Prep

1. How does flow control work in the Transport layer, and why is it important?
Flow control in the Transport layer prevents the sending host from overloading the receiving host's
buffers. It ensures data integrity by allowing applications to request reliable data transport, avoiding
congestion and data loss. The sender will wait for an acknowledgment before sending additional data
segments.
2. What is a connection-oriented communication, and why is it used in network
communication?
Connection-oriented communication involves establishing a connection before data transfer, which
is achieved through a three-way handshake. It is used to ensure reliable data transport,
acknowledging data segments' receipt, sequencing segments, and maintaining a manageable data
flow to prevent congestion and data loss.
3. How does the OSI reference model promote interoperability between networks, and
what are the advantages of using this model?
The OSI reference model promotes interoperability by standardizing the functions of each layer in
the model. This standardization allows for multiple-vendor development and encourages industry
standardization, ensuring that different types of network hardware and software can communicate
effectively. The advantages of using this model include simplifying network design and
troubleshooting, supporting multiple-vendor development, and maintaining network compatibility…

4. Define the following: -

a. Data Communication and Data Representation?
Data communication refers to the transfer of encoded information between devices from one
location to another, accomplished through electronic transmission systems.
or
Data communication can also be defined as exchange of data between two devices, facilitated by a
transmission medium which is either be wired(cable) or wireless (radio waves).

b. Data Representation?
The way in which information is presented a computer is referred to as Data form or data
representation. Information nowadays comes in the following forms; numbers, text, images, audio,
video, etc.
5. Outline the fundamental characteristic of a data communication Systems?
Fundamental Characteristics of Data Communication System
The effectiveness of data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:
a) Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by
the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
b) Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
c) Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.
In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced,
in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery
is called real-time transmission and this occurs in a real-time system.

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 d) Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay of delivery
of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 20ms.
If some of the packets arrive with 20ms delay and others with 30ms delay, an uneven quality
in the video is the result.

6. With the aid of a well labelled diagram, explain components of data communication
system?
Components of Data Communication

Components of Data Communication

a) Messages: The Information(data) to be communicated. Popular forms of data include text,
numbers, pictures, audio, video or a combination of any of these.
b) Sender: The device that initiates the communication and sends the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, mobile phones, smart devices etc
c) Transmission medium: The transmission medium also known as channel of communication
is the physical path by which data travels from sender (transmitter) to receiver. Example of
such channels is wired (guided medium; twisted pair cable, optical fibres, coaxial cable) and
wireless (unguided medium; radio waves)
d) Receiver: The device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television, mobile phones, smart devices etc.
e) Protocol: A protocol is a Set of rules that governs data communication. It represents an
agreement between communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating. Just like a person speaking Edo Language cannot be
understood by a person speaking Igbo.

7. What are the primary motivations for computer networking?

a) Resource Sharing: Computer networks facilitate the sharing of resources such as files,
printers, and databases. This sharing optimizes resource utilization, reduces redundancy, and
enhances efficiency.
b) Data Exchange: Networks enable the rapid and efficient exchange of data and information
among devices. This is crucial for tasks ranging from sending emails and instant messages to
transferring large files and collaborating on projects.
c) Remote Access: Networks allow users to remotely access resources and services located on
other devices or servers. This is particularly important for remote work, accessing cloud-
based services, and managing servers from afar.

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 d) Communication: Networks provide the infrastructure for various communication methods,
including emails, voice calls, video conferencing, and social media. These communication
channels have revolutionized how individuals and businesses interact.
e) Centralized Management: In business settings, networks facilitate centralized management
of resources and user accounts. This makes it easier for administrators to control access,
enforce security policies, and perform updates across multiple devices.
f) Internet Access: Computer networks connect to the global internet, enabling access to a vast
repository of information, services, and entertainment.
g) Economic Benefits: Networking offers economic advantages through cost savings. Instead
of purchasing dedicated resources for each device, a network allows sharing, leading to
reduced hardware costs and operational expenses.
h) Scalability: Computer networks can be scaled up to accommodate growth in users, devices,
and data, which is essential for businesses and organizations that experience expansion over
time.
i) Collaboration and Teamwork: Networks enable collaborative work environments where
individuals from different locations can work together on projects in real time, increasing
productivity and innovation.
j) Data Backup and Recovery: Networks facilitate automated data backup and recovery
processes. Data can be centrally stored and backed up, reducing the risk of data loss due to
hardware failures or disasters.
k) Entertainment and Media: Networks serve as the foundation for streaming services, online
gaming, social media platforms, and other forms of digital entertainment..

