EUKARYOTIC CELL

Cell is the basic function and structure of life. Base on structure, it can be classified into
prokaryote (Archaea and Bacteria) and eukaryotes (plant, animal, fungi and protest (protozoa and
algae)).

Eukaryotic Cell

Eukaryotic cells are defined as cells containing organized nucleus and organelles which are
enveloped by membrane-bound organelles. Examples of eukaryotic cells are plants, animals,
protists, fungi. Their genetic material is organized in chromosomes. Golgi apparatus,
Mitochondria, Ribosomes, Nucleus are parts of Eukaryotic Cells.

Parts of Eukaryotic Cells

Figure 1: Eucaryotic Cell

Cytoplasmic Membrane

It is also called plasma membrane or cell membrane. The plasma membrane is a semi-permeable
membrane that separates the inside of a cell from the outside.
Structure and Composition: In eukaryotic cells, the plasma membrane consists of proteins,
carbohydrates and two layers of phospholipids (i.e. lipid with a phosphate group). These
phospholipids are arranged as follows:

 The polar, hydrophilic (water-loving) heads face the outside and inside of the cell. These
heads interact with the aqueous environment outside and within a cell.
 The non-polar, hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails are sandwiched between the heads and
are protected from the aqueous environments.

Functions

 The plasma membrane is selectively permeable i.e. it allows only selected substances to
pass through.
 It protects the cells from shock and injuries.
 The fluid nature of the membrane allows the interaction of molecules within the
membrane. It is also important for secretion, cell growth, and division etc.
 It allows transport of molecules across the membrane. This transport can be of two types:
o Active transport – This transport occurs against the concentration gradient and
therefore, requires energy. It also needs carrier proteins and is a highly selective
process.
o Passive transport – This transport occurs along the concentration gradient and
therefore, does not require energy. Thus, it does not need carrier proteins and is
not selective.

Cell Wall

The cell wall is a non-living, rigid structure outside the plasma membrane in plant cells and
fungi. It is absent in Eukaryotic cells of animals

Structure and composition: It is made of different components in different Eukaryotes:

 Cellulose, hemicellulose, proteins, and pectin – in plants.

 Cellulose, galactans, mannans and calcium carbonate – in fungi.
The cell wall is divided into the following three layers:

 Middle lamella – It is the outermost layer and is made of calcium pectates. It holds
adjoining cells together.
 Primary wall – It is the middle layer and is made of cellulose and hemicellulose. It is
present in young, growing cells and is capable of growth.
 Secondary wall – It is the innermost layer and similar in composition to the primary wall.

Functions

 Provides shape to the cell.

 Helps in cell-cell interaction.
 Protects the cell from injury, undesirable molecules and pathogens.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

It is a network of small, tubular structures. It divides the space inside of Eukaryotic cells into two
parts – luminal (inside ER) and extra-luminal (cytoplasm).

Structure: ER can be of two types –

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Smooth due to lack of ribosomes Rough due to the presence of ribosomes
The main site of lipid synthesis Site of protein synthesis.

Functions

 SER is involved in lipid synthesis and RER is involved in protein synthesis.

 RER helps in folding proteins and transports it to the Golgi apparatus in vesicles.

Golgi Apparatus

It is named after the scientist who discovered it, Camillo Golgi. Golgi is made of many flat, disc-
shaped structures called cisternae. It is present in all eukaryotic cells except human red blood
cells and sieve cells of plants.
Structure: The cisternae are arranged in parallel and concentrically near the nucleus as follows:

 Cis face (forming face) – It faces the plasma membrane and receives secreted material in
vesicles.
 Trans face (maturing face) – It faces the nucleus and releases the received material into
the cell.

Functions

 An important site for packaging material within the cell.

 Proteins are modified in the Golgi.
 An important site for the formation of glycolipids (i.e. lipids with carbohydrate) and
glycoproteins (i.e. proteins with carbohydrates).

Ribosomes

These structures are not bound by a membrane. Ribosomes are also called ‘Protein factories’
since they are the main site of protein synthesis.

Structure: They are made of ribonucleic acids and proteins. Eukaryotic ribosomes are of the 80S
type, with 60S (large subunit) and 40S (small subunit).

