AQA GCSE Biology specification (8461)

For GCSE exams in 2018 onwards

Page numbers
The page numbers shown in the right-hand column refer to the
new GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition (978-019-837581-4)

Your name:
Higher Tier only specified in brackets: (HT only)
4.1: Cell biology
4.1.1 Cell structure
4.1.1.1 Eukaryotes and prokaryotes
Plant and animal cells (eukaryotic cells) have a cell membrane, cytoplasm and
6
genetic material enclosed in a nucleus
Bacterial cells (prokaryotic cells) are much smaller in comparison. They have
cytoplasm and a cell membrane surrounded by a cell wall. The genetic material
6,145
is not enclosed in a nucleus. It is a single DNA loop and there may be one or
more small rings of DNA called plasmids
Students should be able to demonstrate an understanding of the scale and size
of cells and be able to make order of magnitude calculations, including the use 408-409
of standard form
4.1.1.2 Animal and plant cells
Students should be able to explain how the main sub-cellular structures,
including the nucleus, cell membranes, mitochondria, chloroplasts in plant cells
and plasmids in bacterial cells are related to their functions

Most animal cells have the following parts:

 a nucleus
 cytoplasm
 a cell membrane
 mitochondria 6,7,8,12,145
 ribosomes

In addition to the parts found in animal cells, plant cells often have:
 chloroplasts
 a permanent vacuole filled with cell sap

Plant and algal cells also have a cell wall made of cellulose, which strengthens
the cell
Students should be able to use estimations and explain when they should be
145
used to judge the relative size or area of sub-cellular structures

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 4.1.1.3 Cell specialisation
Students should be able to, when provided with appropriate information,
explain how the structure of different types of cell relate to their function in a
tissue, an organ or organ system, or the whole organism
11,14-16,112,
220-222,226,237
Cells may be specialised to carry out a particular function:
 sperm cells, nerve cells and muscle cells in animals
 root hair cells, xylem and phloem cells in plants
4.1.1.4 Cell differentiation
Students should be able to explain the importance of cell differentiation.
As an organism develops, cells differentiate to form different types of cells

 Most types of animal cell differentiate at an early stage

 Many types of plant cells retain the ability to differentiate throughout life 11,16,246

In mature animals, cell division is mainly restricted to repair and replacement.

As a cell differentiates it acquires different sub-cellular structures to enable it to
carry out a certain function. It has become a specialised cell
4.1.1.5 Microscopy
Students should be able to:
 understand how microscopy techniques have developed over time
 explain how electron microscopy has increased understanding of sub-
cellular structures

Limited to the differences in magnification and resolution 8-9

An electron microscope has much higher magnification and resolving power

than a light microscope. This means that it can be used to study cells in much
finer detail. This has enabled biologists to see and understand many more sub-
cellular structures
Students should be able to carry out calculations involving magnification, real
size and image size using the formula: magnification = size of image
size of real object 9,403

Students should be able to express answers in standard form if appropriate

4.1.1.6 Culturing microorganisms (biology only)
Bacteria multiply by simple cell division (binary fission) as often as once every
20 minutes if they have enough nutrients and a suitable temperature

Bacteria can be grown in a nutrient broth solution or as colonies on an agar gel

146,157
plate

Uncontaminated cultures of microorganisms are required for investigating the

action of disinfectants and antibiotics

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 Students should be able to describe how to prepare an uncontaminated culture
using aseptic technique

They should be able to explain why:

 Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use
158,383
 inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be
sterilised by passing them through a flame
 the lid of the Petri dish should be secured with adhesive tape and
stored upside down
 in school laboratories, cultures should generally be incubated at 25°C
Students should be able to calculate cross-sectional areas of colonies or clear
157
areas around colonies using πr2
Students should be able to calculate the number of bacteria in a population
157
after a certain time if given the mean division time
(HT only) Students should be able to express the answer in standard form 408
4.1.2 Cell division
4.1.2.1 Chromosomes
The nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes made of DNA molecules. Each
chromosome carries a large number of genes
243-244
In body cells the chromosomes are normally found in pairs
4.1.2.2 Mitosis and the cell cycle
Cells divide in a series of stages called the cell cycle. Students should be able
to describe the stages of the cell cycle, including mitosis

During the cell cycle the genetic material is doubled and then divided into two
identical cells

Before a cell can divide it needs to grow and increase the number of sub-
cellular structures such as ribosomes and mitochondria. The DNA replicates to
form two copies of each chromosome

In mitosis one set of chromosomes is pulled to each end of the cell and the
nucleus divides 235,239,246

Finally the cytoplasm and cell membranes divide to form two identical cells.

Students need to understand the three overall stages of the cell cycle but do
not need to know the different phases of the mitosis stage

Cell division by mitosis is important in the growth and development of

multicellular organisms

Students should be able to recognise and describe situations in given contexts

where mitosis is occurring

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 4.1.2.3 Stem cells
A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell of an organism which is capable of giving
rise to many more cells of the same type, and from which certain other cells
can arise from differentiation

Students should be able to describe the function of stem cells in embryos, in

adult animals and in the meristems in plants

Stem cells from human embryos can be cloned and made to differentiate into
most different types of human cells
16,239,241
Stem cells from adult bone marrow can form many types of cells including
blood cells

Meristem tissue in plants can differentiate into any type of plant cell, throughout
the life of the plant

Knowledge and understanding of stem cell techniques are not required

Treatment with stem cells may be able to help conditions such as diabetes and
paralysis
In therapeutic cloning an embryo is produced with the same genes as the
patient. Stem cells from the embryo are not rejected by the patient’s body so
they may be used for medical treatment

The use of stem cells has potential risks such as transfer of viral infection, and
some people have ethical or religious objections
16,239,241
Stem cells from meristems in plants can be used to produce clones of plants
quickly and economically

 Rare species can be cloned to protect from extinction.

 Crop plants with special features such as disease resistance can be
cloned to produce large numbers of identical plants for farmers
4.1.3 Transport in cells
4.1.3.1 Diffusion
Substances may move into and out of cells across the cell membranes via 18-19
diffusion

Diffusion is the spreading out of the particles of any substance in solution, or

particles of a gas, resulting in a net movement from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration

Some of the substances transported in and out of cells by diffusion are oxygen
and carbon dioxide in gas exchange, and of the waste product urea from cells
into the blood plasma for excretion in the kidney

Students should be able to explain how different factors affect the rate of
diffusion

Factors which affect the rate of diffusion are:

 the difference in concentrations (concentration gradient)

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  the temperature
 the surface area of the membrane

A single-celled organism has a relatively large surface area to volume

ratio.This allows sufficient transport of molecules into and out of the cell to
meet the needs of the organism
Students should be able to calculate and compare surface area to volume
ratios

Students should be able to explain the need for exchange surfaces and a
transport system in multicellular organisms in terms of surface area to volume
ratio

Students should be able to explain how the small intestine and lungs in
mammals, gills in fish, and the roots and leaves in plants, are adapted for
13,60,72,80,208,
exchanging materials
222
In multicellular organisms, surfaces and organ systems are specialised for
exchanging materials. This is to allow sufficient molecules to
be transported into and out of cells for the organism’s needs. The effectiveness
of an exchange surface is increased by:
 having a large surface area
 a membrane that is thin, to provide a short diffusion path
 (in animals) having an efficient blood supply
 (in animals, for gaseous exchange) being ventilated
4.1.3.2 Osmosis
Water may move across cell membranes via osmosis. Osmosis is the diffusion
of water from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution through a partially 20
permeable membrane
Students should be able to:
 use simple compound measures of rate of water uptake
225,409
 use percentages
 calculate percentage gain and loss of mass of plant tissue
Students should be able to plot, draw and interpret appropriate graphs 413-414
4.1.3.3 Active transport
Active transport moves substances from a more dilute solution to a more
concentrated solution (against a concentration gradient). This requires energy
from respiration

Active transport allows mineral ions to be absorbed into plant root hairs from
very dilute solutions in the soil. Plants require ions for healthy growth.