8. What are the three key elements of a communication protocol, and why are they
important for successful data communication?

The three Key Elements of a Communication Protocol are:

• Syntax: This element defines the structure and format of the data, specifying the arrangement
of data in a particular order.
• Semantics: Semantics provides the meaning of each section of data, indicating how each
section should be interpreted and what actions or decisions should be taken based on this
interpretation.
• Timing: Timing informs the sender about the readiness of the receiver to receive data and
dictates the rate at which data should be sent to prevent overwhelming the receiver.

9. Mention Special Purpose Protocols and their functions?

Answer:
Examples of Special Purpose Protocols: The text mentions several special purpose protocols and
their functions:
• HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol): Facilitates communication between web servers and
web browsers for requesting and delivering web content.
• HTTPS (Secure HTTP): Ensures secure communication, typically handling sensitive data
like credit card transactions.
• SSL (Secure Sockets Layer): Encrypts data for secure transmission.
• MIME (Multi-purpose Internet Mail Extensions): Allows SMTP to transmit multimedia
files, including voice, audio, and binary data.
• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): Used for storing and retrieving emails.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Manages file transmission between computers.
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 • NTP (Network Time Protocol): Synchronizes time between computers.
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Allocates dynamic IP addresses to
networked computers.
• SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): Supports network administration.
• LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol): Collects user and email address
information from the internet.
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Handles error messages in the network.
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Finds the hardware address of a network card based on
the IP address.
• RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol): Finds the IP address based on the hardware
address of a network card.

10. State and explain the types of transmission media?

Data transmission media can be broadly categorized into two groups: wired or guided media and
wireless or unguided media.
• Wired or Guided Media: These include physical cables, such as twisted-pair cables, coaxial
cables, and optical fiber cables. They are bounded by the physical geography and provide
reliable and secure data transmission.
• Wireless or Unguided Media: These include wireless transmission methods that do not
require physical cables. They use various electromagnetic waves, including radio waves,
microwaves, and infrared. Wireless media are not bounded by physical geography and are
commonly used in wireless communication technologies.

11. What are the characteristics of different transmission media?

Transmission media have various characteristics, including:
• Bandwidth: It refers to the data-carrying capacity of a channel. Higher bandwidth channels
support higher data rates.
• Radiation: The leakage of signals from the medium due to undesirable electrical
characteristics.
• Noise Absorption: The susceptibility of the media to external electrical noise that can distort
data signals.
• Attenuation: The loss of signal energy as it propagates through the medium, and the amount
of energy lost depends on frequency and the physical characteristics of the medium.

12. Discuss briefly the different types of wireless signal propagation?

Wireless signals propagate in various ways, including:
• Ground-wave propagation: It follows the curvature of the Earth and is used for frequencies
up to 2 MHz, commonly found in AM radio.
• Sky-wave propagation: It bounces off the Earth's ionospheric layer in the upper atmosphere,
allowing long-distance communication using frequencies in the 30-85 MHz range.
• Line-of-sight propagation: This type of propagation requires a direct line of sight between
the transmitting and receiving antennas. Microwave, FM radio, and satellite communication
are examples of this.

13. What are the common problems and impairments associated with transmission media?
Common problems and impairments in transmission media include:
• Attenuation Distortion: This results in the loss of signal energy as it travels through the
medium. Amplifiers are used to compensate for this loss.
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 • Crosstalk: It occurs when one line induces a signal into another line, often due to overlapping
bands or poor cable shielding.
• Echo or Signal Return: Echoes occur when the signal reflects back along the transmission
line, and echo suppressors are used to mitigate this effect.
• Noise: Noise refers to any unwanted signals mixed with the original signal during
transmission, causing signal alteration. Noise sources include electromagnetic interference,
lightning, and sudden power switching.

