection) Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
To each other (all offpsring are clones of each other) Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
A somatic cell is obtained and the nucleus is removed > a donor egg isCh.22
obtained
Cloning
and and
enucleated
biotechnology
> the somatic cell nucleus
Mature egg cell/ovum from a female animal Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Electrofusion Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Different mitochondrial DNA as mitochondria are inherited from the eCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Desirable traits are selected for and guaranteed to be passed on, inf Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Difficult time-consuming and expensive, all are susceptible to the same Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Farming / Pharming / Restore endangered animal populations Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Yeast (often Saccharomyces sp.) Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Yeast respires, releasing carbon dioxide which gets trapped between Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Yeast (often Saccharomyces sp.) Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Anaerobic respiration (fermentation), producing carbon dioxide and eCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
C6H12O6 --> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Bacteria (e.g. Lactococci and Lactobacilli sp) Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Chymosin (from rennet), from the stomach of a calf Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Use genetic engineering - isolate the gene for chymosin from a cow > Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Bacteria (e.g. Lactobacillus or Streptococcus) Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Fungus (Penicillium sp.) Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Fungus (Fusarium sp.) Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Fusrium fungus - to produce the mycoprotein; glucose - respiratory suCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Suitable for vegetarians; high protein, low fat; lots can be produced inCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Risk of contamination if fermenter/ reactants are not sterile; have t Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Batch Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Animal pancreases (e.g. pigs) Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Not very effective as not the same structure to human insulin, difficultCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Use genetic engineering - isolate the gene for insulin from a human p Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Continuous Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
The use of microorganisms to clean the soil and underground water on Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Microorganisms covert toxic substances to less harmful substances. Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Contaminants are broken down on-site during in situ and taken elsewhere Ch.22during
Cloning
exand
situ.biotechnology
To provide a respiratory substrate Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
To allow protein synthesis to occur Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Agar Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
A culture which has no exchange of nutrients or gases with the exter Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Correct curve sketched, time x axis, population size y axis, lag phase, Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
The population does not grow quickly. Reproduction rate = death rat Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Population is small and is adjusting to new conditions - taking up wateCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
The population grows quickly. Reproduction rate > death rate. Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Population has adjusted; microorganisms have enzymes they need; sufCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
The population becomes static / no population growth. ReproductionCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Nutrients and space are running out; waste is accumulating Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Population begins to fall. Reproduction rate < death rate. Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Nutrients run out; concentration of waste products becomes toxic. Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Wash your hands, disinfect the working area, work near a Bunsen burne Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
The air warms and rises, preventing any air-borne microorganisms from Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Heating in an autoclave Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Heating in an autoclave Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
121oC, 15 minutes Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
All living organisms are killed, including bacterial or fungal spores. Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
The deliberate introduction of microorganisms to a sterile medium. Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Streaking / seeding / spreading / using a sterile cotton swab to col Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
A drop is transfered to the medium using an inoculating loop and drawCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
A sterile pipette transfers a small drop of liquid medium to the agar suCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
A sterile glass spreader spreads the inoculating drop over the surface Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Taped at 4 points, incubated at 25oC, placed upside down, Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Allows oxygen to enter - preventing the growth of anaerobic pathoge Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Incubating at 25oC prevents growth of pathogens Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
This prevents drops of condensation falling onto the agar; also prevenCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Bacterial colonies are shiny or smooth whereas fungi look like cotton Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
To determine the population size and growth rate of a population of Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Use 1cm3 of broth and 9cm3 of distilled water. Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Place 1 drop of each dilution onto a sterile agar plate. Allow colonies Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Primary metabolites are produced during the normal activities of th Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Batch Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Batch Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Continuous Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Continuous Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