It also allows sugar molecules to be absorbed from lower concentrations in the 18-25,60,226
gut into the blood which has a higher sugar concentration. Sugar molecules are
used for cell respiration

Students should be able to:

 describe how substances are transported into and out of cells by
diffusion, osmosis and active transport
 explain the differences between the three processes
4.2: Organisation

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 4.2.1 Principles of organisation
Cells are the basic building blocks of all living organisms

A tissue is a group of cells with a similar structure and function

6,14
Organs are aggregations of tissues performing specific functions

Organs are organised into organ systems, which work together to form
organisms
4.2.2 Animal tissues, organs and organ systems
4.2.2.1 The human digestive system
This section assumes knowledge of the digestive system studied in Key Stage
3 science

The digestive system is an example of an organ system in which several

14,28,32-33,50,
organs work together to digest and absorb food
57-40
Students should be able to relate knowledge of enzymes to Metabolism

Students should be able to describe the nature of enzyme molecules and relate
their activity to temperature and pH changes
Students should be able to carry out rate calculations for chemical reactions
28,31-33
Enzymes catalyse specific reactions in living organisms due to the shape of
their active site
Students should be able to use the ‘lock and key theory’ as a simplified model 28-29,45-47,56-59
to explain enzyme action

Students should be able to recall the sites of production and the action of
amylase, proteases and lipases

Students should be able to understand simple word equations but no chemical

symbol equations are required

Digestive enzymes convert food into small soluble molecules that can be
absorbed into the bloodstream

Carbohydrases break down carbohydrates to simple sugars. Amylase is a

carbohydrase which breaks down starch

Proteases break down proteins to amino acids

Lipases break down lipids (fats) to glycerol and fatty acids

The products of digestion are used to build new carbohydrates, lipids and
proteins. Some glucose is used in respiration

Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. It is alkaline to neutralise
hydrochloric acid from the stomach. It also emulsifies fat to form small droplets

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 which increases the surface area. The alkaline conditions and large surface
area increase the rate of fat breakdown by lipase
4.2.2.2 The heart and blood vessels
Students should know the structure and functioning of the human heart and
lungs, including how lungs are adapted for gaseous exchange

The heart is an organ that pumps blood around the body in a double circulatory
system. The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs where gas exchange
takes place. The left ventricle pumps blood around the rest of the body

Knowledge of the blood vessels associated with the heart is limited to the
aorta, vena cava, pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein and coronary arteries.
Knowledge of the names of the heart valves is not required

Knowledge of the lungs is restricted to the trachea, bronchi, alveoli and the
69-72,81-86,
capillary network surrounding the alveoli
93-94
The natural resting heart rate is controlled by a group of cells located in the
right atrium that act as a pacemaker. Artificial pacemakers are electrical
devices used to correct irregularities in the heart rate

The body contains three different types of blood vessel:

 arteries
 veins
 capillaries

Students should be able to explain how the structure of these vessels relates to
their functions
Students should be able to use simple compound measures such as rate and
85
carry out rate calculations for blood flow
4.2.2.3 Blood
Blood is a tissue consisting of plasma, in which the red blood cells, white blood
cells and platelets are suspended
89,91-92
Students should know the functions of each of these blood components
Students should be able to recognise different types of blood cells in a
89-91
photograph or diagram, and explain how they are adapted to their functions
4.2.2.4 Coronary heart disease: a non-communicable disease
Students should be able to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of 87-88,95
treating cardiovascular diseases by drugs, mechanical devices or transplant

In coronary heart disease layers of fatty material build up inside the coronary
arteries, narrowing them. This reduces the flow of blood through the coronary
arteries, resulting in a lack of oxygen for the heart muscle. Stents are used to
keep the coronary arteries open. Statins are widely used to reduce blood
cholesterol levels which slows down the rate of fatty material deposit

In some people heart valves may become faulty, preventing the valve from
opening fully, or the heart valve might develop a leak. Students should
understand the consequences of faulty valves. Faulty heart valves can be

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 replaced using biological or mechanical valves

In the case of heart failure a donor heart, or heart and lungs can be
transplanted. Artificial hearts are occasionally used to keep patients alive whilst
waiting for a heart transplant, or to allow the heart to rest as an aid to recovery
4.2.2.5 Health issues
Students should be able to describe the relationship between health and
disease and the interactions between different types of disease.

Health is the state of physical and mental well-being

Diseases, both communicable and non-communicable, are major causes of ill

health. Other factors including diet, stress and life situations may have a
profound effect on both physical and mental health
145,153-154
Different types of disease may interact.
 Defects in the immune system mean that an individual is more likely to
suffer from infectious diseases
 Viruses living in cells can be the trigger for cancers
 Immune reactions initially caused by a pathogen can trigger allergies
such as skin rashes and asthma
 Severe physical ill health can lead to depression and other mental
illness
Students should be able to translate disease incidence information between
graphical and numerical forms, construct and interpret frequency tables and
412-413
diagrams, bar charts and histograms, and use a scatter diagram to identify a
correlation between two variables
Students should understand the principles of sampling as applied to scientific
410
data, including epidemiological data
4.2.2.6 The effect of lifestyle on some non-communicable diseases
Students should be able to:
 discuss the human and financial cost of these non-communicable
diseases to an individual, a local community, a nation or globally
174-181
 explain the effect of lifestyle factors including diet, alcohol and smoking
on the incidence of non-communicable diseases at local, national and
global levels
Risk factors are linked to an increased rate of a disease

They can be:

 aspects of a person’s lifestyle
 substances in the person’s body or environment

A causal mechanism has been proven for some risk factors, but not in others. 51,87-88,95,101,
 The effects of diet, smoking and exercise on cardiovascular disease 178-179,180-181,
 Obesity as a risk factor for Type 2 diabetes 360
 The effect of alcohol on the liver and brain function
 The effect of smoking on lung disease and lung cancer
 The effects of smoking and alcohol on unborn babies
 Carcinogens, including ionising radiation, as risk factors in cancer

Many diseases are caused by the interaction of a number of factors

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 Students should be able to understand the principles of sampling as applied to
410
scientific data in terms of risk factors
Students should be able to translate information between graphical and
numerical forms; and extract and interpret information from charts, graphs and 181,412-413
tables in terms of risk factors
Students should be able to use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation
413
between two variables in terms of risk factors
4.2.2.7 Cancer
Students should be able to describe cancer as the result of changes in cells
that lead to uncontrolled growth and division

Benign tumours are growths of abnormal cells which are contained in one area,
usually within a membrane. They do not invade other parts of the body
257
Malignant tumour cells are cancers. They invade neighbouring tissues and
spread to different parts of the body in the blood where they form secondary
tumours

Scientists have identified lifestyle risk factors for various types of cancer. There
are also genetic risk factors for some cancers
4.2.3 Plant tissues, organs and systems
4.2.3.1 Plant tissues
Students should be able to explain how the structures of plant tissues are
related to their functions

Plant tissues include:

 epidermal tissues
11,15-16,
 palisade mesophyll
208-209,215,
 spongy mesophyll
220-221
 xylem and phloem
 meristem tissue found at the growing tips of shoots and roots

The leaf is a plant organ. Knowledge limited to epidermis, palisade and spongy
mesophyll, xylem and phloem, and guard cells surrounding stomata
4.2.3.2 Plant organ system
Students should be able to explain how the structure of root hair cells, xylem
and phloem are adapted to their functions
220-222,224
Students should be able to explain the effect of changing temperature,
humidity, air movement and light intensity on the rate of transpiration
Students should be able to understand and use simple compound measures
414
such as the rate of transpiration

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 Students should be able to:
 translate information between graphical and numerical form
412-414
 plot and draw appropriate graphs, selecting appropriate scales for axes
 extract and interpret information from graphs, charts and tables
The roots, stem and leaves form a plant organ system for transport of
substances around the plant

Students should be able to describe the process of transpiration and

translocation, including the structure and function of the stomata

Root hair cells are adapted for the efficient uptake of water by osmosis, and
mineral ions by active transport

Xylem tissue transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the stems and
leaves. It is composed of hollow tubes strengthened by lignin adapted for the
transport of water in the transpiration stream 15,209,220,
222-224,226
The role of stomata and guard cells are to control gas exchange and water loss

Phloem tissue transports dissolved sugars from the leaves to the rest of the
plant for immediate use or storage. The movement of food molecules through
phloem tissue is called translocation

Phloem is composed of tubes of elongated cells. Cell sap can move from one
phloem cell to the next through pores in the end walls

Detailed structure of phloem tissue or the mechanism of transport is not

required
4.3: Infection and response
4.3.1 Communicable diseases
4.3.1.1 Communicable (infectious) diseases
Students should be able to explain how diseases caused by viruses, bacteria,
protists and fungi are spread in animals and plants

Students should be able to explain how the spread of diseases can be reduced
or prevented

Pathogens are microorganisms that cause infectious disease. Pathogens may

be viruses, bacteria, protists or fungi. They may infect plants or animals and 145,147-151
can be spread by direct contact, by water or by air

Bacteria and viruses may reproduce rapidly inside the body

Bacteria may produce poisons (toxins) that damage tissues and make us feel ill

Viruses live and reproduce inside cells, causing cell damage

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 4.3.1.2 Viral diseases
Measles is a viral disease showing symptoms of fever and a red skin rash.
Measles is a serious illness that can be fatal if complications arise. For this
reason most young children are vaccinated against measles. The measles
virus is spread by inhalation of droplets from sneezes and coughs

HIV initially causes a flu-like illness. Unless successfully controlled with

antiretroviral drugs the virus attacks the body’s immune cells. Late stage HIV
infection, or AIDS, occurs when the body’s immune system becomes so badly
163-164,176,227
damaged it can no longer deal with other infections or cancers. HIV is spread
by sexual contact or exchange of body fluids such as blood which occurs when
drug users share needles

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is a widespread plant pathogen affecting many

species of plants including tomatoes. It gives a distinctive ‘mosaic’ pattern of
discolouration on the leaves which affects the growth of the plant due to lack of
photosynthesis
4.3.1.3 Bacterial diseases
Salmonella food poisoning is spread by bacteria ingested in food, or on food
prepared in unhygienic conditions. In the UK, poultry are vaccinated against
Salmonella to control the spread. Fever, abdominal cramps, vomiting and
diarrhoea are caused by the bacteria and the toxins they secrete

Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) with symptoms of 160,162

a thick yellow or green discharge from the vagina or penis and pain on
urinating. It is caused by a bacterium and was easily treated with the antibiotic
penicillin until many resistant strains appeared. Gonorrhoea is spread by
sexual contact. The spread can be controlled by treatment with antibiotics or
the use of a barrier method of contraception such as a condom
4.3.1.4 Fungal diseases
Rose black spot is a fungal disease where purple or black spots develop on
leaves, which often turn yellow and drop early. It affects the growth of the plant
as photosynthesis is reduced. It is spread in the environment by water or wind. 165
Rose black spot can be treated by using fungicides and/or removing and
destroying the affected leaves
4.3.1.5 Protist diseases
The pathogens that cause malaria are protists.

