CPE  To construct useful representations of knowledge

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies
necessary for continued learning success across
The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were the life span, students must generate and pursue
put together by the American Psychological personally relevant goals. Initially, students’ short-
Association. The following 14 psychological principles term goals and learning may be sketchy in an
pertain to the learner and the learning process. The area, but over time their understanding can be
14 principles have the following aspects: refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies,
 They focus on psychological factors that are and deepening their understanding of the subject
primarily internal to and under the control of the matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.
learner rather than conditioned habits or  Educators can assist learners in creating
physiological factors. However, the principles also meaningful learning goals that are consistent with
attempt to acknowledge external environment or both personal and educational aspirations and
contextual factors that interact with these interests.
internal factors.
 The principles are intended to deal holistically 3. Construction of knowledge
with learners in the context of real-world learning The successful learner can link new information with
situations. Thus, they are best understood as an existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
organized set of principles; no principle should be  Knowledge widens and deepens as students
viewed in isolation. continue to build links between new information
 The 14 principles are divided into those referring and experiences and their existing knowledge
to (1) cognitive and metacognitive, (2) base, the nature of these links can take a variety
motivational and effective, (3) developmental and of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or
social, and (4) individual difference factors reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How
influencing learners and learning. these links are made or develop may vary in
 Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all different subject areas, and among students with
learners from children, to teachers, to varying talents, interest, and abilities. However,
administrators, to parents and to community unless new knowledge becomes integrated with
members involved in our educational systems. the learner’s prior knowledge and understanding,
this new knowledge remain isolated, cannot be
Cognitive and metacognitive used most effectively in new tasks, and does not
1. Nature of the learning process transfer readily to new situations
The learning of complex subject matter is most  Educators can assist learners in acquiring and
effective when it is an intentional process of integrating knowledge by a number of strategies
constructing meaning from information and that have been shown to be effective with
experience. learners of varying abilities, such as concept
 There are different types of learning processes, mapping and thematic organization or
for example, habit formation in motor learning; categorizing.
and learning that involves the generation of
knowledge, or cognitive skills and learning 4. Strategic thinking
strategies. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire
 Learning in schools emphasizes the use of of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve
intentional process that students can use to complex learning goals.
construct meaning from information, experiences,  Successful learners use strategic thinking in their
and their own thoughts and beliefs. approach to learning, reasoning, problem solving,
 Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self- and concept learning.
regulating, and assume personal responsibility for  They understand and can use a variety of
contributing to their own learning. strategies to help them reach learning and
performance goals, and to apply their knowledge
2. Goals of the learning process in novel situations.
The successful learner, over time and with support and  They also continue to expand their repertoire of
instructional guidance, can create meaningful, strategies by reflecting on the methods they use
coherent representations of knowledge. to see which work well for them, by receiving
 The strategic nature of learing requires students guided instruction and feedback, and by observing
to be goal-directed. or interacting with appropriate models.
 Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators influence on motivation. Motivational and
assist learners in developing, applying, and emotional factors also influence both the quality
assessing their strategic learning skills. of thinking and information processing as well as
an individual's motivation to learn.
5. Thinking about thinking  Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally
Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring enhance motivation and facilitate learning and
mental operations facilitate creative and critical performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance
thinking. learning and performance by focusing the
 Successful learners can reflect on how they think learner's attention on a particular task. However,
and learn, set reasonable learning or performance intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic,
goals, select potentially appropriate learning rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g.,
strategies or methods, and monitor their progress worrying about competence, ruminating about
toward these goals. failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, or
 In addition, successful learners know what to do if stigmatizing labels) generally detract from
a problem occurs or if they are not making motivation, interfere with learning, and
sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They contribute to have performance.
can generate alternative methods to reach their
goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility 8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
of the goal). The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and
 Instructional methods that focus on helping curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic
learners develop these higher order motivation is stimulated by tasks a optimal novelty
(metacognitive) strategies can enhance learning and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and
and personal responsibility for learning providing for personal choice and control.
 Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and
6. Context of learning creativity are major indicators of and learners’
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part
including culture, technology, and instructional a function of meeting basic needs to be
practices. competent and to exercise personal control.
 Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers  Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that
play a major interactive role with both the learner learners perceive as interesting and personally
and the learning environment. relevant and meaningful, appropriate in
 Cultural or group influences on students can complexity and difficulty to the learners' abilities,
impact many educationally relevant variables, and on which they believe they can succeed.
such as motivation, orientation toward learning,  Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that
and ways of thinking. are comparable to real-world situations and meet
 Technologies and instructional practices must be needs for choice and control.
appropriate for learners' level of prior knowledge,  Educators can encourage and support learners'
cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking natural curiosity and motivation to learn by
strategies. attending to individual differences in learners'
 The classroom environment, particularly the perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty,
degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also relevance, and personal choice and control.
have significant impacts on student learning.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
Motivational and Affective Factors Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires
7. Motivational and emotional influences on extended learner effort and guided practice. Without
learning learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert
What and how much is learned is influenced by the this effort is unlikely without coercion.
learner's motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is  Effort is another major indicator of motivation to
influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge and
interests and goals, and habits of thinking. skills demands the investment of considerable
 The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, learner energy and strategic effort, along with
and expectations for success or failure can persistence over time.
enhance or interfere with the learner's quality of  Educators need to be concerned with facilitating
thinking and information processing. motivation by strategies that enhance learner
 Students' beliefs about themselves as learners effort and commitment to learning and to
and the nature of learning have a marked achieving high standards of comprehension and
understanding.
 Effective strategies include purposeful learning  Quality personal relationship that provide
activities, guided by practices that enhance stability, trust, and caring can increase learners;
positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to sense of belonging, self-respect and self-
learn, and methods that increase learners' acceptance, and provide a positive climate for
perceptions that a task is interesting and learning.
personally relevant.  Family infuences, positive interpersonal support
and instruction in self-motivation strategies can
Developmental and Social Factors offset factors that interfere with optimal learning
10. Developmental influences on learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a
As individuals develop, there are different particular subject, high levels of test anxiety,
opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is negative sex role expectations, and undue
most effective when differential development within pressure to perform well.
and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social  Positive learning climates can also help to
domains is taken into account. establish the context for healthier levels of
 Individuals learn best when material is thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts
appropriate to their developmental level and is help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively
presented in an enjoyable and interesting way. participate in the learning process, and create a
 Because individual development varies across learning community.
intellectual, social, emotional, and physical
domains, achievement in different instructional Individual Differences Factors
domains may also vary. 12. Individual differences in learning
 Overemphasis on one type of developmental Learners have different strategies, approaches, and
readiness such as reading readiness, for example capabilities for learning that are a function of prior
may preclude learners from demonstrating that experience and heredity.
they are more capable in other areas of  Individuals are born with and develop their own
performance. capabilities and talents.
 The cognitive, emotional, and social development  In addition, through learning and social
of individual learners and how they interpret life acculturation, they have acquired their own
experiences are affected by prior schooling, preferences for how they like to learn and the
home, culture, and community factors. pace at which they learn. However, these
 Early and continuing parental involvement in preferences are not always useful in helping
schooling, and the quality of language interactions learners reach their learning goals.
and two-way communications between adults  Educators need to help students examine their
and children can influence these developmental learning preferences and expand or modify them,
areas. if necessary.
 Awareness and understanding of developmental  The interaction between learner differences and
differences among children with and without curricular and environmental conditions is
emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can another key factor affecting learning outcomes.
facilitate the creation of optimal learning  Educators need to be sensitive to individual
contexts. differences, in general. They also need to attend
to learner perceptions of the degree to which
11. Social influences on learning these differences are accepted and adapted to by
Learning is influenced by social interactions, varying instructional methods and materials.
interpersonal relations, and communication with
others. 13. Learning and diversity
 Learning can be enhanced when the learner has Learning is most effective when differences in
an opportunity to interact and to collaborate with learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds
others on instructional tasks. are taken into account.
 Learning settings that allow for social interactions,  The same basic principles of learning, motivation,
and that respect diversity, encourage flexible and effective instruction apply to all learners.
thinking and social competence. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and
 In interactive and collaborative instructional socioeconomic status all can influence learning.
contexts, individuals have an opportunity for Careful attention to these factors in the
perspective taking and reflective thinking that instructional setting enhances the possibilities for
may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social, and designing and implementing appropriate learning
moral development, as well as self-esteem. environments.