The fermenter can be used for different reactions with each separate Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
There is lots of idle time between use therefore higher costs Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Higher risk of contamination due to constant additions and adjustmenCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Batch (fermentation) Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Using a water jacket Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Reactions are exothermic - heat generated can denature enzymes Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Oxygen Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Sterile - to avoid contamination of the product / to avoid competitio Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Motor with stirrers / mixing blades (impellers) Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Using an electronic pH probe Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Enzyme activity (and therefore growth) is affected by extremes of pH Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
With superheated steam Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
An enzyme that is held in place and not free to diffuse through the so Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Extraction costs are lower as enzymes do not mix with the product / tCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Setting up the immobilised enzymes is more expensive / immobilised en Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Adsorption Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Membrane separation Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Covalent bonding Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Entrapment Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Unreactive material - eg. Clay, porous carbon, glass beads, resins. Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Active site may be distorted so enzyme activity may reduce / enzymesCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Can be expensive / can distort the active site Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Substrate needs to diffuse in to the matrix / product needs to diffuse Ch.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Used to produce high fructose corn syrup - much sweeter than sucrosCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
Converts lactose to glucose and galactose to produce lactose-free milCh.22 Cloning and biotechnology
any non-living factor e.g. sunlight Ch. 23 Ecosystems
any living factor e.g. predators Ch. 23 Ecosystems
temperature, light, pH, water, humidity, oxygen availability, edaphic(so Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Competition, food, territory, breeding partners, predators Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Soil provides minerals for growth, water for photosynthesis, anchoragCh. 23 Ecosystems
small particles - few air spaces, retains water and floods easily eg. clayCh. 23 Ecosystems
Made up of all the living organims that interact with one another in aCh. 23 Ecosystems
Producer - makes its' own food, usually by photosynthesis to produceCh. 23 Ecosystems
eats only other animals Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Eats only plants Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Eats both plants and animals Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Eats producers, usually a herbivore Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Eats primary consumers, usually an omnivore Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Eats a secondary consumer Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Trophic level - position or stage that something occupies in a food chaCh. 23 Ecosystems
The mass of living material present in a particular place or in particul Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Organism has to be killed and put in an oven to evaporate the water Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Net production = gross production – respiratory losses Ch. 23 Ecosystems
60-20 =40gm-2yr-1 Ch. 23 Ecosystems
some parts of a plant do not photosynthesis, some light passes thro Ch. 23 Ecosystems
some parts of an organism are not digested, some parts are not eatenCh. 23 Ecosystems
10% Ch. 23 Ecosystems
net productivity of energy transfer of trophic level/ next productivity Ch. 23 Ecosystems
kills weeds that compete with crops - reduces competition Ch. 23 Ecosystems
kills fungal infections that damage crops Ch. 23 Ecosystems
kills insect pests that damage and eat crops Ch. 23 Ecosystems
a chemical that provides crops with the minerals required for growth Ch. 23 Ecosystems
controls living conditions for organisms so that more energy is put i Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Self contained unit in ecology made up of biotic and abiotic factors Ch. 23 Ecosystems
All the populations of different species living and interacting with eac Ch. 23 Ecosystems
When nitrogen gas is converted to nitrogen containing compounds Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Azotobacter and Rhizobium Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Rhizobium live in root nodules in peas and beans and they get carbohyCh. 23 Ecosystems
production of ammonia from organic compounds e.g. urea, proteins an Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Ammonium ions --> nitrite ions --> nitrate ions Ch. 23 Ecosystems
ammonium ions --> nitrite ions Ch. 23 Ecosystems
nitrite ions --> nitrate ions Ch. 23 Ecosystems
when soil nitrates are converted to nitrogen gas. Occurs when sol be Ch. 23 Ecosystems
respiration, decomposition and combustion Ch. 23 Ecosystems
photosynthesis Ch. 23 Ecosystems
combustion of fossil fuels, deforestation Ch. 23 Ecosystems
the increase in average temperature over the last century Ch. 23 Ecosystems
changes in temperature, precipitation, failure of crops, timings of the Ch. 23 Ecosystems
increased extraction of fossil fuels, increased decaying waste in land Ch. 23 Ecosystems
The process of ecosystem change over time Ch. 23 Ecosystems
produce large quantities of easy to disperse seeds/spores, rapid germin Ch. 23 Ecosystems
A community that remains stable only because human activity preventCh. 23 Ecosystems
on land that has been newly formed Ch. 23 Ecosystems
when the soil is rich enough to support large trees the climax communi Ch. 23 Ecosystems
on land that has been cleared but where soil remains Ch. 23 Ecosystems
population size = (number in first sample x number in second sample Ch. 23 Ecosystems
the number of individuals of one species in a particular area Ch. 23 Ecosystems
where a particular species is within the area you are investigating Ch. 23 Ecosystems
use a random number generator for coordinates Ch. 23 Ecosystems
A transect is a line across an area of land Ch. 23 Ecosystems
frame quadrat and point quadrat Ch. 23 Ecosystems
use a net Ch. 23 Ecosystems
use a sweepnet Ch. 23 Ecosystems