The malarial protist has a life cycle that includes the mosquito. Malaria causes
167
recurrent episodes of fever and can be fatal. The spread of malaria is
controlled by preventing the vectors, mosquitos, from breeding and by using
mosquito nets to avoid being bitten
4.3.1.6 Human defence systems
Students should be able to describe the non-specific defence systems of the 91,152-154
human body against pathogens, including the:
 skin
 nose
 trachea and bronchi
 stomach

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 Students should be able to explain the role of the immune system in the
defence against disease

If a pathogen enters the body the immune system tries to destroy the pathogen

White blood cells help to defend against pathogens by:

 phagocytosis
 antibody production
 antitoxin production
4.3.1.7 Vaccination
Students should be able to explain how vaccination will prevent illness in an
individual, and how the spread of pathogens can be reduced by immunising a
large proportion of the population

Vaccination involves introducing small quantities of dead or inactive forms of a

pathogen into the body to stimulate the white blood cells to produce antibodies. 155-156
If the same pathogen re-enters the body the white blood cells respond quickly
to produce the correct antibodies, preventing infection

Students do not need to know details of vaccination schedules and side effects
associated with specific vaccines
4.3.1.8 Antibiotics and painkillers
Students should be able to explain the use of antibiotics and other medicines in
156
treating disease
Antibiotics, such as penicillin, are medicines that help to cure bacterial disease
by killing infective bacteria inside the body. It is important that specific bacteria 156
should be treated by specific antibiotics
The use of antibiotics has greatly reduced deaths from infectious bacterial
diseases. However, the emergence of strains resistant to antibiotics is of great 156,276
concern
Antibiotics cannot kill viral pathogens.

Painkillers and other medicines are used to treat the symptoms of disease but do not
kill pathogens. 175

It is difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses without also damaging the body’s
tissues.
4.3.1.9 Discovery and development of drugs
Students should be able to describe the process of discovery and development
of potential new medicines, including preclinical and clinical testing

Traditionally drugs were extracted from plants and microorganisms.

 The heart drug digitalis originates from foxgloves
156,159,388
 The painkiller aspirin originates from willow
 Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming from the Penicillium
mould
Most new drugs are synthesised by chemists in the pharmaceutical industry.
However, the starting point may still be a chemical extracted from a plant

New medical drugs have to be tested and trialled before being used to check 159

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 that they are safe and effective

New drugs are extensively tested for toxicity, efficacy and dose

Preclinical testing is done in a laboratory using cells, tissues and live animals

Clinical trials use healthy volunteers and patients.

 Very low doses of the drug are given at the start of the clinical trial
 If the drug is found to be safe, further clinical trials are carried out to find
the optimum dose for the drug
 In double blind trials, some patients are given a placebo
4.3.2 Monoclonal antibodies (biology only) (HT only)
4.3.2.1 Producing monoclonal antibodies
Students should be able to describe how monoclonal antibodies are produced

Monoclonal antibodies are produced from a single clone of cells. The

antibodies are specific to one binding site on one protein antigen and so are
able to target a specific chemical or specific cells in the body
168
They are produced by stimulating mouse lymphocytes to make a particular
antibody. The lymphocytes are combined with a particular kind of tumour cell to
make a cell called a hybridoma cell. The hybridoma cell can both divide and
make the antibody. Single hybridoma cells are cloned to produce many
identical cells that all produce the same antibody. A large amount of the
antibody can be collected and purified
4.3.2.2 Uses of monoclonal antibodies
Students should be able to describe some of the ways in which monoclonal
antibodies can be used

Some examples include:

 for diagnosis such as in pregnancy tests
 in laboratories to measure the levels of hormones and other chemicals
in blood, or to detect pathogens
 in research to locate or identify specific molecules in a cell or tissue by
169
binding to them with a fluorescent dye
 to treat some diseases: for cancer the monoclonal antibody can be
bound to a radioactive substance, a toxic drug or a chemical which
stops cells growing and dividing. It delivers the substance to the cancer
cells without harming other cells in the body

Students are not expected to recall any specific tests or treatments but given
appropriate information they should be able to explain how they work
Monoclonal antibodies create more side effects than expected. They are not
169
yet as widely used as everyone hoped when they were first developed

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 4.3.3 Plant disease (biology only)
4.3.3.1 Detection and identification of plant diseases
(HT only) Plant diseases can be detected by:
 stunted growth
 spots on leaves
 areas of decay (rot)
 growths
 malformed stems or leaves
 discolouration 166
 the presence of pests

(HT only) Identification can be made by:

 reference to a gardening manual or website
 taking infected plants to a laboratory to identify the pathogen
 using testing kits that contain monoclonal antibodies
Plants can be infected by a range of viral, bacterial and fungal pathogens as
well as by insects

Knowledge of plant diseases is restricted to tobacco mosaic virus as a viral

disease, black spot as a fungal disease and aphids as insects.
211,227
Plants can be damaged by a range of ion deficiency conditions:
 stunted growth caused by nitrate deficiency
 chlorosis caused by magnesium deficiency

Knowledge of ions is limited to nitrate ions needed for protein synthesis and
therefore growth, and magnesium ions needed to make chlorophyll
4.3.3.2 Plant defence responses
Students should be able to describe physical and chemical plant defence
responses

Physical defence responses to resist invasion of microorganisms.

 Cellulose cell walls
 Tough waxy cuticle on leaves
 Layers of dead cells around stems (bark on trees) which fall off
166
Chemical plant defence responses.
 Antibacterial chemicals
 Poisons to deter herbivores

Mechanical adaptations.
 Thorns and hairs deter animals
 Leaves which droop or curl when touched
 Mimicry to trick animals

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 4.4: Bioenergetics
4.4.1 Photosynthesis
4.4.1.1 Photosynthetic reaction
Photosynthesis is represented by the equation:

light
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen 199

Students should recognise the chemical symbols: CO2, H2O, O2 and C6H12O6
Students should be able to describe photosynthesis as an endothermic
reaction in which energy is transferred from the environment to the chloroplasts 199
by light
4.4.1.2 Rate of photosynthesis
Students should be able to explain the effects of temperature, light intensity,
carbon dioxide concentration, and the amount of chlorophyll on the rate of 205-207
photosynthesis
Students should be able to:
 measure and calculate rates of photosynthesis
 extract and interpret graphs of photosynthesis rate involving one limiting
205-207
factor
 plot and draw appropriate graphs selecting appropriate scale for axes
 translate information between graphical and numeric form
(HT only) These factors interact and any one of them may be the factor that
205-207
limits photosynthesis
(HT only) Students should be able to explain graphs of photosynthesis rate
205-207
involving two or three factors and decide which is the limiting factor
(HT only) Students should understand and use inverse proportion – the inverse square
law and light intensity in the context of photosynthesis.
205,219
(HT only) Limiting factors are important in the economics of enhancing the conditions
in greenhouses to gain the maximum rate of photosynthesis while still maintaining
profit.
4.4.1.3 Uses of glucose from photosynthesis
The glucose produced in photosynthesis may be:
 used for respiration
 converted into insoluble starch for storage
 used to produce fat or oil for storage
 used to produce cellulose, which strengthens the cell wall 203
 used to produce amino acids for protein synthesis

To produce proteins, plants also use nitrate ions that are absorbed from the
soil

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 15 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
 4.4.2 Respiration
4.4.2.1 Aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Students should be able to describe cellular respiration as an exothermic
reaction which is continuously occurring in living cells

The energy transferred supplies all the energy needed for living processes

Respiration in cells can take place aerobically (using oxygen) or anaerobically

(without oxygen), to transfer energy

Students should be able to compare the processes of aerobic and anaerobic

respiration with regard to the need for oxygen, the differing products and the
relative amounts of energy transferred

Organisms need energy for:

 chemical reactions to build larger molecules
 movement
 keeping warm
64-65,75-76,386
Aerobic respiration is represented by the equation:
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

Students should recognise the chemical symbols:

C6H12O6, O2, CO2 and H2O

Anaerobic respiration in muscles is represented by the equation:

glucose lactic acid

As the oxidation of glucose is incomplete in anaerobic respiration much less

energy is transferred than in aerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration in plant and yeast cells is represented by the equation:

glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide

Anaerobic respiration in yeast cells is called fermentation and has economic

importance in the manufacture of bread and alcoholic drinks
4.4.2.2 Response to exercise
During exercise the human body reacts to the increased demand for energy

The heart rate, breathing rate and breath volume increase during exercise to
supply the muscles with more oxygenated blood
74,76,83,86
If insufficient oxygen is supplied anaerobic respiration takes place in muscles.
The incomplete oxidation of glucose causes a build up of lactic acid and
creates an oxygen debt. During long periods of vigorous activity muscles
become fatigued and stop contracting efficiently
(HT only) Blood flowing through the muscles transports the lactic acid to the
liver where it is converted back into glucose. Oxygen debt is the amount of
76
extra oxygen the body needs after exercise to react with the accumulated lactic
acid and remove it from the cells
4.4.2.3 Metabolism

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 16 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
 Students should be able to explain the importance of sugars, amino acids, fatty
acids and glycerol in the synthesis and breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins
and lipids

Metabolism is the sum of all the reactions in a cell or the body.

