(ED-101)The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Chapter I. LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES (LCP)

Introduction
The learner is the center of instruction. The word of instruction revolves around the learner.
“Learner centered” is the perspective that couples a focus on individual learners- their heredity,
experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capabilities, and needs-with a focus on
learning- the best available knowledge about learning and how it occurs and about teaching
practices that are most effective in promoting the highest levels of motivation, learning, and
achievement of all learners.
LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by the American Psychological
Association. The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner and the learning
process.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of
constructing meaning from information and experience.
• There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation in motor
learning; and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive skills and
learning strategies.
• Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can use to
construct meaning from information, experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs.
• Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating. and assume personal
responsibility for contributing to their own learning.
2. Goals of the learning process
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
• The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed.
• To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning
strategies necessary for continued learning necessary for continued learning success across
the life span, students must generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially,
students’ short -term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their
understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies and deepening their
understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.
3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
• Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new
information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links
can take a variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing
knowledge or skills.
4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.
• Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem
solving, and concept learning.
• They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach learning and
performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel situations.
5. Thinking about thinking
Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and
critical thinking.
• Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and
monitor their progress toward these goals.
• In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not
making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal.
6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and
instructional practices.
• Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both the
learner and the learning environment.
• Cultural or group influences on students can impact many educationally relevant variables,
such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking.
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn,
in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and
habits of thinking.
• The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure
can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information processing.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation
to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant
to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
• Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the
learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basic
needs to be competent and to exercise personal control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge. and skills requires extended learner effort and guided
practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely
without coercion.
• Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex
knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic
effort, along with persistence over time.
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on Learning
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning
is most effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual,
emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
• Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is
presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.
• Because individual development varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical
domains, achievement in different instructional domains may also vary.
11. Social influence on learning
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with
others.
• Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate
with others on instructional tasks.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function
of prior experience and heredity.
• Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
• In addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own
preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn.
13. Learning and diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.
• The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all
learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can
influence learning.
14. Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as
learning progress - including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment - are integral parts
of the learning process.
• Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of
the learning process.
• Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards appropriately
high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well
as current knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of
an optimal degree of difficulty.

Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five areas:
1. The knowledge base
One’ s existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning. The leaner’s
previous knowledge will influence new learning specifically on how he represents new
information, makes associations and filters new experiences.
2. Strategic processing and control
Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order to
learn more effectively (metacognition).
3. Motivation and affect
Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within), reasons for wanting to learn, personal
goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences
Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner has his own unique
combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context
Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an individual.