make a pitfall trap Ch. 23 Ecosystems
frame quadrat and measuring tape(transect) (could have species indeCh. 23 Ecosystems
Using line or belt transect - non-random, systematic sampling Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Non-random Ch. 23 Ecosystems
(number of individual in sample) ÷ (area of sample in m2) Ch. 23 Ecosystems
Capture-mark-release-recapture technique Ch. 23 Ecosystems
marking the organism does not impact its survival / no migration / orgCh. 23 Ecosystems
Carrying capacity Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Limiting factors - Resources are limited. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
0 Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Abiotic factors Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Increase Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
A factor in a habitat limits the further growth of a population. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Both abiotic and biotic. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Indivuduals are aclimitising to a habitat, low reproduction rate. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Plenty of resources available in good conditions, population increasingCh.24 Populations and sustainability
Rate of reproduction equals mortality, stable population size. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
lag, log (or exponential), stationary Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
They act irrespective of the size of the population. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Weather or climate Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
List 2 from: Availablity of food, water, light, oxygen, nesting sites Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Interspecific Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Intraspecific Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Food source, habitat Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
adaptations / reproduce Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Animals that hunt other animals for food Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Animals that are hunted by other animal (predators) for food Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
When the predator population increases more prey are eaten and theCh.24 n Populations and sustainability
Negative feedback Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Keeping a species or habitat as they are now, minimising any human Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
A active management process of a species, habitat or ecosystem invo Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Conservation strategies. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
The range and number of different living species in an ecosystem. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Over-exploitation of wild populations for food/ disruption and fragmeCh.24 Populations and sustainability
Effective education and liason with the local community. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Any 2 from: providing extra food raising the carrying capacity/ restric Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
All species have value and humans have an ethical reponsibility to looCh.24 Populations and sustainability
A valuable food source or potential food source/ potential drug source Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Coppicing Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Succession Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Management of an ecosystem to provide resources in a sustainable wa Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Increasing population Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
More intensive land use/ disruption or destruction of ecosystems, redu Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Woodland is divided in sections, with only one section harvested eachCh.24 Populations and sustainability
Branches of a tree are cut back to a point higher up the mainstem fr Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Coppicing cut branches at ground level while in pollarding they are cuCh.24 Populations and sustainability
Different areas of the woodland will be at different stages of developm Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Habitats are destroyed on a large scale and the soil is left susceptible Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Erosion of the soil and reduction of soil mineral content. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Too close - too much competition for light, producing tall and thin tre Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Replace any tree that's harvested/ maintain the ecological function ofCh.24 Populations and sustainability
Removing the largest or most valuable trees. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Only a few trees are removed which leaves the habitat broadly unaffeCh.24 Populations and sustainability
Control pest and diseases/ only plant tree species that will grow well Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Fishing quotas/ mesh sizes Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Fish at a level that ensures continuing fish stocks/ fish to maintain di Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
The fish population must be allow to build back up. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Maintain the fish population at the carrying capacity for that environmCh.24 Populations and sustainability
Habitat destruction/ competition for natural resources/ hunting/ polluCh.24 Populations and sustainability
Setting up mational parks and reserves/ green belt land/ world herita Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Increased demand for marine products and increased tourism. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Destruction and fragmentation of habitats. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Because most residents were not born on the islands. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
No extraction of any resources are allowed, leaving communities undiCh.24 Populations and sustainability
To reduce chemical use/ safeguard hedges/ care for natural habitats. Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Seasonal restrictions on walkers during nesting/ education of visitor Ch.24 Populations and sustainability
Sub-topic
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.1-3 Microscopy
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
2.4-6 Cell structure
3.1 Biological elements
3.2 Water
3.2 Water
3.2 Water
3.3 Carbohydrates
3.3 Carbohydrates
3.3 Carbohydrates
3.3 Carbohydrates
3.3 Carbohydrates
3.3 Carbohydrates
3.3 Carbohydrates
3.3 Carbohydrates
3.3 Carbohydrates
3.3 Carbohydrates
3.4 Testing for carbohydrates
3.4 Testing for carbohydrates
3.4 Testing for carbohydrates
3.4 Testing for carbohydrates
3.5 Lipids
3.5 Lipids
3.5 Lipids
3.5 Lipids
3.5 Lipids
3.5 Lipids
3.5 Lipids
3.5 Lipids
3.5 Lipids
3.6 The structure of proteins