The energy transferred by respiration in cells is used by the organism for the
continual enzyme controlled processes of metabolism that synthesise new
molecules
45-47,50,64-65,
Metabolism includes:
104,203
 conversion of glucose to starch, glycogen and cellulose
 the formation of lipid molecules from a molecule of glycerol and three
molecules of fatty acids
 the use of glucose and nitrate ions to form amino acids which in turn
are used to synthesise proteins
 respiration
 breakdown of excess proteins to form urea for excretion

All of these aspects are covered in more detail in the relevant specification
section but are linked together here
4.5: Homeostasis and response
4.5.1 Homeostasis
Students should be able to explain that homeostasis is the regulation of the
internal conditions of a cell or organism to maintain optimum conditions for
function in response to internal and external changes

Homeostasis maintains optimal conditions for enzyme action and all cell
functions

In the human body, these include control of:

 blood glucose concentration
 body temperature
98-100,102-103,
 water levels
106,110
These automatic control systems may involve nervous responses or chemical
responses

All control systems include:

 cells called receptors, which detect stimuli (changes in the environment)
 coordination centres (such as the brain, spinal cord and pancreas) that
receive and process information from receptors
 effectors, muscles or glands, which bring about responses which
restore optimum levels

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 17 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
 4.5.2 The human nervous system
4.5.2.1 Structure and function
Students should be able to explain how the structure of the nervous system is
adapted to its functions

The nervous system enables humans to react to their surroundings and to

coordinate their behaviour

Information from receptors passes along cells (neurones) as electrical impulses

to the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS is the brain and spinal cord.
The CNS coordinates the response of effectors which may be muscles
contracting or glands secreting hormones
110-113,115-116
stimulus receptor coordinator effector response

Students should be able to explain how the various structures in a reflex arc –
including the sensory neurone, synapse, relay neurone and motor neurone –
relate to their function. Students should understand why reflex actions are
important

Reflex actions are automatic and rapid; they do not involve the conscious part
of the brain
Students should be able to extract and interpret data from graphs, charts and
412-414
tables, about the functioning of the nervous system
Students should be able to translate information about reaction times between
115,412-414
numerical and graphical forms
4.5.2.2 The brain (biology only)
The brain controls complex behaviour. It is made of billions of interconnected
neurones and has different regions that carry out different functions
117
Students should be able to identify the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and medulla
on a diagram of the brain, and describe their functions
(HT only) Students should be able to explain some of the difficulties of
investigating brain function and treating brain damage and disease

(HT only) Neuroscientists have been able to map the regions of the brain to
117,132
particular functions by studying patients with brain damage, electrically
stimulating different parts of the brain and using MRI scanning techniques. The
complexity and delicacy of the brain makes investigating and treating brain
disorders very difficult
4.5.2.3 The eye (biology only)
Students should be able to relate the structures of the eye to their functions

This includes:
 accommodation to focus on near or distant objects
118-121
 adaptation to dim light

The eye is a sense organ containing receptors sensitive to light intensity and
colour
Students should be able to identify the following structures on a diagram of the 118-121

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 18 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
 eye and explain how their structure is related to their function:
 retina
 optic nerve
 sclera
 cornea
 iris
 ciliary muscles
 suspensory ligaments

Accommodation is the process of changing the shape of the lens to focus on

near or distant objects

To focus on a near object:

 the ciliary muscles contract
 the suspensory ligaments loosen
 the lens is then thicker and refracts light rays strongly

To focus on a distant object:

 the ciliary muscles relax
 the suspensory ligaments are pulled tight
 the lens is then pulled thin and only slightly refracts light rays

Two common defects of the eyes are myopia (short sightedness) and
hyperopia (long sightedness) in which rays of light do not focus on the retina.
 Generally these defects are treated with spectacle lenses which refract
the light rays so that they do focus on the retina.
 New technologies now include hard and soft contact lenses, laser
surgery to change the shape of the cornea and a replacement lens in
the eye
Students should be able to interpret ray diagrams, showing these two common
121
defects of the eye and demonstrate how spectacle lenses correct them
4.5.2.4 Control of body temperature (biology only)
Body temperature is monitored and controlled by the thermoregulatory centre
in the brain. The thermoregulatory centre contains receptors sensitive to the
temperature of the blood. The skin contains temperature receptors and sends
nervous impulses to the thermoregulatory centre

If the body temperature is too high, blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) and 102-103
sweat is produced from the sweat glands. Both these mechanisms cause a
transfer of energy from the skin to the environment

If the body temperature is too low, blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction),

sweating stops and skeletal muscles contract (shiver)
(HT only) Students should be able to explain how these mechanisms lower or
103
raise body temperature in a given context

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 19 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
 4.5.3 Hormonal coordination in humans
4.5.3.1 Human endocrine system
Students should be able to describe the principles of hormonal coordination
and control by the human endocrine system

The endocrine system is composed of glands which secrete chemicals called

hormones directly into the bloodstream. The blood carries the hormone to a
target organ where it produces an effect. Compared to the nervous system the
effects are slower but act for longer

The pituitary gland in the brain is a ‘master gland’ which secretes several
hormones into the blood in response to body conditions. These hormones in
turn act on other glands to stimulate other hormones to be released to bring 122
about effects

Students should be able to identify the position of the following on a diagram of

the human body:
 pituitary gland
 pancreas
 thyroid
 adrenal gland
 ovary
 testes
4.5.3.2 Control of blood glucose concentration
Blood glucose concentration is monitored and controlled by the pancreas.
If the blood glucose concentration is too high, the pancreas produces the
hormone insulin that causes glucose to move from the blood into the cells. In
liver and muscle cells excess glucose is converted to glycogen for storage.
Students should be able to explain how insulin controls blood glucose (sugar)
levels in the body

Type 1 diabetes is a disorder in which the pancreas fails to produce sufficient

insulin. It is characterised by uncontrolled high blood glucose levels and is 100-101
normally treated with insulin injections

In Type 2 diabetes the body cells no longer respond to insulin produced by the
pancreas. A carbohydrate controlled diet and an exercise regime are common
treatments. Obesity is a risk factor for Type 2 diabetes

Students should be able to compare Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes and explain
how they can be treated
Students should be able to extract information and interpret data from graphs
that show the effect of insulin in blood glucose levels in both people with 412-414
diabetes and people without diabetes
(HT only) If the blood glucose concentration is too low, the pancreas produces
the hormone glucagon that causes glycogen to be converted into glucose and
released into the blood
100
(HT only) Students should be able to explain how glucagon interacts with
insulin in a negative feedback cycle to control blood glucose (sugar) levels in
the body

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 20 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
 4.5.3.3 Maintaining water and nitrogen balance in the body (biology only)
Students should be able to explain the effect on cells of osmotic changes in
body fluids

Water leaves the body via the lungs during exhalation

Water, ions and urea are lost from the skin in sweat
104
There is no control over water, ion or urea loss by the lungs or skin

Excess water, ions and urea are removed via the kidneys in the urine

If body cells lose or gain too much water by osmosis they do not function
efficiently
(HT only) The digestion of proteins from the diet results in excess amino acids
which need to be excreted safely. In the liver these amino acids are
104
deaminated to form ammonia. Ammonia is toxic and so it is immediately
converted to urea for safe excretion
Students should be able to describe the function of kidneys in maintaining the
water balance of the body

The kidneys produce urine by filtration of the blood and selective reabsorption
104-105
of useful substances such as glucose, some ions and water

Knowledge of other parts of the urinary system, the structure of the kidney and
the structure of a nephron is not required
Students should be able to translate tables and bar charts of glucose, ions and
106,109
urea before and after filtration
HT only) Students should be able to describe the effect of ADH on the
permeability of the kidney tubules

(HT only) The water level in the body is controlled by the hormone ADH which 106
acts on the kidney tubules. ADH is released by the pituitary gland when the
blood is too concentrated and it causes more water to be reabsorbed back into
the blood from the kidney tubules. This is controlled by negative feedback
People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated by organ transplant or by
107
using kidney dialysis. Students should know the basic principles of dialysis
4.5.3.4 Hormones in human reproduction
Students should be able to describe the roles of hormones in human 125-127
reproduction, including the menstrual cycle

