CHAPTER SIX – UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGNS study population; 2) the reference period of the study; and

e reference period of the study; and 3) the nature of the

APPROACH - Refers to the first step in creating structure to the design and it details a 1. Research Designs Based on the Number of Contacts
conceptual model of framework of how the research will proceed, considering the
1.1 Cross-sectional studies are commonly used in the social sciences. These
objectives and variables of the study.
studies aim to find out the prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or
DESIGN - This refers to the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation so conceived issue by taking a cross-section of the population. The cross-sectional study is simple in
as to obtain answer to research questions or problems. It is the complete scheme or design. The researcher decides what he wants to find out, identify the study population,
program of the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from select a sample if needed, and contact the respondents to find out the required
writing the hypothesis and their operational implications to the final analysis of data information.
(Kerlinger; in Kumar, 2011).
1.2. The before and after design (also known as the pre-test/post-test design).
MEANING AND FUNCTIONS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN This design can be measure change in a situation, phenomenon, issue, problem or
attitude. The before and after design can be described as two sets of cross-sectional
According to Kerlinger (cited in Kumar, 2011), a research design is a plan, structure and
data collection points on the same population to find out the change in the phenomenon
strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions or
or variable between two points in time. The change is measured by comparing the
problems. It is the complete scheme or programme of the research. It includes an
difference in the phenomenon or variable before-and-after the intervention.
outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses and their operational
implications to the final analysis of data. Depending upon how it is set up, a before-and-after study may be either an experiment
or non-experiment. It is a commonly used design in evaluation studies. The difference
After the research topic has been finalized, the researcher has to plan the details of
between the two sets of data collection points with respect to the dependent variable is
what design to use, what type of data will provide answers to the problems of the study,
considered to be the impact of the program or process evaluated.
and how the data will be gathered, presented, analyzed and interpreted.
1.3. The longitudinal study designs. This is used to determine the pattern of extent of
The research design guides the researcher in planning the following aspects of
change in a phenomenon, situation, problem or attitude in relation to time. Under this
procedures of research:
design, the study population is visited a number of times at regular intervals, this
 Identifying the population of the study design, the study population is visited a number of times at regular intervals, usually
 Decision whether to take the whole population or just select a sample over a longer period. Intervals may be as short as a week or longer than a year.
Irrespective of the size of the interval, the type of information gathered each time is
 How the sample of the study will be selected
identical. The data collected may come from the same study population but it may or
 Ethics in the selection of samples and data gathering
may not be from the same respondents. A longitudinal study can be characterized as a
 Choice of method in data collection
series of repetitive cross-sectional studies.
 Considerations in the use of questionnaires
 How interviews will be conducted 2. Research Designs Based on the Reference Period

RESEARCH DESIGNS IN QUANTITATIVE METHOD The reference period refers to the time frame in which a study is exploring a
phenomenon, situation, even or problem and may be categorized as 1) retrospective2)
The choice of a study design would depend largely on the philosophical perspective, prospective 3) retrospective-prospective.
objective of the study, the inquiry mode, and the applicability of research findings.
2.1 The retrospective study design is used to investigate a phenomenon, situation,
In quantitative research, some of the commonly used designs are classified by problem or issue that has happened in the past. The study may be conducted either on
examining them from three different perspectives: 1) the number of contacts with the the basis of the data available for that period or on the basis or respondents’ recall of
the situation.
2.2 The prospective study design attempts to establish the outcome of an event or 3. Phenomenology
what is likely to happen, such as the likely prevalence of a phenomenon, situation,
This is a qualitative research design which studies all possible appearances in human
problem, attitude or outcome in the future. Experiments are usually classified as
experience using empirical methods (i.e., asking, observing, analyzing data, etc.) to
prospective studies since the researcher must wait for an intervention to register its
make empirically grounded statements that can be generalized. Various aims can be
effect on the study population.
pursued such as describing a phenomenon, or to evaluate an intervention or institution
2.3. The retrospective-prospective study design. This applies to a study where in in the interest of knowledge production (Flick, 2011).
available data are analyzed and used as bases of future projections. It does not involve
4. Ethnography
a control group. Trend studies fall under this category.
This is a research process which deals with the scientific description of individual
3. Research Designs Based on the Nature of the Investigation
cultures involving the origins, development and characteristics of human kind, including
The following are classified under this category: 1) Experimental 2) Non-experimental 3) social customs, beliefs and cultural development (Wiersma and Jurs, 2009).
Quasi – or semi experimental
5. Mixed Methods
3.1 The experimental design has an assumption of a cause-and-effect relationship. In
Refers to the research design that uses both quantitative and qualitative data to answer
this design, the researcher introduces the intervention that is assumed to be the cause
a particular question or sets of questions. In the mixed methods design “words, pictures
of change and waits until it has produced the change.
and narratives can be used to add meaning to numbers” (in Biber,2010).
3.2 In the non-experimental design, the researcher observes a phenomenon and
attempts to establish what caused it. In this instance, the research starts from the effect
or outcome and attempts to determine causation

3.3. A semi-experimental or quasi experimental study has the properties of both

RESEARCH DESIGNS IN QUALITATIVE METHOD

1. Case study

This is a dominant qualitative study design but also prevalent in quantitative research. A
subgroup of a population, a town or a city. To be called a case study, it is important to
treat the total study population as one entity.

It is a very useful design when exploring an area where little is known or where you
want to have a holistic understanding of the situation, phenomenon, episode, site, group
or community. This design is relevant when the focus of the study is on extensively
exploring and understanding rather than confirming and quantifying.

2. Grounded Theory

This is an approach to qualitative research data collection and analysis in the social
sciences. As cited by Hennink, Hutter and Bailey (2011), grounded theory is not a
theory itself; but a process for developing empirical theory from qualitative research that
consists of a set of tasks and underlying principles through which theory can be built up
through careful observation of the social world.