3.6 The structure of proteins
3.6 The structure of proteins
3.6 The structure of proteins
3.6 The structure of proteins
3.6 The structure of proteins
3.6 The structure of proteins
3.6 The structure of proteins
3.6 The structure of proteins
3.6 The structure of proteins
3.6 The structure of proteins
3.6 The structure of proteins
3.6 The structure of proteins
3.6 The structure of proteins
3.7 Types of proteins
3.7 Types of proteins
3.7 Types of proteins
3.7 Types of proteins
3.7 Types of proteins
3.7 Types of proteins
3.7 Types of proteins
3.7 Types of proteins
3.7 Types of proteins
3.7 Types of proteins
3.7 Types of proteins
3.8 Nucleic acids
3.8 Nucleic acids
3.8 Nucleic acids
3.8 Nucleic acids
3.8 Nucleic acids
3.8 Nucleic acids
3.8 Nucleic acids
3.8 Nucleic acids
3.8 Nucleic acids
3.8 Nucleic acids
3.9 DNA replication and the genetic code
3.9 DNA replication and the genetic code
3.9 DNA replication and the genetic code
3.9 DNA replication and the genetic code
3.9 DNA replication and the genetic code
3.9 DNA replication and the genetic code
3.9 DNA replication and the genetic code
3.9 DNA replication and the genetic code
3.9 DNA replication and the genetic code
3.9 DNA replication and the genetic code
3.9 DNA replication and the genetic code
3.10 Protein synthesis
3.10 Protein synthesis
3.10 Protein synthesis
3.10 Protein synthesis
3.10 Protein synthesis
3.10 Protein synthesis
3.10 Protein synthesis
3.10 Protein synthesis
3.10 Protein synthesis
3.10 Protein synthesis
3.10 Protein synthesis
3.10 Protein synthesis
3.10 Protein synthesis
3.11 ATP
3.11 ATP
3.11 ATP
3.11 ATP
3.11 ATP
4.1 Enzyme action
4.1 Enzyme action
4.1 Enzyme action
4.1 Enzyme action
4.1 Enzyme action
4.1 Enzyme action
4.1 Enzyme action
4.1 Enzyme action
4.1 Enzyme action
4.1 Enzyme action
4.1 Enzyme action
4.1 Enzyme action
4.1 Enzyme action
4.2 Factors affecing enzyme activity
4.2 Factors affecing enzyme activity
4.2 Factors affecing enzyme activity
4.2 Factors affecing enzyme activity
4.2 Factors affecing enzyme activity
4.2 Factors affecing enzyme activity
4.2 Factors affecing enzyme activity
4.2 Factors affecing enzyme activity
4.3 Enzyme inhibitors
4.3 Enzyme inhibitors
4.3 Enzyme inhibitors
4.3 Enzyme inhibitors
4.3 Enzyme inhibitors
4.3 Enzyme inhibitors
4.3 Enzyme inhibitors
4.3 Enzyme inhibitors
4.3
4.4 Enzyme inhibitors
Cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic
groups
4.4 Cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic
groups
4.4 Cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic
groups
4.4 Cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic
groups
4.4 Cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic
groups
4.4 Cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic
groups
4.4 Cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic
groups
4.4 Cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic
groups
4.4 Cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic
groups
4.4 Cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic
groups
4.4 Cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic
groups
4.4 Cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic
groups
4.4 Cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic
groups
5.1 Structure and function of
membranes
5.1 Structure and function of
membranes
5.1 Structure and function of
membranes
5.1 Structure and function of
membranes
5.1 Structure and function of
membranes
5.1 Structure and function of
membranes
5.1 Structure and function of
membranes
5.1 Structure and function of
membranes
5.1 Structure and function of
membranes
5.1 Structure and function of
membranes
5.1 Structure and function of
membranes
5.1 Structure and function of
membranes
5.2 Factors affecting membrane
structure
5.2 Factors affecting membrane
structure
5.2 Factors affecting membrane
structure
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
5.3-5 Membrane transport
6.1 Cell Cycle
6.1 Cell Cycle
6.1 Cell Cycle
6.1 Cell Cycle
6.1 Cell Cycle
6.2 Mitosis
6.2 Mitosis
6.2 Mitosis
6.2 Mitosis
6.2 Mitosis
6.2 Mitosis
Root Tip Squash
Root Tip Squash
Root Tip Squash
6.3 Meiosis
6.3 Meiosis
6.3 Meiosis
6.3 Meiosis
6.3
6.4 Meiosis
Organisation and specialisation of
cells
6.4 Organisation and specialisation of
cells
6.4 Organisation and specialisation of
cells
6.4 Organisation and specialisation of
cells
6.4 Organisation and specialisation of
cells
6.4 Organisation and specialisation of
cells
6.4 Organisation and specialisation of
cells
6.4 Organisation and specialisation of
cells
6.4 Organisation and specialisation of
cells
6.4 Organisation and specialisation of
cells
6.5 Stem Cells
6.5 Stem Cells
6.5 Stem Cells
7.1 Exchange Surfaces
7.1 Exchange Surfaces
7.1 Exchange Surfaces
7.2 Human Gas Exchange
7.2 Human Gas Exchange
7.2 Human Gas Exchange
7.2 Human Gas Exchange
7.2 Human Gas Exchange
7.2 Human Gas Exchange
7.2 Human Gas Exchange
7.2 Human Gas Exchange
7.2 Human Gas Exchange
7.3 Measuring the process
7.3 Measuring the process
7.3 Measuring the process
7.3 Measuring the process
7.3 Measuring the process
7.3 Measuring the process
7.3 Measuring the process
7.3 Measuring the process
7.3 Measuring the process
7.3 Measuring the process
7.4 Fish/Insect Gas Exchange
7.4 Fish/Insect Gas Exchange
7.4 Fish/Insect Gas Exchange
7.4 Fish/Insect Gas Exchange
7.4 Fish/Insect Gas Exchange
7.4 Fish/Insect Gas Exchange
7.4
8.1 Fish/Insect Gas Exchange
Transport systems in multicellular
animals
8.1 Transport systems in multicellular
animals
8.1 Transport systems in multicellular
animals
8.1 Transport systems in multicellular
animals
8.1 Transport systems in multicellular
animals
8.1 Transport systems in multicellular
animals
8.2 Blood Vessel Structure
8.2 Blood Vessel Structure
8.2 Blood Vessel Structure
8.2 Blood Vessel Structure
8.2 Blood Vessel Structure
8.2
8.3 Blood
Blood Vessel
Plasma,Structure
Tissue Fluid and
Lymph
8.3 Blood Plasma, Tissue Fluid and
Lymph
8.3 Blood Plasma, Tissue Fluid and
Lymph
8.3 Blood Plasma, Tissue Fluid and
Lymph
8.3 Blood Plasma, Tissue Fluid and
Lymph
8.3 Blood Plasma, Tissue Fluid and
Lymph
8.3 Blood Plasma, Tissue Fluid and
Lymph
8.3 Blood Plasma, Tissue Fluid and
Lymph
8.4 Transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in blood
8.4 Transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in blood
8.4 Transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in blood
8.4 Transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in blood
8.4 Transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in blood
8.4 Transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in blood
8.4 Transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in blood
8.4 Transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in blood
8.4 Transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in blood
8.5 The heart
8.5 The heart
8.5 The heart
8.5 The heart
8.5 The heart
8.5 The heart
8.5 The heart
8.5 The heart
8.5 The heart
8.5 The heart
8.5 The heart
8.5 The heart
8.5 The heart
8.5 The heart
8.5 The heart
8.5
9.1 The heart systems in dicotyledonous
