UNIT-1:Data Communication Page 1 of 25

B.Sc. -2.4 (OEC-2)

FUNDAMENTALS OF
COMPUTER NETWORKS
AND
MOBILE COMMUNICATION

~Pradeep Kurdekar

Karnatak Science College,Dharwad

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UNIT-1:DATA COMMUNICATION
Data may be in any form that is text, audio, video, images or any multimedia type;
Communication refers to means of sending or receiving information. Thus we can now
define Data Communication as,

Definition

“Data communication refers to sharing of the data between two or more networked or
connected communication devices”.

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental

characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

Characteristics

1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.

2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This
kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.

4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in
the delivery of audio or video packets.

COMPONENTS:

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1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. It can consist of

text, numbers, pictures, sound, or video or any combination of these.

2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. It can consist of twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fibre-optic, etc.

5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication. It represents an

agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating.

DATA REPRESENTATION

Data may be in any of the following form.

1. Text: text is represented as bit pattern, a sequence of bits. It may be represented in
ASCII(American Standard Code For Information Interchange), IISCI,UNICODE

2. Number: numbers are also represented by bit pattern. The number is directly
converted to a binary number.

3. Images: images are also represented in bit pattern. An image is composed of a matrix
of pixel, where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution.

4. Audio: audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by

nature different from text, numbers or images.

5. Video: video refers to the recoding or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can
either be produced as continuous entity Or it can be a combination of images.

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DATA FLOW

Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.

 Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
 Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The
keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output.
 The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.

Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time.

 When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
 In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by
whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.
 Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
 the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.

Full-Duplex: In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

 The full-duplex mode is like a two way street with traffic flowing in both
directions at the same time.

 In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link:
with signals going in the other direction.

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 One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. >

 When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and
listen at the same time.

 The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is

required all the time.

 The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two
directions.

NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication

links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

NETWORK CRITERIA

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of
these are performance, reliability, and security.

1. Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit

time and response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a
message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time
between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on a
number of factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission
medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the
software.

2. Reliability: Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time

it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a
catastrophe.

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3. Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized

access, protecting data from damage and development, and implementing
policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.

PHYSICAL STRUCTURES / TYPES OF CONNECTIONS

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications

pathway that transfers data from one device to another. There are two possible types of
connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

The two types of network architectures are used:

PEER-TO-PEER/ POINT-TO-POINT NETWORK

o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked

together with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10
computers.

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o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.

o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources,
but this can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Advantages of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system.
Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different
locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

MULTIPOINT OR CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK

o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called
clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer
known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the
network are called clients.

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o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories,
printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if
client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the
server for the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to
initiate its communication with the client 2.

Advantages of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back
up the data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall
performance of the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the
shared resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages of Client/Server network:

o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the
clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

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PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY:

There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.

Bus Topology
A bus topology is a type of local area network in which nodes (devices or workstations)
are connected to a single cable or single backbone. The cable which is used to connect
devices is known as coaxial cable or RJ-45 cable.

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected
through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.

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o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over
the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message
whether it has been addressed or not.

Bus Topology Examples

The examples of bus topology include the following.

 A bus topology is used to connect two floors using a single line.

 A bus topology is used by an Ethernet network
 In this type of network topology, one computer works like a server whereas the
other works as a client.
 The main function of the server is to exchange information between different
client computers.
 Bus topology network is used to add the printers, I/O devices in the offices or
home.

Advantages

 Bus topology is a simple topology, used to connect computers or peripherals

within a linear manner.
 Simple to understand
 Expanding this topology is easy by connecting two cables.
 If the network is small then this topology works efficiently
 As compared to other topologies, this is very cost-effective.
 As compared to a star topology, the required cable length is less
 Connecting or disconnecting the devices within the network is very easy without
disturbing other devices.

Disadvantages

 For large networks, this kind of topology is not applicable

 This kind of topology is extremely slow as compared to others
 Identifying the problems within the network is difficult
 High pocket loss
 Troubleshooting the issues for each device is difficult
 The entire network will split into two parts or damage if the cable gets damaged.

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 At both ends of the cable, terminators are necessary

 The network gets slow once extra devices are connected

Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit
to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having
no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.

Advantages of a ring topology

 All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
 A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each
workstation.
 Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
 Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the
network.

Disadvantages of a ring topology

 All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation
on the network, which can make it slower than a star topology.
 The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
 The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more
expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.