During puberty reproductive hormones cause secondary sex characteristics to

develop

Oestrogen is the main female reproductive hormone produced in the ovary. At

puberty eggs begin to mature and one is released approximately every 28
days. This is called ovulation

Testosterone is the main male reproductive hormone produced by the testes

and it stimulates sperm production

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 21 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
 Several hormones are involved in the menstrual cycle of a woman.
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes maturation of an egg in the
ovary
 Luteinising hormone (LH) stimulates the release of the egg
 Oestrogen and progesterone are involved in maintaining the uterus
lining
(HT only) Students should be able to explain the interactions of FSH,
127
oestrogen, LH and progesterone, in the control of the menstrual cycle
(HT only) Students should be able to extract and interpret data from graphs
127
showing hormone levels during the menstrual cycle
4.5.3.5 Contraception
Students should be able to evaluate the different hormonal and non- hormonal
methods of contraception

Fertility can be controlled by a variety of hormonal and non-hormonal methods

of contraception

These include:
 oral contraceptives that contain hormones to inhibit FSH production so
that no eggs mature
128-130
 injection, implant or skin patch of slow release progesterone to inhibit
the maturation and release of eggs for a number of months or years
 barrier methods such as condoms and diaphragms which prevent the
sperm reaching an egg
 intrauterine devices which prevent the implantation of an embryo or
release a hormone
 spermicidal agents which kill or disable sperm
 abstaining from intercourse when an egg may be in the oviduct
 surgical methods of male and female sterilisation
4.5.3.6 The use of hormones to treat infertility (HT only)
Students should be able to explain the use of hormones in modern
reproductive technologies to treat infertility

This includes giving FSH and LH in a ‘fertility drug’ to a woman. She may then
become pregnant in the normal way

Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) treatment.

130-131
 IVF involves giving a mother FSH and LH to stimulate the maturation of
several eggs
 The eggs are collected from the mother and fertilised by sperm from the
father in the laboratory
 The fertilised eggs develop into embryos
 At the stage when they are tiny balls of cells, one or two embryos are
inserted into the mother’s uterus (womb)
Although fertility treatment gives a woman the chance to have a baby of her
own:
 it is very emotionally and physically stressful
131
 the success rates are not high
 it can lead to multiple births which are a risk to both the babies and the
mother
4.5.3.7 Negative feedback (HT only)

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 22 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
 Students should be able to explain the roles of thyroxine and adrenaline in the
body

Adrenaline is produced by the adrenal glands in times of fear or stress. It

increases the heart rate and boosts the delivery of oxygen and glucose to the 123-124
brain and muscles, preparing the body for ‘flight or fight’

Thyroxine from the thyroid gland stimulates the basal metabolic rate. It plays
an important role in growth and development
Thyroxine levels are controlled by negative feedback 124
4.5.4 Plant hormones (biology only)
4.5.4.1 Control and coordination
Plants produce hormones to coordinate and control growth and responses to
light (phototropism) and gravity (gravitropism or geotropism). Unequal 215-216
distributions of auxin cause unequal growth rates in plant roots and shoots
(HT only) Gibberellins are important in initiating seed germination.

(HT only) Ethene controls cell division and ripening of fruits

217
(HT only) The mechanisms of how gibberellins and ethene work are not
required
4.5.4.2 Use of plant hormones (HT only)
Students should be able to describe the effects of some plant hormones and
the different ways people use them to control plant growth

Plant growth hormones are used in agriculture and horticulture

Auxins are used:

 as weed killers
 as rooting powders
 for promoting growth in tissue culture 217

Ethene is used in the food industry to control ripening of fruit during storage
and transport

Gibberellins can be used to:

 end seed dormancy
 promote flowering
 increase fruit size

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 23 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
 4.6: Inheritance, variation and evolution
4.6.1 Reproduction
4.6.1.1 Sexual and asexual reproduction
Students should understand that meiosis leads to non-identical cells being
formed while mitosis leads to identical cells being formed

Sexual reproduction involves the joining (fusion) of male and female gametes:
 sperm and egg cells in animals
 pollen and egg cells in flowering plants
235-236,238
In sexual reproduction there is mixing of genetic information which leads to
variety in the offspring. The formation of gametes involves meiosis.

Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and no fusion of gametes.

There is no mixing of genetic information. This leads to genetically identical
offspring (clones). Only mitosis is involved
4.6.1.2 Meiosis
Students should be able to explain how meiosis halves the number of
chromosomes in gametes and fertilisation restores the full number of
chromosomes

Cells in reproductive organs divide by meiosis to form gametes

When a cell divides to form gametes:

 copies of the genetic information are made
 the cell divides twice to form four gametes, each with a single set of 247
chromosomes
 all gametes are genetically different from each other

Gametes join at fertilisation to restore the normal number of chromosomes.

The new cell divides by mitosis. The number of cells increases. As the embryo
develops cells differentiate

Knowledge of the stages of meiosis is not required

4.6.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual reproduction (biology only)
Advantages of sexual reproduction:
 produces variation in the offspring
 if the environment changes variation gives a survival advantage by
natural selection
 natural selection can be speeded up by humans in selective breeding to
increase food production
238
Advantages of asexual reproduction:
 only one parent needed
 more time and energy efficient as do not need to find a mate
 faster than sexual reproduction
 many identical offspring can be produced when conditions are
favourable

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 24 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
 Some organisms reproduce by both methods depending on the circumstances.
 Malarial parasites reproduce asexually in the human host, but sexually
in the mosquito
 Many fungi reproduce asexually by spores but also reproduce sexually
to give variation
 Many plants produce seeds sexually, but also reproduce asexually by
runners such as strawberry plants, or bulb division such as daffodils 238

Knowledge of reproduction in organisms is restricted to those mentioned.

Students are expected to be able to explain the advantages and disadvantages

of asexual and sexual reproduction for any organism if given appropriate
information
4.6.1.4 DNA and the genome
Students should be able to describe the structure of DNA and define genome

The genetic material in the nucleus of a cell is composed of a chemical called

DNA. DNA is a polymer made up of two strands forming a double helix. The
DNA is contained in structures called chromosomes
244,265
A gene is a small section of DNA on a chromosome. Each gene codes for a
particular sequence of amino acids, to make a specific protein

The genome of an organism is the entire genetic material of that organism. The
whole human genome has now been studied and this will have great
importance for medicine in the future
Students should be able to discuss the importance of understanding the human
genome

This is limited to the: 265

 search for genes linked to different types of disease
 understanding and treatment of inherited disorders
 use in tracing human migration patterns from the past
4.6.1.5 DNA structure (biology only)
Students should be able to describe DNA as a polymer made from four
different nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a common sugar and
phosphate group with one of four different bases attached to the sugar.

DNA contains four bases, A, C, G and T 244

A sequence of three bases is the code for a particular amino acid. The order of
bases controls the order in which amino acids are assembled to produce a
particular protein
The long strands of DNA consist of alternating sugar and phosphate sections.
Attached to each sugar is one of the four bases
244-245
The DNA polymer is made up of repeating nucleotide units

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 25 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
 (HT only) Students should be able to:
 recall a simple description of protein synthesis
 explain simply how the structure of DNA affects the protein made
 describe how genetic variants may influence phenotype: a) in coding
DNA by altering the activity of a protein: and b) in non-coding DNA by
altering how genes are expressed

(HT only) In the complementary strands a C is always linked to a G on the

opposite strand and a T to an A

(HT only) Students are not expected to know or understand the structure of
mRNA, tRNA, or the detailed structure of amino acids or proteins 245

(HT only) Students should be able to explain how a change in DNA structure
may result in a change in the protein synthesised by a gene

(HT only) Proteins are synthesised on ribosomes, according to a template.

Carrier molecules bring specific amino acids to add to the growing protein
chain in the correct order

(HT only) When the protein chain is complete it folds up to form a unique
shape. This unique shape enables the proteins to do their job as enzymes,
hormones or forming structures in the body such as collagen
(HT only) Mutations occur continuously. Most do not alter the protein, or only
alter it slightly so that its appearance or function is not changed

(HT only) A few mutations code for an altered protein with a different shape. An
enzyme may no longer fit the substrate binding site or a structural protein may
245,256
lose its strength

(HT only) Not all parts of DNA code for proteins. Non-coding parts of DNA can
switch genes on and off, so variations in these areas of DNA may affect how
genes are expressed
4.6.1.6 Genetic inheritance
Students should be able to explain the terms: 236,244,251-252,
 gamete 255,260-261
 chromosome
 gene
 allele
 dominant
 recessive
 homozygous
 heterozygous
 genotype
 phenotype

Some characteristics are controlled by a single gene, such as: fur colour in
mice; and red-green colour blindness in humans. Each gene may have
different forms called alleles

The alleles present, or genotype, operate at a molecular level to develop

characteristics that can be expressed as a phenotype

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 26 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
 A dominant allele is always expressed, even if only one copy is present. A
recessive allele is only expressed if two copies are present (therefore no
dominant allele present)

If the two alleles present are the same the organism is homozygous for that
trait, but if the alleles are different they are heterozygous

Most characteristics are a result of multiple genes interacting, rather than a

single gene
Students should be able to understand the concept of probability
in predicting the results of a single gene cross, but recall that most phenotype 411,253-255
features are the result of multiple genes rather than single gene inheritance
Students should be able to use direct proportion and simple ratios to express
409
the outcome of a genetic cross
Students should be able to complete a Punnett square diagram and extract
253-255,258-261
and interpret information from genetic crosses and family trees
(HT only) Students should be able to construct a genetic cross by Punnett 253-255,
square diagram and use it to make predictions using the theory of probability 258-261,411
4.6.1.7 Inherited disorders
Some disorders are inherited. These disorders are caused by the inheritance of
certain alleles

 Polydactyly (having extra fingers or toes) is caused by a dominant allele.