Transport
plants
9.1 Transport systems in dicotyledonous
plants
9.1 Transport systems in dicotyledonous
plants
9.1 Transport systems in dicotyledonous
plants
9.1 Transport systems in dicotyledonous
plants
9.1 Transport systems in dicotyledonous
plants
9.1 Transport systems in dicotyledonous
plants
9.1 Transport systems in dicotyledonous
plants
9.1 Transport systems in dicotyledonous
plants
9.2 Water transport in plants
9.2 Water transport in plants
9.2 Water transport in plants
9.2 Water transport in plants
9.2 Water transport in plants
9.2 Water transport in plants
9.3 Transpiration
9.3 Transpiration
9.3 Transpiration
9.3 Transpiration
9.3 Transpiration
9.3 Transpiration
9.4 Translocation
9.4 Translocation
9.4 Translocation
9.4 Translocation
9.4 Translocation
9.4 Translocation
9.4 Translocation
9.4 Translocation
9.5 Adaptations of Plants to Water Av
9.5 Adaptations of Plants to Water Av
9.5 Adaptations of Plants to Water Av
9.5 Adaptations of Plants to Water Av
10.1 Classification
10.1 Classification
10.1 Classification
10.1 Classification
10.1 Classification
10.1 Classification
10.2 The 5 kingdoms
10.2 The 5 kingdoms
10.2 The 5 kingdoms
10.2 The 5 kingdoms
10.2 The 5 kingdoms
10.2 The 5 kingdoms
10.2 The 5 kingdoms
10.2 The 5 kingdoms
10.2 The 5 kingdoms
10.2 The 5 kingdoms
10.2 The 5 kingdoms
10.2 The 5 kingdoms
10.2 The 5 kingdoms
10.3 Phylogeny
10.3 Phylogeny
10.3 Phylogeny
10.3 Phylogeny
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.4 Evidence for evolution
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.5 Types of variation
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.6 Representing variation graphically
10.7 Adaptations
10.7 Adaptations
10.7 Adaptations
10.7 Adaptations
10.7 Adaptations
10.7 Adaptations
10.7 Adaptations
10.7 Adaptations
10.7 Adaptations
10.7 Adaptations
10.7 Adaptations
10.7 Adaptations
10.7 Adaptations
10.7 Adaptations
10.8 Changing population statistics
10.8 Changing population statistics
10.8 Changing population statistics
10.8 Changing population statistics
10.8 Changing population statistics
10.8 Changing population statistics
10.8 Changing population statistics
10.8 Changing population statistics
10.8 Changing population statistics
11.1 Biodiversity
11.1 Biodiversity
11.1 Biodiversity
11.1 Biodiversity
11.1 Biodiversity
11.1 Biodiversity
11.1 Biodiversity
11.1 Biodiversity
11.1 Biodiversity
11.1 Biodiversity
11.1 Biodiversity
11.1 Biodiversity
11.1 Biodiversity
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.2 Types of sampling
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.3 Sampling techniques
11.4 Calculating biodiversity
11.4 Calculating biodiversity
11.4 Calculating biodiversity
11.4 Calculating biodiversity
11.4 Calculating biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.5 Calculating genetic biodiversity
11.6 Factors affecting biodiversity
11.6 Factors affecting biodiversity
11.6 Factors affecting biodiversity
11.7 Reasons for maintaing biodiversity
11.7
11.8 Reasons
Methodsfor maintaing biodiversity
of maintaining
biodiversity
11.8 Methods of maintaining
biodiversity
11.8 Methods of maintaining
biodiversity
11.8 Methods of maintaining
biodiversity
11.8 Methods of maintaining
biodiversity
12.1-2 Pathogens and diseases
12.1-2 Pathogens and diseases
12.1-2 Pathogens and diseases
12.3 Transmission
12.3 Transmission
12.3 Transmission
12.4 Plant defences against pathogens
12.4 Plant defences against pathogens
12.4 Plant defences against pathogens
12.5 Non-Specific Immunity
12.5 Non-Specific Immunity
12.5 Non-Specific Immunity
12.5 Non-Specific Immunity
12.5 Non-Specific Immunity
12.5 Non-Specific Immunity
12.5 Non-Specific Immunity
12.5 Non-Specific Immunity
12.5 Non-Specific Immunity
12.5 Non-Specific Immunity
12.6 Specific Immunity
12.6 Specific Immunity
12.6 Specific Immunity
12.6 Specific Immunity
12.6 Specific Immunity
12.6 Specific Immunity
12.6 Specific Immunity
12.6 Specific Immunity
12.6 Specific Immunity
12.6 Specific Immunity
12.6 Specific Immunity
12.6 Specific Immunity
12.6 Specific Immunity
12.7 Preventing and treating diseases
12.7 Preventing and treating diseases
12.7 Preventing and treating diseases
12.7 Preventing and treating diseases
12.7 Preventing and treating diseases
12.7 Preventing and treating diseases
12.7 Preventing and treating diseases
13.1 Coordination
13.1 Coordination
13.1 Coordination
13.1 Coordination
13.1 Coordination
13.1 Coordination
13.1 Coordination
13.1 Coordination
13.1 Coordination
13.2 Neuron
13.2 Neuron
13.2 Neuron
13.2 Neuron
13.2 Neuron
13.2 Neuron
13.2 Neuron
13.2 Neuron
13.2 Neuron
13.2 Neuron
13.2 Neuron
13.2 Neuron
13.3 Sensory receptors
13.3 Sensory receptors
13.3 Sensory receptors
13.3 Sensory receptors
13.3 Sensory receptors
13.3 Sensory receptors
13.3 Sensory receptors
13.3 Sensory receptors
13.3 Sensory receptors
13.3 Sensory receptors
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.4 Nervous transmission
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.5 Synapses
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.6 Organisation of the nervous system
13.7 Structure and function of the brain
13.7 Structure and function of the brain
13.7 Structure and function of the brain
13.7 Structure and function of the brain
13.7 Structure and function of the brain
13.7 Structure and function of the brain
13.7 Structure and function of the brain
13.7 Structure and function of the brain
13.7 Structure and function of the brain
13.8 Reflexes
13.8 Reflexes
13.8 Reflexes
13.8 Reflexes
13.8 Reflexes
13.8 Reflexes
13.8 Reflexes
13.8 Reflexes
13.8 Reflexes
13.8 Reflexes
13.9 Voluntary and involuntary muscles
13.9 Voluntary and involuntary muscles
13.9 Voluntary and involuntary muscles
13.9 Voluntary and involuntary muscles
13.9 Voluntary and involuntary muscles
13.9 Voluntary and involuntary muscles
13.9 Voluntary and involuntary muscles
13.9 Voluntary and involuntary muscles
13.10 Sliding filament model
13.10 Sliding filament model
13.10 Sliding filament model
13.10 Sliding filament model
13.10 Sliding filament model
13.10 Sliding filament model
13.10 Sliding filament model
13.10 Sliding filament model
13.10 Sliding filament model
13.10 Sliding filament model
13.10 Sliding filament model
13.10 Sliding filament model
13.10 Sliding filament model
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.1 Hormonal communication
14.2 Structure and function of the pancreas
14.2 Structure and function of the pancreas
14.2 Structure and function of the pancreas
14.2 Structure and function of the pancreas
14.2 Structure and function of the pancreas
14.2 Structure and function of the pancreas
14.2 Structure and function of the pancreas
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.3 Regulation of blood glucose concentration
14.4 Diabetes and its control
14.4 Diabetes and its control
14.4 Diabetes and its control
14.4 Diabetes and its control
14.4 Diabetes and its control
14.4 Diabetes and its control
14.4 Diabetes and its control
14.4 Diabetes and its control
14.4 Diabetes and its control