14. What is the primary purpose of data communication software in the context of
computer and electronic device communication?

Purpose of Data Communication Software: The primary purpose of data communication software
is to facilitate communication and resource sharing between two or more computers or electronic
devices. It acts as a bridge, interpreting the bits and bytes transmitted through communication media
and controlling various aspects of data transmission and formatting. Without data communication
software, effective data communication would be incomplete.

15. What materials are required for working with RJ45 cabling?
Materials required for working with RJ45 cabling include
a) Ethernet cables (Cat 5, 5e, 6, 6a, or higher)
b) wire cutters/wire strippers
c) a cable tester, and
d) a crimping tool.

16. How are the two wiring standards for Ethernet cables, T568A and T568B, different?
The two wiring standards for Ethernet cables, T568A and T568B, differ in the arrangement of colored
wire pairs. T568A uses a specific pattern of wire colors, while T568B uses a different pattern. Both
standards are used for terminating 8-position modular connectors like RJ45.

17. What is the key characteristic of data communication in simplex mode, and what are
some examples of devices that use simplex communication?

In simplex mode, data communication is unidirectional, meaning it flows in only one direction, like
a one-way street. One of the two devices on a link can transmit while the other can only receive. An
example of simplex communication is data transmission between keyboards and traditional monitors.
Another example is radio and television broadcasts, were data flows from stations to radios and
televisions.

18. How does half-duplex transmission differ from full-duplex transmission, and can you
provide an example of a device or system that operates in half-duplex mode?
Half-duplex transmission allows each station to both transmit and receive, but not simultaneously.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. An example is a walkie-talkie
system.

19. What are the two primary transmission modes used for sending binary data across a
link, and what distinguishes them from each other

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Two primary transmission modes for sending binary data across a link are parallel and serial modes.
In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent at once, while in serial mode, one bit is sent with each clock
tick. Serial transmission has three subclasses: asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.

20. Briefly describe the primary function of a repeater in a network, and at which layer of
the OSI model does it operate?
A repeater's primary function in a network is to amplify or regenerate a signal to extend its
transmission distance. It operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model.

21. How do hubs differ from switches in terms of their operation and efficiency for data
transmission within a network?
Hubs are essentially wiring concentrators that broadcast data to all devices connected to them. They
operate at the physical layer (Layer 1) and create a single collision and broadcast domain, making
them less efficient for data transmission. Switches, on the other hand, operate at the data link layer
(Layer 2) and are more intelligent. They filter and direct traffic based on MAC addresses, leading to
improved efficiency as only the intended recipient receives the data.

22. Explain the key role of a network interface card (NIC) in a computer, and how does it
relate to the OSI model's layers?
A network interface card (NIC) plays a crucial role in a computer as it enables the computer to
communicate over a computer network. It operates at both the physical and data link layers (Layer 1
and Layer 2) of the OSI model. At the physical layer, the NIC provides a low-level addressing system
through the use of a media access control (MAC) address. At the data link layer, it facilitates the
transmission of data frames. The NIC allows users to connect to each other through cables or
wirelessly, ensuring that data can be transmitted and received over the network.

23. What are the advantages and disadvantages of star topology

Advantages of Star Topology
1. As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance, signals don‟t necessarily
get transmitted to all the workstations. A sent signal reaches the intended destination after
passing through no more than 3-4 devices and 2-3 links. Performance of the network is
dependent on the capacity of central hub.
2. Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology new nodes can be added easily without
affecting rest of the network. Similarly components can also be removed easily.
3. Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
4. Failure of one node or link doesn‟t affect the rest of network. At the same time it is easy to
detect the failure and troubleshoot it.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Too much dependency on central device has its own drawbacks. If it fails whole network
goes down.
2. The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device increases the overall cost of the network.
3. Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in such topology is depended
on capacity of central device.

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