 Cystic fibrosis (a disorder of cell membranes) is caused by a recessive 258-259
allele

Students should make informed judgements about the economic, social and
ethical issues concerning embryo screening, given appropriate information
4.6.1.8 Sex determination
Ordinary human body cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.

22 pairs control characteristics only, but one of the pairs carries the genes that
249
determine sex
 In females the sex chromosomes are the same (XX)
 In males the chromosomes are different (XY)
Students should be able to carry out a genetic cross to show sex inheritance
249
Students should understand and use direct proportion and simple ratios in
genetic crosses
4.6.2 Variation and evolution
4.6.2.1 Variation
Students should be able to describe simply how the genome and its interaction 286-287
with the environment influence the development of the phenotype of an
organism

Differences in the characteristics of individuals in a population is called

variation and may be due to differences in:
 the genes they have inherited (genetic causes)
 the conditions in which they have developed (environmental causes)

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 27 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
  a combination of genes and the environment
Students should be able to:
 state that there is usually extensive genetic variation within a population
of a species
 recall that all variants arise from mutations and that: most have no
effect on the phenotype; some influence phenotype; very few determine
256,288
phenotype

Mutations occur continuously. Very rarely a mutation will lead to a new

phenotype. If the new phenotype is suited to an environmental change it can
lead to a relatively rapid change in the species
4.6.2.2 Evolution
Students should be able to describe evolution as a change in the inherited
characteristics of a population over time through a process of natural selection
which may result in the formation of a new species

The theory of evolution by natural selection states that all species of living
things have evolved from simple life forms that first developed more than three
billion years ago
270-273,275
Students should be able to explain how evolution occurs through natural
selection of variants that give rise to phenotypes best suited to their
environment

If two populations of one species become so different in phenotype that they

can no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring they have formed two new
species
4.6.2.3 Selective breeding
Students should be able to explain the impact of selective breeding of food
plants and domesticated animals

Selective breeding (artificial selection) is the process by which humans breed

plants and animals for particular genetic characteristics. Humans have been
doing this for thousands of years since they first bred food crops from wild
plants and domesticated animals

Selective breeding involves choosing parents with the desired characteristic

from a mixed population. They are bred together. From the offspring those with
the desired characteristic are bred together. This continues over many 264
generations until all the offspring show the desired characteristic

The characteristic can be chosen for usefulness or appearance:

 Disease resistance in food crops
 Animals which produce more meat or milk
 Domestic dogs with a gentle nature
 Large or unusual flowers

Selective breeding can lead to ‘inbreeding’ where some breeds are particularly
prone to disease or inherited defects

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 28 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
 4.6.2.4 Genetic engineering
Students should be able to describe genetic engineering as a process which
involves modifying the genome of an organism by introducing a gene from
another organism to give a desired characteristic
262
Plant crops have been genetically engineered to be resistant to diseases or to
produce bigger better fruits
Bacterial cells have been genetically engineered to produce useful substances
287
such as human insulin to treat diabetes
Students should be able to explain the potential benefits and risks of genetic
engineering in agriculture and in medicine and that some people have
objections

In genetic engineering, genes from the chromosomes of humans and other

organisms can be ‘cut out’ and transferred to cells of other organisms

Crops that have had their genes modified in this way are called genetically
modified (GM) crops. GM crops include ones that are resistant to insect attack 263,267
or to herbicides. GM crops generally show increased yields

Concerns about GM crops include the effect on populations of wild flowers and
insects. Some people feel the effects of eating GM crops on human health
have not been fully explored

Modern medical research is exploring the possibility of genetic modification to

overcome some inherited disorders
(HT only) Students should be able to describe the main steps in the process of
genetic engineering

(HT only) In genetic engineering:

 enzymes are used to isolate the required gene; this gene is inserted
262-263
into a vector, usually a bacterial plasmid or a virus
 the vector is used to insert the gene into the required cells
 genes are transferred to the cells of animals, plants or microorganisms
at an early stage in their development so that they develop with desired
characteristics
4.6.2.5 Cloning (biology only)
Tissue culture: using small groups of cells from part of a plant to grow identical 239-241
new plants. This is important for preserving rare plant species or commercially
in nurseries

Cuttings: an older, but simple, method used by gardeners to produce many

identical new plants from a parent plant

Embryo transplants: splitting apart cells from a developing animal embryo

before they become specialised, then transplanting the identical embryos into
host mothers

Adult cell cloning:

 The nucleus is removed from an unfertilised egg cell
 The nucleus from an adult body cell, such as a skin cell, is inserted into
the egg cell

GCSE Biology for You, Fifth Edition 29 AQA GCSE exam: Mapping Grid
  An electric shock stimulates the egg cell to divide to form an embryo.
 These embryo cells contain the same genetic information as the adult
skin cell
 When the embryo has developed into a ball of cells, it is inserted into
the womb of an adult female to continue its development
4.6.3 The development of understanding of genetics and evolution
4.6.3.1 Theory of evolution (biology only)
Charles Darwin, as a result of observations on a round the world expedition,
backed by years of experimentation and discussion and linked to developing
knowledge of geology and fossils, proposed the theory of evolution by natural
selection.
 Individual organisms within a particular species show a wide range of
variation for a characteristic
 Individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment are more
likely to survive to breed successfully
 The characteristics that have enabled these individuals to survive are
then passed on to the next generation

Darwin published his ideas in On the Origin of Species (1859). There was
much controversy surrounding these revolutionary new ideas

The theory of evolution by natural selection was only gradually accepted 272-274
because:
 the theory challenged the idea that God made all the animals and
plants that live on Earth
 there was insufficient evidence at the time the theory was published to
convince many scientists
 the mechanism of inheritance and variation was not known until 50
years after the theory was published

Other theories, including that of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, are based mainly on

the idea that changes that occur in an organism during its lifetime can be
inherited. We now know that in the vast majority of cases this type of
inheritance cannot occur

A study of creationism is not required

4.6.3.2 Speciation (biology only)
Students should be able to:
 describe the work of Darwin and Wallace in the development of the
theory of evolution by natural selection
 explain the impact of these ideas on biology
272-275
Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed the theory of evolution by
natural selection. He published joint writings with Darwin in 1858 which
prompted Darwin to publish On the Origin of Species (1859) the following year

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 Wallace worked worldwide gathering evidence for evolutionary theory. He is
best known for his work on warning colouration in animals and his theory of
speciation
275
Alfred Wallace did much pioneering work on speciation but more evidence over
time has led to our current understanding of the theory of speciation

Students should be able to describe the steps which give rise to new species
4.6.3.3 The understanding of genetics (biology only)
Students should be able to:
• describe the development of our understanding of genetics including
the work of Mendel
• understand why the importance of Mendel’s discovery was not
recognised until after his death.
250
In the mid-19th century Gregor Mendel carried out breeding experiments on
plants. One of his observations was that the inheritance of each characteristic
is determined by ‘units’ that are passed on to descendants unchanged.

In the late 19th century behaviour of chromosomes during cell division was
observed
In the early 20th century it was observed that chromosomes and Mendel’s
‘units’ behaved in similar ways. This led to the idea that the ‘units’, now called
genes, were located on chromosomes.
248,250
In the mid-20th century the structure of DNA was determined and the
mechanism of gene function worked out

This scientific work by many scientists led to the gene theory being developed
4.6.3.4 Evidence for evolution
Students should be able to describe the evidence for evolution including fossils
and antibiotic resistance in bacteria

The theory of evolution by natural selection is now widely accepted.