14.4 Diabetes and its control
14.4 Diabetes and its control
14.4 Diabetes and its control
14.4 Diabetes and its control
14.5 Coordinated responses
14.5 Coordinated responses
14.5 Coordinated responses
14.5 Coordinated responses
14.5 Coordinated responses
14.5 Coordinated responses
14.5 Coordinated responses
14.5 Coordinated responses
14.5 Coordinated responses
14.5 Coordinated responses
14.5 Coordinated responses
14.5 Coordinated responses
14.5 Coordinated responses
14.5 Coordinated responses
14.6 Controlling heart rate
14.6 Controlling heart rate
14.6 Controlling heart rate
14.6 Controlling heart rate
14.6 Controlling heart rate
14.6 Controlling heart rate
14.6 Controlling heart rate
14.6 Controlling heart rate
14.6 Controlling heart rate
14.6 Controlling heart rate
15.1 The principles of homeostasis
15.1 The principles of homeostasis
15.2-3 Thermoregulation
15.2-3 Thermoregulation
15.2-3 Thermoregulation
15.2-3 Thermoregulation
15.2-3 Thermoregulation
15.2-3 Thermoregulation
15.2-3 Thermoregulation
15.2-3 Thermoregulation
15.2-3 Thermoregulation
15.2-3 Thermoregulation
15.2-3 Thermoregulation
15.2-3 Thermoregulation
15.2-3 Thermoregulation
15.2-3 Thermoregulation
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.4 Excretion, homeostasis and the liver
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.5 The structure and function of the mammalian kidney
15.6 The kidney and osmoregulation
15.6 The kidney and osmoregulation
15.6 The kidney and osmoregulation
15.6 The kidney and osmoregulation
15.6 The kidney and osmoregulation
15.6 The kidney and osmoregulation
15.6 The kidney and osmoregulation
15.6 The kidney and osmoregulation
15.6 The kidney and osmoregulation
15.6 The kidney and osmoregulation
15.6 The kidney and osmoregulation
15.6 The kidney and osmoregulation
15.6 The kidney and osmoregulation
15.6 The kidney and osmoregulation
15.7 Urine and diagnosis
15.7 Urine and diagnosis
15.7 Urine and diagnosis
15.7 Urine and diagnosis
15.7 Urine and diagnosis
15.7 Urine and diagnosis
15.7 Urine and diagnosis
15.7 Urine and diagnosis
15.7 Urine and diagnosis
15.7 Urine and diagnosis
15.7 Urine and diagnosis
15.7 Urine and diagnosis
15.7 Urine and diagnosis
15.7 Urine and diagnosis
15.8 Kidney failure
15.8 Kidney failure
15.8 Kidney failure
15.8 Kidney failure
15.8 Kidney failure
15.8 Kidney failure
15.8 Kidney failure
15.8 Kidney failure
15.8 Kidney failure
15.8 Kidney failure
15.8
16.1 Kidney failure and growth in
Plant hormones
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.1 Plant hormones and growth in
plants
16.2 Plant responses to abiotic stress
16.2 Plant responses to abiotic stress
16.2 Plant responses to abiotic stress
16.2 Plant responses to abiotic stress
16.2 Plant responses to abiotic stress
16.2 Plant responses to abiotic stress
16.2 Plant responses to abiotic stress
16.2 Plant responses to abiotic stress
16.2 Plant responses to abiotic stress
16.2 Plant responses to abiotic stress
16.3 Plant responses to herbivory
16.3 Plant responses to herbivory
16.3 Plant responses to herbivory
16.3 Plant responses to herbivory
16.3 Plant responses to herbivory
16.3 Plant responses to herbivory
16.3 Plant responses to herbivory
16.3 Plant responses to herbivory
16.3 Plant responses to herbivory
16.4 Tropisms in plants
16.4 Tropisms in plants
16.4 Tropisms in plants
16.4 Tropisms in plants
16.4 Tropisms in plants
16.4 Tropisms in plants
16.4 Tropisms in plants
16.4 Tropisms in plants
16.4
16.5 Tropisms in plants
The commercial use of plant
hormones
16.5 The commercial use of plant
hormones
16.5 The commercial use of plant
hormones
16.5 The commercial use of plant
hormones
16.5 The commercial use of plant
hormones
16.5 The commercial use of plant
hormones
16.5 The commercial use of plant
hormones
16.5 The commercial use of plant
hormones
17.1 Energy cycles
17.1 Energy cycles
17.2 Chemiosmosis
17.2 Chemiosmosis
17.2 Chemiosmosis
17.2 Chemiosmosis
17.2 Chemiosmosis
17.2 Chemiosmosis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.3 Photosynthesis
17.4 Factors affecting photosynthesis
17.4 Factors affecting photosynthesis
17.4 Factors affecting photosynthesis
17.4 Factors affecting photosynthesis
17.4 Factors affecting photosynthesis
17.4 Factors affecting photosynthesis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.1 Glycolysis
18.2 Linking glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
18.2 Linking glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
18.2 Linking glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
18.2 Linking glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
18.2 Linking glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
18.2 Linking glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
18.2 Linking glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
18.2 Linking glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
18.2 Linking glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
18.2 Linking glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
18.2 Linking glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
18.2 Linking glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
18.2 Linking glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
18.3 The Krebs cycle
18.3 The Krebs cycle
18.3 The Krebs cycle
18.3 The Krebs cycle
18.3 The Krebs cycle
18.3 The Krebs cycle
18.3 The Krebs cycle
18.3 The Krebs cycle
18.3 The Krebs cycle
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
18.5 Anaerobic respiration
18.5 Anaerobic respiration
18.5 Anaerobic respiration
18.5 Anaerobic respiration
18.5 Anaerobic respiration
18.5 Anaerobic respiration
18.5 Anaerobic respiration
18.5 Anaerobic respiration
18.5 Anaerobic respiration
18.5 Anaerobic respiration
18.5 Anaerobic respiration
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
18.6 Respiratory substrates
19.1 Mutations and variation
19.1 Mutations and variation
19.1 Mutations and variation
19.1 Mutations and variation
19.1 Mutations and variation
19.1 Mutations and variation
19.1 Mutations and variation
19.1 Mutations and variation
19.1 Mutations and variation
19.1 Mutations and variation
19.1 Mutations and variation
19.1 Mutations and variation
19.1 Mutations and variation
19.1 Mutations and variation
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.2 Control of gene expression
19.3 Body plans
19.3 Body plans
19.3 Body plans
19.3 Body plans
19.3 Body plans
19.3 Body plans
19.3 Body plans
19.3 Body plans
19.3 Body plans
19.3 Body plans
19.3 Body plans
19.3 Body plans
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.1 Variation and inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.2 Monogenic inheritance
20.3 Dihybrid inheritance
20.3 Dihybrid inheritance
20.3 Dihybrid inheritance
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.4 Phenotypic ratios
20.5 Evolution
20.5 Evolution
20.5 Evolution
20.5 Evolution
20.5 Evolution
20.5 Evolution
20.5 Evolution
20.5 Evolution
20.5 Evolution
20.5 Evolution
20.5 Evolution
20.5 Evolution
20.5 Evolution
20.5 Evolution
20.5 Evolution