Functions: A Major site for synthesis of proteins and polypeptides (chain of amino acids).

Mitochondria

They are membrane-bound organelles, also known as ‘powerhouses of the cell’.

Structure: It has two membranes – outer and inner. The outer membrane forms a continuous
boundary around the mitochondria. The inner membrane is semi-permeable and divided into
folds called ‘cristae’. The membranes divide the lumen of the mitochondria into an inner and
outer compartment. The inner compartment is called matrix and outer compartment forms the
intermembrane space.

Functions
  They produce energy (ATP) and therefore are called the ‘powerhouse of the cell’.
 Helps in regulating cell metabolism.
 Mitochondria possess their own DNA, RNA and components required for protein
synthesis.

Figure 2:
Mitochondrial structure.
Lysosomes

They are membrane-bound vesicles formed in the Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes are also called
‘suicidal bags’ since they are rich in hydrolytic enzymes such as lipases, proteases etc. These
enzymes are optimally active at acidic pH (less than 7) and are needed to digest nutrient
molecules that enter the cell by endocytosis and would break down the fabric of the cell itself if
they were not contained within the lysosomes. Peroxisomes are similar to lysosomes, but
smaller, and also contain degradative enzymes. They contain the enzyme catalase, which breaks
down the potentially toxic hydrogen peroxide generated by other breakdown reactions within the
peroxisome. The process of endocytosis is unique to eucaryotic cells

Function: The main function of lysosomes is to digest lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic
acids.
Figure 4 : Endocytosis. Membrane-bound vacuoles surround a food particle and internalise it in
the form of a phagosome. This fuses with a lysosome, which releases digestive enzymes,
resulting in the breakdown of the contents. The process of endocytosis is unique to eucaryotic
cells.

Nucleus

Nucleus is the main organelle of a cell. It is a double membrane structure with all the genetic
information. Therefore, it is also called the ‘brain’ of a cell. The nucleus is found in all
eukaryotic cells except human RBCs and sieve cells of plants.

Structure: A nucleus has the following parts:

Figure 3: Nucleus

 Nuclear envelope – It is a double membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. The
outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. The inner membrane has
small pores called ‘nuclear pores’.
 Nucleoplasm – It is the fluid material in the nucleus that contains the nucleolus and
chromatin.
 Nucleolus – Nucleoli are not membrane-bound and are active sites for ribosomal RNA
synthesis.
 Chromatin – It consists of DNA and proteins called ‘histones’. The DNA is organised
into chromosomes. Chromosomes have certain constriction sites called ‘centromeres’.
Based on the position of the centromere, they can be divided as follows:
o Metacentric – With centromere in the centre and having equal chromosome arms.
o Sub-metacentric – Centromere is slightly off-centre creating one short and one
long arm.
o Acrocentric – Centromere is extremely off-centre with one very long and one very
short chromosome arm.
o Telocentric – Centromere is placed at one end of the chromosome. Humans do not
possess telocentric chromosomes.

Functions

 It stores genetic information (in the form of DNA) necessary for development and
reproduction.
  It contains all information necessary for protein synthesis and cellular functions.

Cytoskeleton

It is the filamentous network present in the cytoplasm of a cell.

Function: It provides mechanical support, maintains the shape of the cell and helps in motility.

Cilia and Flagella

They are both responsible for the movement of a cell.

Cilia Flagella
Short, hair-like structures Long structures
There are many cilia per cell There are fewer flagella per cell
Cover the entire surface of a cell Are present at one end of a cell
Rowing movement Up and down movement

Plastids

They are double membrane organelles found in plant cells. They contain pigments and are of
three types:

 Chloroplasts – They contain chlorophyll and are involved in photosynthesis, where light
energy is converted to chemical energy. Chloroplasts contain compartments called stroma
and grana. Grana contains structures called thylakoids that contain chlorophyll. Stroma
contains enzymes needed for carbohydrate and protein synthesis.
Figure 4: Chloroplast structure.

 Chromoplasts – These give plants yellow, red or orange colours because they contain
pigments like carotene.
 Leucoplasts – These are colourless plastids that store either carbohydrates (Amyloplasts),
oils and fats (Elaioplasts) or proteins (Aleuroplasts).