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Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is

connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached
to the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star
topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages and disadvantages of a star network

The advantages of a star network are:

o it is very reliable – if one cable or device fails then all the others will continue to
work
o it is high-performing as no data collisions can occur
The disadvantages of a star network are:

o it is expensive to install as this type of network uses the most cable (network
cable is expensive)
o extra hardware is required (hubs or switches) which adds to cost
o if a hub or switch fails, all the devices connected to it will have no network
connection

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Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected
with each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes
are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission.
Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. It is an extension of Star and bus Topologies, so in networks where these topologies
can't be implemented individually for reasons related to scalability, tree topology is the
best alternative.
2. Expansion of Network is possible and easy.
3. Here, we divide the whole network into segments (star networks), which can be
easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection and correction is easy.
5. Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point wiring to the central hub.
6. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it
breaks whole network is crippled.
2. As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes difficult.
3. Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.

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Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are

interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a
central point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication
failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Advantages of Mesh topology

1. Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This topology can
withstand high traffic.
2. Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative present. So data
transfer doesn’t get affected.
3. Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.
2. Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies.

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3. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the
network is tough.

Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer
the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as
Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not
result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one
branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank,
connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the
functioning of the rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices
without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way
that the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is
minimized.

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Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of
the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid
network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these
hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network
requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

NETWORK MODELS

ISO-OSI
TCP/IP

CATEGORIES/CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

 Networks are frequently classified according to the geographical
boundaries spannedby the network itself.

 PAN, LAN, WAN, and MAN are the basic types of classification, of which
LAN andWAN are frequently used.

PAN (Personal Area Network)

 PAN devices communicate over the range of a person.

 Used for data transmission among devices such as computers, telephones

and personal digital assistants.

 The data cable is an example of PAN.

 This is also a Personal Area Network because that connection is for the
user’s personal use. PAN is used for personal use only.

 A wireless personal area network (WPAN) is a personal area network — a

network for interconnecting devices centered on an individual person's

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workspace — in which the connections are wireless

 Example: Bluetooth, RFID

Bluetooth uses short-range radio waves over distances up to

approximately 10 meters. For example, Bluetooth devices such as a
keyboard, pointing devices, audio head sets, and printers may connect to
personal digital assistants (PDAs), cell phones, or computers wirelessly.
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is the wireless use of
electromagnetic fields to transfer data, for the purposes of automatically
identifying and tracking tags attachedto objects.

LAN(Local Area Network)

 LAN is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited

geographical area.
 Example: Home, school computer laboratory, office building or
closely positionedgroup of buildings.
 The simplest form of LAN is to connect two computers together .
 LANs are inexpensive to install and also provide higher speeds.
 A network which consists of less than 500 interconnected devices
across severalbuildings, is still recognized as a LAN

Advantages of LAN:

 Easy to share devices such as printers, scanners etc.,

 Easy to share data such as pictures
 Cost of LAN setup is low.

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Disadvantages of LAN:

 Power-a good LAN is required to be all the times.

 Security-each computer and device become another point of entry for
undesirables
 Area covered is limited.

Example: IEEE 802.3 popularly called Ethernet.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

 It is a high speed network that connects local area networks in a metropolitan
area.

 Example: city or town handles the bulk of communication activity across that
region.

 Is larger than a LAN, but smaller than a WAN

 Is also used to mean the interconnection of several LANs by bridging

them together.This sort of network is also referred to as a campus

network.

Advantages:
 Efficiency and shared access.
 All the computer-owing residents of the area have equal abiolity to go
online.

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 MAN can cover a wider area than a LAN.

Disadvantages:
 It can be costly.
 Security problem.
 As the network consists of many computers over the span of a
city, theconnection can lag or become quite slow.
Example: WiMAX, Cable TV

WAN (Wide area network):

 WAN is a network that covers a larger geographic area (such as a city,
country, or world) using a communications channel that combines many
types of media such as telephone lines, cables and radio waves.

 Also called “enterprise networks” if they are privately owned by a large

company.
 To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased high
speed phone linesor wireless links such as satellites.
 Types of WAN:
 Enterprise private network (EPN)

 Virtual private network (VPN)

An enterprise private network is a network build by an enterprise to

interconnect carious company sites, eg: production sites, head offices,
remote offices, and shopsin order to share computer resources.
A virtual private network is a computer network in which some of the
links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits
in some larger network instead of by physical wires.
Advantages:
 Increased efficiency
 Ease of communication
 Lowered costs.

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Disadvantages:
 Security problems.
 Training costa
 Maintenance problems.

Example: Internet

Comparisons between LAN, MAN, WAN

Cost Network Speed Number of

size computer
LAN Low Small Fastest Smallest
MAN High Larger Slower Large
Wan Higher Largest Slowest Largest

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HISTORY OF INTERNET

Network History

Where does the internet come from? The internet would not exist without networks. A
network, simply put, is a group of devices that can communicate among themselves.
They can be connected either wirelessly or with cables, and include devices like
smartphones, computers, tablets, and printers. ARPANET is the most famous early
network, but there are plenty of others in the history of networks. Each of the early
networks was developed for a specific purpose.