20.6 Speciation and artificial selection
20.6 Speciation and artificial selection
20.6 Speciation and artificial selection
20.6 Speciation and artificial selection
20.6 Speciation and artificial selection
20.6 Speciation and artificial selection
20.6 Speciation and artificial selection
20.6 Speciation and artificial selection
20.6 Speciation and artificial selection
20.6 Speciation and artificial selection
20.6 Speciation and artificial selection
20.6 Speciation and artificial selection
20.6 Speciation and artificial selection
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.1 DNA profiling
21.2 DNA sequencing and analysis
21.2 DNA sequencing and analysis
21.2 DNA sequencing and analysis
21.2 DNA sequencing and analysis
21.2 DNA sequencing and analysis
21.2 DNA sequencing and analysis
21.2 DNA sequencing and analysis
21.2 DNA sequencing and analysis
21.2 DNA sequencing and analysis
21.3 Using DNA sequencing
21.3 Using DNA sequencing
21.3 Using DNA sequencing
21.3 Using DNA sequencing
21.3 Using DNA sequencing
21.3 Using DNA sequencing
21.3 Using DNA sequencing
21.3 Using DNA sequencing
21.3 Using DNA sequencing
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.4 Genetic engineering
21.5 Gene technology and ethics
21.5 Gene technology and ethics
21.5 Gene technology and ethics
21.5 Gene technology and ethics
21.5 Gene technology and ethics
21.5 Gene technology and ethics
21.5 Gene technology and ethics
21.5 Gene technology and ethics
21.5 Gene technology and ethics
21.5 Gene technology and ethics
21.5 Gene technology and ethics
22.1-2 Cloning in plants
22.1-2 Cloning in plants
22.1-2 Cloning in plants
22.1-2 Cloning in plants
22.1-2 Cloning in plants
22.1-2 Cloning in plants
22.1-2 Cloning in plants
22.1-2 Cloning in plants
22.1-2 Cloning in plants
22.1-2 Cloning in plants
22.1-2 Cloning in plants
22.1-2 Cloning in plants
22.1-2 Cloning in plants
22.3 Cloning in animals
22.3 Cloning in animals
22.3 Cloning in animals
22.3 Cloning in animals
22.3 Cloning in animals
22.3 Cloning in animals
22.3 Cloning in animals
22.3 Cloning in animals
22.3 Cloning in animals
22.3 Cloning in animals
22.3 Cloning in animals
22.3 Cloning in animals
22.3 Cloning in animals
22.4 Microorganisms and biotechnology
22.4 Microorganisms and biotechnology
22.4 Microorganisms and biotechnology
22.4 Microorganisms and biotechnology
22.4 Microorganisms and biotechnology
22.4 Microorganisms and biotechnology
22.4 Microorganisms and biotechnology
22.4 Microorganisms and biotechnology
22.4 Microorganisms and biotechnology
22.4 Microorganisms and biotechnology
22.4 Microorganisms and biotechnology
22.4 Microorganisms and biotechnology
22.4 Microorganisms and biotechnology
22.4 Microorganisms and biotechnology
22.5 Microorganisms, medicines and bioremediation
22.5 Microorganisms, medicines and bioremediation
22.5 Microorganisms, medicines and bioremediation
22.5 Microorganisms, medicines and bioremediation
22.5 Microorganisms, medicines and bioremediation
22.5 Microorganisms, medicines and bioremediation
22.5 Microorganisms, medicines and bioremediation
22.5 Microorganisms, medicines and bioremediation
22.6 Culturing microorganisms in the laboratory
22.6 Culturing microorganisms in the laboratory
22.6 Culturing microorganisms in the laboratory
22.6 Culturing microorganisms in the laboratory
22.6 Culturing microorganisms in the laboratory
22.6 Culturing microorganisms in the laboratory
22.6 Culturing microorganisms in the laboratory
22.6 Culturing microorganisms in the laboratory
22.6 Culturing microorganisms in the laboratory
22.6 Culturing microorganisms in the laboratory
22.6 Culturing microorganisms in the laboratory
22.6 Culturing microorganisms in the laboratory
22.6 Culturing microorganisms in the laboratory
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
Microbiology practical / PAG Dilution plating
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.7 Culturing microorganisms on an industrial scale
22.8 Using immobilised enzymes
22.8 Using immobilised enzymes
22.8 Using immobilised enzymes
22.8 Using immobilised enzymes
22.8 Using immobilised enzymes
22.8 Using immobilised enzymes
22.8 Using immobilised enzymes
22.8 Using immobilised enzymes
22.8 Using immobilised enzymes
22.8 Using immobilised enzymes
22.8 Using immobilised enzymes
22.8 Using immobilised enzymes
22.8 Using immobilised enzymes
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.1-2 Ecosystems and energy flow
23.3 Recycling in ecosystems
23.3 Recycling in ecosystems
23.3 Recycling in ecosystems
23.3 Recycling in ecosystems
23.3 Recycling in ecosystems
23.3 Recycling in ecosystems
23.3 Recycling in ecosystems
23.3 Recycling in ecosystems
23.3 Recycling in ecosystems
23.3 Recycling in ecosystems
23.3 Recycling in ecosystems
23.3 Recycling in ecosystems
23.3 Recycling in ecosystems
23.3 Recycling in ecosystems
23.4 Succession
23.4 Succession
23.4 Succession
23.4 Succession
23.4 Succession
23.4 Succession
23.4 Succession
23.5 Measuring the distribution and abundance of organisms
23.5 Measuring the distribution and abundance of organisms
23.5 Measuring the distribution and abundance of organisms
23.5 Measuring the distribution and abundance of organisms
23.5 Measuring the distribution and abundance of organisms
23.5 Measuring the distribution and abundance of organisms
23.5 Measuring the distribution and abundance of organisms
23.5 Measuring the distribution and abundance of organisms
23.5 Measuring the distribution and abundance of organisms
23.5 Measuring the distribution and abundance of organisms
23.5 Measuring the distribution and abundance of organisms
23.5 Measuring the distribution and abundance of organisms
23.5 Measuring the distribution and abundance of organisms
23.5 Measuring the distribution and abundance of organisms
24.1 Population size
24.1 Population size
24.1 Population size
24.1 Population size
24.1 Population size
24.1 Population size
24.1 Population size
24.1 Population size
24.1 Population size
24.1 Population size
24.1 Population size
24.1 Population size
24.1 Population size
24.1 Population size
24.2 Competition
24.2 Competition
24.2 Competition
24.2 Competition
24.3 Predator-prey relationships
24.3 Predator-prey relationships
24.3 Predator-prey relationships
24.3 Predator-prey relationships
24.4 Conservation and preservation
24.4 Conservation and preservation
24.4 Conservation and preservation
24.4 Conservation and preservation
24.4 Conservation and preservation
24.4 Conservation and preservation
24.4 Conservation and preservation
24.4 Conservation and preservation
24.4 Conservation and preservation
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.5 Sustainability
24.9 Environmentally sensitive ecosystems
24.9 Environmentally sensitive ecosystems
24.9 Environmentally sensitive ecosystems
24.9 Environmentally sensitive ecosystems
24.9 Environmentally sensitive ecosystems
24.9 Environmentally sensitive ecosystems
24.9 Environmentally sensitive ecosystems
24.9 Environmentally sensitive ecosystems
Topic Questions Interleaved Questions