 When learners perceive that their individual because each learner has his own unique journey
differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures, and for each person because each learner has his own
experiences are valued, respected, and unique combination of genetic and environmental
accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, factors that influence him.
levels of motivation and achievement are 5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the
enhanced. context of a society as well as within an individual.

14. Standards and assessment MODULE 5: FRUED’SPSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards
and assessing the learner as well as learning progress Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development
- including diagnostic, process, and outcome Freud is the most popular psychiatrist that studied the
assessment - are integral parts of the learning process. development of personality, also probably the most
 Assessment provides important information to controversial. His theory of psychosexual
both the learner and teacher at all stages of the development includes five distinct stages. According
learning process. to Freud, a person goes through the sequence o these
 Effective learning takes place when learners feel five stages and along the way there are needs to be
challenged to work towards appropriately high met Whether the needs are met or not, determines
goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner's whether the person will develop a healthy personality
cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as or not. The theory is quite interesting for many
current knowledge and skills, is important for the because Freud identified specific erogenous zones for
selection of instructional materials of an optimal each stage development. These are specific "pleasure
degree of difficulty. areas" that become focal points for the particular
 Ongoing assessment of the learner's stage. If needs are not met along the area, a fixation
understanding of the curricular material can occurs. As an adult, the person will now manifest
provide valuable feedback to both learners and behaviors related to this erogenous zone.
teachers about progress toward the learning
goals. 1) Oral Stage (birth to 18 months).
 Standardized assessment of learner progress and The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the oral
outcomes assessment provides one type of stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking).
information about achievement levels both within Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to an Oral
and across individuals that can inform various Fixation or Oral Personality which is shown in an
types of programmatic decisions. increased focus on oral activities. This type of
 Performance assessments can provide other personality may be oral receptive that is, have a
sources of information about the attainment of stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat, or
learning outcomes. oral aggressive, that is, with a tendency to bite his or
 Self-assessments of learning progress can also her nails or use curse words or even gossip. As a
improve students self appraisal skills and enhance result, these persons may become too dependent on
motivation and self-directed learning. others, easily fooled, and lack leadership traits. On the
other hand, they may also fight these tendencies and
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 become pessimistic and aggressive in relating with
principles and distilled them into five areas: people.
1. The knowledge base. One's existing knowledge
serves as the foundation of all future learning. The 2) Anal Stage (18 months to-3years).
learner's previous knowledge will influence new The child's focused pleasure in this stage is the anus.
learning specifically on how he represents new The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining
information, makes associations and filters new feces. Through society's expectations particularly the
experiences. parents, the child needs to work on toilet training. Let
2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can us remember that between one year and a half to
develop skills to reflect and regulate their three years the child's favorite word might be "No!".
thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more Therefore a struggle might exist in the toilet training
effectively (metacognition). process when the child retains feces when asked to
3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic eliminate, or may choose to defecate when asked to
motivation (from within), reasons for wanting to hold feces for some reason. In terms of personality,
learn, personal goals land enjoyment of learning fixation during this stage can result in being anal
tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process. retentive, an obsession with cleanliness perfection,
4. Development and Individual Differences. and control; or anal expulsive where the person may
Learning is a unique journey for each person become messy and disorganized.
 except the satisfaction of its own needs. It is not
3) Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6). oriented towards considering reality nor the needs of
The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During others. Just see how babies cry any time of day and
the preschool age, children become interested in night! Absolutely no regard of whether mommy is
what makes boys and girls different. Preschoolers will tired or daddy is sleeping. When the id wants
sometimes be seen fondling their genitals. Freud's something, it wants it now and it wants it fast!
studies led him to believe that during this stage boys 2. Ego
develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother. As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a
Boys then see their father as a rival for their mother’s preschooler, he/she relates more with the
affection. Boys may fear that their father will punish environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge. The
them for these feelings, thus, the castration anxiety. ego operates using the reality principle. It is aware
These feelings comprise what Freud called Oedipus that others also have needs to be met. It is practical
Complex. In Greek Mythology, Oedipus, because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can
unintentionally killed his father and married his result to negative consequences later, so it reasons
mother Jocata. Psychoanalyst also believed that girls and considers the best response to situations. As
may also have a similar experience, developing such, it is the deciding agent of the personality.
unconscious sexual attraction towards their father. Although it functions to help the id meet its needs, it
This is what referred to as Electra Complex. always takes into account the reality of the situation.