 ARPANET was the first large-scale network to connect computers that were not
in the same geographical location. It went online in late 1969, and used phone
lines to allow the computers to communicate. ARPANET was not deactivated
until 1990, at which point so many computers were connected to each other that
it had evolved into the internet.
 CSNET was funded by the National Science Foundation, and went online in 1981.
Its purpose was to connect computer science researchers from different
universities. This expanded access to the internet for universities who were
unable to access ARPANET for various reasons.
 NSFNET was funded by the National Science Foundation, and went online in
1986. It connected several supercomputers across the country, and helped cause
rapid expansion of internet use throughout the 80s and early 90s.
 MILNET was originally part of ARPANET, but physically separated from it in
1983 to provide a place for unclassified Department of Defence usage.

Difference Between ARPANET and World Wide Web

ARPANET and the World Wide Web are very different. ARPANET was a physical system
that allowed computers to connect to each other, while the World Wide Web was a set
of languages and protocols used to navigate those connections. Essentially, ARPANET
was hardware, and the World Wide Web is software.

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Year Event in the History of the Internet

1965 The first two computers are connected via packet switching at MIT
1969 ARPANET, the first widely used computer network, is launched
1971 Email, electronic messages sent between computers, is developed
Nodes in Norway and Great Britain are connected to ARPANET, making it a global
1973
network
1974 The first ISP, Internet Service Provider, is launched
1974 The initial design for TCP is published
The National Science Foundation establishes CSNET, a network for computer
1981
scientists at research universities
1982 ARPANET computers switch to the TCP/IP protocols
The Domain Name System (DNS) establishes the naming conventions for
1983
websites, such as .com, .org, .edu, and .gov
IRC, Internet Relay Chat, was launched, a precursor of our current instant
1988
messaging apps
Tim Berners-Lee develops HTML, which has a huge impact on how people
1990
interact with the internet
1991 The World Wide Web is introduced to the public
1993 The first browser accessible for the general user, Mosaic, is launched
1993 The White House and the United Nations create web pages
Commercial businesses begin operating on the internet, including eBay and
1995
Amazon
1996 Hotmail, the first web-based email service, is launched
Google goes online, revolutionizing the way users locate resources on the
1998
internet
Web 2.0, which refers to websites that are user driven and interactive, becomes
2004
popular

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2004 Facebook launches

2005 YouTube and Reddit launch
2010 The internet records 400 million active users for the first time

PROTOCOL AND STANDARD IN COMPUTER NETWORKS

Protocols

In Order to make communication successful between devices , some rules and

procedures should be agreed upon at the sending and receiving ends of the system.
Such rules and procedures are called as Protocols.

Protocols may consist of syntax, semantics, and timing.

Syntax: it refers to the structure or format of the data. For example in a data first 8 bits
are address of sender, next 8 bits are address of receiver and remaining bits are real
data.

Semantics: it refers to the meaning of each section of bits.

Timing: it refers to two characteristics: When and how fast data to be transmitted.

Standards
Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed for exchange of
information among devices. It is important to follow Standards which are created by
various Standard Organization like IEEE , ISO , ANSI etc.
Types of Standards :
Standards are of two types :
o De Facto Standard.
o De Jure Standard.
De Facto Standard : The meaning of the work ” De Facto ” is ” By Fact ” or “By
Convention”.
These are the standard s that have not been approved by any Organization, but have

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been adopted as Standards because of it’s widespread use. Also , sometimes these
standards are often established by Manufacturers.
For example : Apple and Google are two companies which established their own
rules on their products which are different . Also they use some same standard rules
for manufacturing for their products.
De Jure Standard : The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law” or “By
Regulations” .
Thus , these are the standards that have been approved by officially recognized body
like ANSI , ISO , IEEE etc. These are the standard which are important to follow if it is
required or needed.
For example : All the data communication standard protocols like SMTP , TCP , IP ,
UDP etc. are important to follow the same when we needed them.

Standard Organizations for Data Communication :

1) International Standard Organization (ISO) –
ISO is the International Organization for Standardization. It creates set of rules and
standards for graphics , document exchange , data communication etc.

2) Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy (CCITT)

CCITT is now standard organization for the United States. CCITT developer’s
recommended set of rules and standards for telephone and telegraph communication.
It has developed 3 set of specifications :
 V Series for Modern Interfacing.
 X series for Data Communication.
 Q series for Integrated Services Digital Network(ISDN).

3) American National Standard Institute (ANSI)

ANSI is primary organization for fostering the development of technology standards in
the United States and providing various set of rules and standard for Data
Communication.

4) Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (IEEE) –

It is US based professional organization of electronic , computer and communication
engineering. It provides various set of rules and standard in communication and
networking field.

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5) Electronic Industries Association(EIA) –

This organization establish and recommends industrial standards. EIA has developed
the RS(Recommended Standards) series of Standards for data and telecommunication.

6) Standard Council of Canada (SCC) –

It is an official Standard Agency for Canada . It has Similar responsibilities as ANSI
has.

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