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How does a change in pH affect enzyme structure?

How do bordered pits form and what is their purpose?

From which chemical are cofactors derived from?

State two disadvantages of open circulatory systems

What is comparative biochemistry?

Describe how an antigen presenting cell leads to large numbers of T helper

cells

What is the role of T regulatory cells?

What is the role of T regulatory cells?

Describe how T killer cells destroy a virally infected cell

What is meant by the term 'autoimmunity' and give two examples of

autoimmune diseases
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-A change in pH refers to a change in H+ concentration

-H+ ions interact with polar and charged R groups in tertiary structures
-This breaks the bonds/interactions between R groups, leading to loss of tertiary structure
Where lignification is incomplete, leaving gaps in the cell wall; the bordered pits in 2 adjacent vessels are
aligned to allow water to leave one vessel and pass into the next, as well as leave the xylem

Minerals

Blood pressure is low and blood flow is therefore slow; circulation can be affected by body movements (or
lack of)

The study of similarities and differences in the proteins and other molecules that control life proceses.

APC binds specifically to a Th cell (clonal selection). This selected Th cell then proliferates by mitosis
(clonal expansion)

Dampen down the immune response; prevents destruction of self tissue (autoimmunity)

Dampen down the immune response; prevents destruction of self tissue (autoimmunity)

Release perforins which punch holes in the membrane of the cell; Tk cell inserts channels through which it
floods hydrogen peroxide/nitric acid/hydrolytic enzymes

Destruction of self-tissue; rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, type I diabetes

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How does a change in pH affect enzyme structure?

How do bordered pits form and what is their purpose?

From which chemical are cofactors derived from?
State two disadvantages of open circulatory systems
What is comparative biochemistry?
Describe how an antigen presenting cell leads to large numbers of T helper c

What is the role of T regulatory cells?

What is the role of T regulatory cells?

Describe how T killer cells destroy a virally infected cell

What is meant by the term 'autoimmunity' and give two examples of autoim
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2
3
4
5
6

7
8
State the bond involved in the quaternary structure of a protein
Explain why a neutrophil contains many lysosomes
What does 'ATP' stand for and what is it?
Name the two models used to illustrate enzyme actions.
What are the two parts that make up a carboxylic acid?
What is different between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

State the difference between cofactors and prosthetic groups.

Describe the structure of amylose, including the bonds involve
Topic Questions Interleaved Questions

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State the bond involved in the quaternary structure of a protein.

Explain why a neutrophil contains many lysosomes

What does 'ATP' stand for and what is it?

Name the two models used to illustrate enzyme actions.

What are the two parts that make up a carboxylic acid?

What is different between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

State the difference between cofactors and prosthetic groups.

Describe the structure of amylose, including the bonds involved and the
shape.
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ionic, covalent, hydrogen, hydrophobic interactions, disulphide bridges

These contain hydrolytic enzymes which digest pathogens

Adenosine triphosphate, energy currency

Lock-and-key + Induced fit

Carboxyl group + Hydrocarbon chain

Prokaryotes have no: Nucleus; centrioles; membrane bound organelles (mitochondria, chloroplast,
RER, SER, Golgi apparatus). Prokaryotes also have: peptidoglycan cell wall; smaller ribosomes;
naked loop of DNA; plasmids.
- Cofactors are temporarily bound to the enzyme
- Prosthetic groups are permanently bound

All 1,4-glycosidic bonds, straight helix

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Which enzyme catalyses the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin

What are adaptations?

Describe how cartilage is adapted for its function

What is an effector?

Name 4 internal conditions that are maintained by an organism's

homeostasis.

What is homeostasis?
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Thromboplastin (thrombokinase)

Characteristics that allow an organism to survive and reproduce in it's environment.

Connective tissue that contains elastin and collagen fibres; prevents ends of bones from rubbing
together
A cell or tissue that bring about a response to a stimulus.

Body temperature, blood glucose concentration, blood water potential, carbon dioxide
concentration

Responses that maintain a constant internal environment inside an organism.

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Which enzyme catalyses the conversion of prothrombin to
thrombin
What are adaptations?
Describe how cartilage is adapted for its function
What
Nameis4 an effector?
internal conditions that are maintained by an organism
homeostasis.
What is homeostasis?