According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due 3. Superego
to the strong competition of their father, boys Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the
eventually decide to identity with them rather than phallic stage, the superego develops. The superego
fight them. By identifying with their father, the boys embodies a person’s moral aspect. This develops from
develop masculine characteristics and identify what the parents, teachers and other persons who
themselves as male and repress their sexual feelings exert influence impart to be good or moral. The
toward their mother. A fixation at this stage could superego is likened to conscience because it exerts
result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging and influence on what one considers right and wrong.
avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity
according to psychoanalysts. Topographical Model
1. Unconscious
4) Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty). Freud said that most what we go through in our lives,
It's during this stage that sexual urges remain emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses deep within
repressed. The children's focus is the acquisition of are not available to us at a conscious level. He
physical and academic skills. Boys usually relate more believed that most of what influence us is our
with boys and girls with girls during this stage. unconscious. The Oedipus and Electra Complex
mentioned earlier were both buried down into the
5) Genital Stage (puberty onwards). unconscious, out of our awareness due to the
The fifth stage of psychosexual development begins at extreme anxiety they caused. While these complexes
the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again are in our unconscious, they still influence our
awakened. In the earlier stages, adolescents focus thinking, feeling and doing in perhaps dramatic ways.
their sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers, 2. Conscious
with the pleasure centered on the genitals. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored
in our conscious mind. Our conscious mind only
Freud's Personality Components comprises a very small part of who we are so that, in
1. Id our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small
Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id part of what makes up our personality; most of what
plays a vital role in one's personality because as a we are is hidden and out of reach.
baby, it works so that the baby's essential needs are 3. Subconscious
met. The ID operates on the pleasure principle. It The last part is preconscious or subconscious. This is
focuses on immediate gratification or satisfaction of the part of us that we can reach if prompted, but is
its needs. So whatever feels good now is what it will not in our active conscious. It is right below the
pursue with no consideration for the reality, logicality surface, but still “hidden” somewhat unless we search
or practicality of the situation. For example, a baby is for it. Information such as our telephone number,
hungry. It's id want's food or milk... so the baby will some childhood memories, or the name of your best
cry. When the child needs to be changed. The id cries. childhood friend is stored in the preconscious.
When the child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too Because the unconscious is so huge, and because we
cold, or just wants attention, the id speaks up until his are only aware of the small conscious at any given
or her need are met. Nothing else matters to the id time, Frued used the analogy of the iceberg to
illustrate it. A big part of the iceberg is hidden cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees
beneath the water’s surface. another dog, this time a little smaller one, he would
make sense of what he is seeing by adding this new
MODULE 6: PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE information (a different-looking dog) into his schema
DEVELOPMENT of a dog.

Introduction: Accommodation. This is the process of creating a new

Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory of Development is truly schema. If the same child now sees another animal
a classic in the field of educational psychology. This that looks a little bit like a dog, but somehow
theory fueled other researches and theories of different. He might try to it it into his schema of a dog,
development and learning. Its focus is on how and say, "Look mommy, what a funny looking dog. Its
individuals construct knowledge. bark is funny too!" Then the mommy explains, "That's
not a funny looking dog. That's a goat!" With
As you read through this Module you will come to mommy's further descriptions, the child will now
understand cognitive development of children and create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a
adolescents and also identify ways of applying this new file in his filing cabinet.
understanding in the teaching leaners.
Equilibration. Piaget believed that that people have
For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on the natural need to understand how the world works
cognitive development. His research method involved and to find order, structure, and predictability in their
observing a small number of individuals as they life. Equilibration is achieving proper balance between
responded to cognitive tasks that he designed. These assimilation and accommodation. When our
tasks were later known as Piagetian tasks. experiences do not match our schemata (plural of
schema) or cognitive structures, we experience
Piaget called his general theoretical framework cognitive disequilibrium. This means there is a
"genetic epistemo-logy" because he was interested in discrepancy between what is perceived and what is
how knowledge developed in human organisms. understood. We then exert effort through assimilation
Piaget was initially into biology and he also had a and accommodation to establish equilibrium once
background in philosophy. Knowledge from both more.
these disciplines influenced his theories and research
of child development. Out of his researches, Piaget Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to
came up with the stages of cognitive development. adapt to the environment in terms of assimilation and
accommodation. In this sense, Piaget's theory is
Piaget examined the implications of his theory not similar in nature to other constructivist perspective of
only to aspects of cognition but also to intelligence learning like Bruner and Vygotsky.
and moral development. His theory has been applied
widely to teaching and curriculum design especially in Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
the preschool and elementary curricula.