276-279
Evidence for Darwin’s theory is now available as it has been shown that
characteristics are passed on to offspring in genes. There is further evidence in
the fossil record and the knowledge of how resistance to antibiotics evolves in
bacteria
4.6.3.5 Fossils
Fossils are the ‘remains’ of organisms from millions of years ago, which are
found in rocks

Fossils may be formed:

 from parts of organisms that have not decayed because one or more of 278-282
the conditions needed for decay are absent
 when parts of the organism are replaced by minerals as they decay
 as preserved traces of organisms, such as footprints, burrows and
rootlet traces
Many early forms of life were soft-bodied, which means that they have left few 278
traces behind. What traces there were have been mainly destroyed by

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 geological activity. This is why scientists cannot be certain about how life
began on Earth
We can learn from fossils how much or how little different organisms have
278-282
changed as life developed on Earth
Students should be able to extract and interpret information from charts,
277,279
graphs and tables such as evolutionary trees
4.6.3.6 Extinction
Extinctions occur when there are no remaining individuals of a species still
alive
283
Students should be able to describe factors which may contribute to the
extinction of a species
4.6.3.7 Resistant bacteria
Bacteria can evolve rapidly because they reproduce at a fast rate

Mutations of bacterial pathogens produce new strains. Some strains might be

276
resistant to antibiotics, and so are not killed. They survive and reproduce, so
the population of the resistant strain rises. The resistant strain will then spread
because people are not immune to it and there is no effective treatment
MRSA is resistant to antibiotics

To reduce the rate of development of antibiotic resistant strains:

 doctors should not prescribe antibiotics inappropriately, such as treating
non-serious or viral infections
 patients should complete their course of antibiotics so all bacteria are 151,276
killed and none survive to mutate and form resistant strains
 the agricultural use of antibiotics should be restricted

The development of new antibiotics is costly and slow. It is unlikely to keep up

with the emergence of new resistant strains
4.6.4 Classification of living organisms
Traditionally living things have been classified into groups depending on their
structure and characteristics in a system developed by Carl Linnaeus
288-289
Linnaeus classified living things into kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,
genus and species. Organisms are named by the binomial system of genus
and species
Students should be able to use information given to show understanding of the 288-290
Linnaean system

Students should be able to describe the impact of developments in biology on

classification systems

As evidence of internal structures became more developed due to

improvements in microscopes, and the understanding of biochemical
processes progressed, new models of classification were proposed

Due to evidence available from chemical analysis there is now a ‘three- domain
system’ developed by Carl Woese. In this system organisms are divided into:
 archaea (primitive bacteria usually living in extreme environments)

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  bacteria (true bacteria)
 eukaryota (which includes protists, fungi, plants and animals)
Evolutionary trees are a method used by scientists to show how they believe 290
organisms are related. They use current classification data for living organisms
and fossil data for extinct organisms
4.7: Ecology
4.7.1 Adaptations, interdependence and competition
4.7.1.1 Communities
Students should be able to describe:
 different levels of organisation in an ecosystem from individual
organisms to the whole ecosystem
 the importance of interdependence and competition in a community

Students should be able to, when provided with appropriate information:

 suggest the factors for which organisms are competing in a given
habitat
 suggest how organisms are adapted to the conditions in which they live

An ecosystem is the interaction of a community of living organisms (biotic) with

the non-living (abiotic) parts of their environment
314-317,322-327
To survive and reproduce, organisms require a supply of materials from their
surroundings and from the other living organisms there

Plants in a community or habitat often compete with each other for light and
space, and for water and mineral ions from the soil. Animals often compete
with each other for food, mates and territory

Within a community each species depends on other species for food, shelter,
pollination, seed dispersal etc. If one species is removed it can affect the whole
community. This is called interdependence. A stable community is one where
all the species and environmental factors are in balance so that population
sizes remain fairly constant
Students should be able to extract and interpret information from charts,
318-319,330
graphs and tables relating to the interaction of organisms within a community
4.7.1.2 Abiotic factors
Students should be able to explain how a change in an abiotic factor would
affect a given community given appropriate data or context

Abiotic (non-living) factors which can affect a community are:

 light intensity
 temperature 315
 moisture levels
 soil pH and mineral content
 wind intensity and direction
 carbon dioxide levels for plants
 oxygen levels for aquatic animals
Students should be able to extract and interpret information from charts,
graphs and tables relating to the effect of abiotic factors on organisms within a 318
community

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 4.7.1.3 Biotic factors
Students should be able to explain how a change in a biotic factor might affect
a given community given appropriate data or context

Biotic (living) factors which can affect a community are:

 availability of food 316
 new predators arriving
 new pathogens
 one species outcompeting another so the numbers are no longer
sufficient to breed
Students should be able to extract and interpret information from charts,
graphs and tables relating to the effect of biotic factors on organisms within a 319,330
community
4.7.1.4 Adaptations
Students should be able to explain how organisms are adapted to live in their
natural environment, given appropriate information
322-323
Organisms have features (adaptations) that enable them to survive in the
conditions in which they normally live. These adaptations may be structural,
behavioural or functional
Some organisms live in environments that are very extreme, such as at high
temperature, pressure, or salt concentration. These organisms are called 323-325
extremophiles. Bacteria living in deep sea vents are extremophiles
4.7.2 Organisation of an ecosystem
4.7.2.1 Levels of organisation
Students should understand that photosynthetic organisms are the producers
of biomass for life on Earth

Feeding relationships within a community can be represented by

food chains. All food chains begin with a producer which synthesises
molecules. This is usually a green plant or alga which makes glucose by 320,335-336
photosynthesis

A range of experimental methods using transects and quadrats are used by

ecologists to determine the distribution and abundance of species in an
ecosystem
In relation to abundance of organisms students should be able to:
 understand the terms mean, mode and median
 calculate arithmetic means 410,412-413
 plot and draw appropriate graphs selecting appropriate scales for the
axes
Producers are eaten by primary consumers, which in turn may be eaten by
335
secondary consumers and then tertiary consumers
Consumers that kill and eat other animals are predators, and those eaten are
prey. In a stable community the numbers of predators and prey rise and fall in 328-330
cycles
Students should be able to interpret graphs used to model these cycles 330
4.7.2.2 How materials are recycled

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 Students should:
 recall that many different materials cycle through the abiotic and biotic
components of an ecosystem
 explain the importance of the carbon and water cycles to living
organisms

All materials in the living world are recycled to provide the building blocks for
future organisms

The carbon cycle returns carbon from organisms to the atmosphere as carbon
346-347,349,352
dioxide to be used by plants in photosynthesis

The water cycle provides fresh water for plants and animals on land before
draining into the seas. Water is continuously evaporated and precipitated.

Students are not expected to study the nitrogen cycle

Students should be able to explain the role of microorganisms in cycling

materials through an ecosystem by returning carbon to the atmosphere as
carbon dioxide and mineral ions to the soil
4.7.2.3 Decomposition (biology only)
Students should be able to explain how temperature, water and availability of
348
oxygen affect the rate of decay of biological material
Students should be able to:
 calculate rate changes in the decay of biological material
 translate information between numerical and graphical form 348,412-413
 plot and draw appropriate graphs selecting appropriate scales for the
axes
Gardeners and farmers try to provide optimum conditions for rapid decay of
waste biological material. The compost produced is used as a natural fertiliser
for growing garden plants or crops
348,389
Anaerobic decay produces methane gas. Biogas generators can be used to
produce methane gas as a fuel

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 4.7.2.4 Impact of environmental change (biology only) (HT only)
Students should be able to evaluate the impact of environmental changes on
the distribution of species in an ecosystem given appropriate information.

Environmental changes affect the distribution of species in an ecosystem.

These changes include:
361,366-367
 temperature
 availability of water
 composition of atmospheric gases

The changes may be seasonal, geographic or caused by human interaction

4.7.3 Biodiversity and the effect of human interaction on ecosystems
4.7.3.1 Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the variety of all the different species of organisms on earth, or
within an ecosystem

A great biodiversity ensures the stability of ecosystems by reducing the

dependence of one species on another for food, shelter and the maintenance
368,370-371,373
of the physical environment

The future of the human species on Earth relies on us maintaining

a good level of biodiversity. Many human activities are reducing biodiversity
and only recently have measures been taken to try to stop this reduction
4.7.3.2 Waste management
Rapid growth in the human population and an increase in the standard of living
mean that increasingly more resources are used and more waste is produced.
Unless waste and chemical materials are properly handled, more pollution will
be caused

Pollution can occur: 355-356,359-367

 in water, from sewage, fertiliser or toxic chemicals
 in air, from smoke and acidic gases
 on land, from landfill and from toxic chemicals

Pollution kills plants and animals which can reduce biodiversity

4.7.3.3 Land use
Humans reduce the amount of land available for other animals and plants by
357-358
building, quarrying, farming and dumping waste
The destruction of peat bogs, and other areas of peat to produce garden
compost, reduces the area of this habitat and thus the variety of different plant,
animal and microorganism species that live there (biodiversity) 213

The decay or burning of the peat releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

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 4.7.3.4 Deforestation
Large-scale deforestation in tropical areas has occurred to:
 provide land for cattle and rice fields 365
 grow crops for biofuels
4.7.3.5 Global warming
Students should be able to describe some of the biological consequences of
global warming
366-367
Levels of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere are increasing, and
contribute to ‘global warming’
4.7.3.6 Maintaining biodiversity
Students should be able to describe both positive and negative human
interactions in an ecosystem and explain their impact on biodiversity

Scientists and concerned citizens have put in place programmes to reduce the
negative effects of humans on ecosystems and biodiversity

These include: 227,358,367,

 breeding programmes for endangered species 370-371
 protection and regeneration of rare habitats
 reintroduction of field margins and hedgerows in agricultural areas
where farmers grow only one type of crop
 reduction of deforestation and carbon dioxide emissions by some
governments
 recycling resources rather than dumping waste in landfill
4.7.4 Trophic levels in an ecosystem (biology only)
4.7.4.1 Trophic levels
Students should be able to describe the differences between the trophic levels
of organisms within an ecosystem

Trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants

and algae. Further trophic levels are numbered subsequently according to how
far the organism is along the food chain

Level 1: Plants and algae make their own food and are called producers
335,347
Level 2: Herbivores eat plants/algae and are called primary consumers
Level 3: Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers
Level 4: Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers.
Apex predators are carnivores with no predators

Decomposers break down dead plant and animal matter by secreting enzymes
into the environment. Small soluble food molecules then diffuse into the
microorganism

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 4.7.4.2 Pyramids of biomass
Pyramids of biomass can be constructed to represent the relative amount of
biomass in each level of a food chain. Trophic level 1 is at the bottom of the
pyramid

339

Students should be able to construct accurate pyramids of biomass from

339
appropriate data
4.7.4.3 Transfer of biomass
Students should be able to:
 describe pyramids of biomass
 explain how biomass is lost between the different trophic levels
339-342
Producers are mostly plants and algae which transfer about 1 % of the incident
energy from light for photosynthesis
Only approximately 10 % of the biomass from each trophic level is transferred
to the level above it

Losses of biomass are due to:

 not all the ingested material is absorbed, some is egested as faeces 343
 some absorbed material is lost as waste, such as carbon dioxide and
water in respiration and water and urea in urine

Large amounts of glucose are used in respiration

Students should be able to calculate the efficiency of biomass transfers
between trophic levels by percentages or fractions of mass.
342-343
Students should be able to explain how this affects the number of organisms at
each trophic level

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 4.7.5 Food production (biology only)
4.7.5.1 Factors affecting food security
Students should be able to describe some of the biological factors affecting
levels of food security

Food security is having enough food to feed a population

Biological factors which are threatening food security include:

 the increasing birth rate has threatened food security in some countries
 changing diets in developed countries means scarce food resources
are transported around the world 355-356
 new pests and pathogens that affect farming
 environmental changes that affect food production, such as widespread
famine occurring in some countries if rains fail
 the cost of agricultural inputs
 conflicts that have arisen in some parts of the world which affect the
availability of water or food

Sustainable methods must be found to feed all people on Earth

4.7.5.2 Farming techniques
The efficiency of food production can be improved by restricting energy transfer
from food animals to the environment. This can be done by limiting their
movement and by controlling the temperature of their surroundings 344

Some animals are fed high protein foods to increase growth

4.7.5.3 Sustainable fisheries
Fish stocks in the oceans are declining. It is important to maintain fish stocks at
a level where breeding continues or certain species may disappear altogether
in some areas
328,373
Control of net size and the introduction of fishing quotas play important roles in
conservation of fish stocks at a sustainable level
4.7.5.4 Role of biotechnology
Students should be able to describe and explain some possible biotechnical
and agricultural solutions, including genetic modification, to the demands of the
growing human population

Modern biotechnology techniques enable large quantities of microorganisms to

be cultured for food

The fungus Fusarium is useful for producing mycoprotein, a protein-rich food

267,383-387,390
suitable for vegetarians. The fungus is grown on glucose syrup, in aerobic
conditions, and the biomass is harvested and purified

A genetically modified bacterium produces human insulin. When harvested and

purified this is used to treat people with diabetes

GM crops could provide more food or food with an improved nutritional value
such as golden rice

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 Working scientifically Page numbers
WS1 Development of scientific thinking
WS1.1 Understand how scientific methods and theories develop over time 82,155,248,250,
272-275,288,290
WS1.2 Use a variety of models such as representational, spatial,
descriptive, computational and mathematical to solve problems, 13,20,60,71,98,
make predictions and to develop scientific explanations and 244,330
understanding of familiar and unfamiliar facts
WS1.3 Appreciate the power and limitations of science and consider any 131-132,
ethical issues which may arise 240-241,263-264
267
WS1.4 Explain everyday and technological applications of science;
evaluate associated personal, social, economic and environmental Biology at Work
implications; and make decisions based on the evaluation of pages
evidence and arguments
WS1.5 Evaluate risks both in practical science and the wider societal
context, including perception of risk in relation to data and 10,19,48,267
consequences
WS1.6 Recognise the importance of peer review of results and of 402
communicating results to a range of audiences
WS2 Experimental skills and strategies
WS2.1 Use scientific theories and explanations to develop hypotheses 398-399
WS2.2 Plan experiments or devise procedures to make observations, 22,32,36,74,206-
produce or characterise a substance, test hypotheses, check data 207,116,320,348
or explore phenomena
WS2.3 Apply a knowledge of a range of techniques, instruments, 22,32,36,74,206-
apparatus, and materials to select those appropriate to the 207,116,320,348
experiment
WS2.4 Carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the
correct manipulation of apparatus, the accuracy of measurements 396
and health and safety considerations
WS2.5 Recognise when to apply a knowledge of sampling techniques to 320,399,410
ensure any samples collected are representative
WS2.6 Make and record observations and measurements using a range of All investigations
apparatus and methods
WS2.7 Evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements and further 399
investigations
WS3 Analysis and evaluation
WS3.1 Presenting observations and other data using appropriate methods 400
WS3.2 Translating data from one form to another 409
WS3.3 Carrying out and represent mathematical and statistical analysis 408-411
WS3.4 Representing distributions of results and make estimations of 401
uncertainty.
WS3.5 Interpreting observations and other data (presented in verbal, 401
diagrammatic, graphical, symbolic or numerical form), including

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 identifying patterns and trends, making inferences and drawing
conclusions
WS3.6 Presenting reasoned explanations including relating data to 394
hypotheses
WS3.7 Being objective, evaluating data in terms of accuracy, precision,
repeatability and reproducibility and identifying potential sources of 394-401
random and systematic error
WS3.8 Communicating the scientific rationale for investigations, methods
used, findings and reasoned conclusions through paper-based and 400-401
electronic reports and presentations using verbal, diagrammatic,
graphical, numerical and symbolic forms
Scientific vocabulary, quantities, units, symbols and
WS4
nomenclature
WS4.1 Use scientific vocabulary, terminology and definitions In every chapter
WS4.2 Recognise the importance of scientific quantities and understand In most
how they are determined experiments
WS4.3 Use SI units (eg kg, g, mg; km, m, mm; kJ, J) and IUPAC chemical In most
nomenclature unless inappropriate experiments
WS4.4 Use prefixes and powers of ten for orders of magnitude (eg tera, 9,408
giga, mega, kilo, centi, milli, micro and nano)
WS4.5 Interconvert units 412-414
WS4.6 Use an appropriate number of significant figures in calculation 409-410

Your teacher or exam board may provide you with detailed instructions for the required
practicals, and the pages below may help you with prior research.

Required practical activities Page numbers

1 Use a light microscope to observe, draw and label a selection of 8-10
plant and animal cells. A magnification scale must be included
2 Investigate the effect of antiseptics or antibiotics on bacterial 157
growth using agar plates and measuring zones of inhibition
3 Investigate the effect of a range of concentrations of salt or sugar 22
solutions on the mass of plant tissue
4 Use qualitative reagents to test for a range of carbohydrates, lipids
and proteins
45-47
To include: Benedict’s test for sugars; iodine test for starch; and
Biuret reagent for protein

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 5 Investigate the effect of pH on the rate of reaction of amylase
enzyme

Students should use a continuous sampling technique to determine 32,33

the time taken to completely digest a starch solution at a range of
pH values. Iodine reagent is to be used to test for starch every 30
seconds. Temperature must be controlled by use of a water bath or
electric heater
6 Investigate the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis 205
using an aquatic organism such as pondweed
7 Plan and carry out an investigation into the effect of a factor on 116
human reaction time
8 Investigate the effect of light or gravity on the growth of newly
germinated seedlings
(215-216)
Record results as both length measurements and as careful,
labelled biological drawings to show the effects
9 Measure the population size of a common species in a habitat. Use
sampling techniques to investigate the effect of a factor on the 320
distribution of this species
10 Investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of decay of fresh (170,348)
milk by measuring pH change

Mathematical requirements Page numbers

1 Arithmetic and numerical computation
a Recognise and use expressions in decimal form 408
b Recognise and use expressions in standard form 408
c Use ratios, fractions and percentages 409
d Make estimates of the results of simple calculations 409
2 Handling data
a Use an appropriate number of significant figures 409
b Find arithmetic means 410
c Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and
412-413
histograms
d Understand the principles of sampling as applied to scientific data 320-321,410
e Understand simple probability 411
f Understand the terms mean, mode and median 410
g Use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation between two variables 413
h Make order of magnitude calculations 409
3 Algebra
a Understand and use the symbols: =, <, <<, >>, >, ∝, ~ 412

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 d Solve simple algebraic equations 412
4 Graphs
a Translate information between graphical and numeric form 412-414
b Understand that y=mx+c represents a linear relationship 414
c Plot two variables from experimental or other data 414
d Determine the slope and intercept of a linear graph 414
5 Geometry and trigonometry
c Calculate areas of triangles and rectangles, surface areas and volumes
13,411
of cubes

The full specification is available on the AQA website at:

http://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/biology/specifications/
AQA-8461-SP-2016-V1-0.PDF

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