1. Sensori-Motor Stage (Birth to 2 years): Infants
Basic Cognitive Concepts: learn through senses and motor skills. Key
Schema. Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to development is *object permanence*, the
the cognitive structures by which individuals understanding that objects exist even when out of
intellectually adapt to and organize their sight. Environments should be rich and
environment. It is an individual’s way to understand stimulating.
or create meaning about a thing or experience. It is 2. Pre-Operational Stage (2 to 7 years): Children
like the mind has a filing cabinet and each drawer has begin to use symbols and engage in imaginative
folders that contains files of things he has had an play. Key concepts include:
experience with. For instance, if a child sees a dog for - Symbolic Function: Representing objects mentally
the first time, he creates his own schema of what a (e.g., using an empty glass as a pretend drink).
dog is. It has four legs and a tail. It barks. It’s furry. - Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing perspectives other
The child then “puts this description of a dog ‘on file’ than their own.
in his mind”. When he sees another similar looks at - Centration: Focusing on one aspect of a situation
the animal and says, “four legs, tail, barks, furry..... (e.g., height of a glass) while ignoring others.
That’s a dog!” - Irreversibility: Difficulty understanding that actions
can be reversed.
Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new - Animism: Attributing human traits to inanimate
experience into an existing or previously created objects.
 - Transductive Reasoning: Making connections 4. Accessible and obviously relevant to modern life
based on specific instances (e.g., if A happens, then B 5. Useful for teaching, parenting and self-awareness
must cause it). 6. Virtue; if a stage is balance or manage well
3. Concrete-Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): 7. If not, maldaptation (not quite bad, too much of
Logical thinking emerges but is tied to concrete positive, too little of negative; trust too much) and
objects. Key developments include: malignancy (worse of the two, too little of
- Decentering: Ability to consider multiple aspects of positive, too much of negative; can’t trust others)
a situation. is develop
- Reversibility: Understanding that actions can be
reversed (e.g., addition and subtraction). THE EIGHT PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF
- Conservation: Recognizing that certain properties DEVELOPMENT
remain unchanged despite appearance (e.g., volume Stage one: TRUST VS. MISTRUST (0-infancy)
of liquid). Maldaptation: sensory maladjustment
- Seriation: Ability to order items by a single Malignancy: withdrawal
dimension (e.g., size). Virtue: hope
4. Formal Operational Stage (12 to 15 years): Stage two: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT (
Abstract thinking develops. Key concepts include: Maldaptation: impulsiveness
- Hypothetical Reasoning: Ability to formulate and Malignancy: compulsiveness
test hypotheses. Virtue: willpower or determination
- Analogical Reasoning: Understanding relationships Stage three: INITIATIVE VS. GUILT (early childhood)
and applying them to different contexts. Maldaptation: ruthlessness
- Deductive Reasoning: Applying general rules to Malignancy: inhibition
specific instances to make logical conclusions. Virtue: courage
Stage four: INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY (school age)
From Piaget's findings and comprehensive theory, we Maldaptation: narrow virtuosity
can derive the following principles: Malignancy: inertia
1. Children will provide different explanations of Virtue: competency
reality at different stages of cognitive development. Stage five: IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing (adolescence)
activities or situations that engage learners and PSYCHOSOCIAL MORATORIAM- taking a little time out
require adaptation (i.e., assimilation and to know more about yourself
accommodation). Maldaptation: fanaticism
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the Malignancy: repudiation
appropriate level of motor mental operations for a Virtue: fidelity
child of given age; avoid asking students to perform Stage six: INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION (young
tasks that are beyond their current cognitive adulthood)
capabilities. Maldaptation: promiscuity – too intimate
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve Malignancy: exclusion
students and present challenges. Virtue: love
Stage seven: GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION
MODULE 7: ERIKSON’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY OF (middle adulthood)
DEVELOPMENT Maldaptation: overextension
Malignancy: rejectivity
Introduction to the 8 Stages: Virtue: care
1. Erikson’s ‘psychosocial’ term is derived from the Stage eight: INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR (late adulthood)
two source words namely psychological (or the Maldaptation: presumption- he alone, is right
root, ‘psycho’ relating to the mind, brain, Malignancy: disdain – very negative, hates life
personality, etc,) and social (external relationship Virtue: wisdom
and environment), both at the heart of Erikson’s
theory. Occasionally the term extended to MODULE 8: KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL
biopsychosocial, in which "bio" refers to life, as in DEVELOPMENT
biological.
2. Prison's theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Introduction
Freud. But Erikson extended the theory and Lawrence Kohlberg was interested in studying the
incorporated cultural and social aspects into development of moral reasoning. He based his theory
Freud's biological and sexually-oriented theory. on the findings of Piaget in studying cognitive
3. Psychosocial crisis development. Our ability to choose right from wrong
is tied with our ability to understand and reason MODULE 9: VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY
logically.
When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated
Kohlberg followed the development of moral under a teacher who used the Socratic method. This
judgment and extended the ages covered by Piaget, method was a systematic a question and answer
finding that the process of attaining moral maturity approach that allowed Vygotsky to examine current
took longer and occurred slower than Piaget had thinking and practice higher levels of understanding.
thought. If Piaget designed specific tasks (Piagetian This experience, together with his interest in
tasks) to learn about the cognitive development of literature and his work as a teacher, led him to
children, Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas (Kohlberg recognize social interaction and language as two
dilemmas). central factors in cognitive development. His theory
became known as the Socio-Cultural Theory of
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Development.
According to Kohlberg, moral development occurs in
six stages: Piaget and Vygotsky
Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time
Preconventional Level as Piaget in between the 1920's and 30's but they had
Moral reasoning is based on the consequence/result clear differences in their views about cognitive
of the act, not on the whether the act itself is good or development. Since Piaget was taken up already in
not. the preceding module, it would be easier now to see
how his views compare with Vygotsky's.
Stage 1: Punishment/Obedience
One is motivated by fear of punishment. He will act in Piaget Vygotsky
order to avoid punishment. More individual in focus More social in focus
Stage 2: Mutual Benefit Believed that there are Did not propose stages
One is motivated to act by the benefit that one may universal stages of but emphasized on
obtain later. You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours. cognitive development cultural factors in
cognitive development
Conventional Level Did not give much Stressed the role of
Moral reasoning is based on the conventions or emphasis on language language in cognitive
“norms” of society. This may include approval of development
others, law and order.
 Social interaction
Stage 3: Social Approval  Cultural Factors
One is motivated by what others expect in behavior -  Language
good boy, good girl. The person acts because he/she Talking-to-oneself is an indication of the
values how he/she will appear to others. He/she gives thinking that goes on in the mind of the child. This will
importance on what people will think or say. lead to Private Speech. Private speech is a form of
Stage 4: Law and Order self-talk that guides the child’s thinking and action.
One is motivated to act in order to uphold law and Children learn best through hands-on
order. The person will follow the law because it is the activities than listening passively. Learning by doing is
law. even made more fruitful when children interact with
MKO.
Post - conventional Level
Moral reasoning is based on enduring or consistent ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)
principles. It is not just recognizing the law, but the
principles behind the law. SCAFFOLDING
Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance given
Stage 5: Social Contract by the MKO to assist the learner accomplish task.
Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act
based on social justice and the common good. As learners become more proficient, they will be able
Stage 6: Universal Principles to accomplish the task without any need for
This is associated with the development of one’s assistance.
conscience. Having a set of standards that drives one When the MKO scaffolds, the process moves in four
to possess moral responsibility to make societal levels:
changes regardless of consequences to oneself. 1. I do, you watch 2.I do, you help
3. You do, I help 4. You do, I watch
MODULE 10: BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL According to the ecological system, “if the
THEORY relationship in the immediate microsystem break
down, the child will not have the tools to explore
Bronfenbrenner's model also known as the other parts of his environment. Children looking for
Bioecological Systems theory presents child the affirmations that should be present in the
development within the context or relationship child/parent (or child/other important adult)
systems that comprise the child's environment. It relationship look for attention in inappropriate places.
describes multipart layers of environment that has an These deficiencies show themselves especially in
effect on the development of the child. Each layer is adolescence as anti-social behavior, lack of self-
further made up of different structures. discipline, and inability to provide self-direction.”
The term "bioecological" points out that a child's own
biological make-up impacts as a key factor in one's Bronfenbrenner’s theory reminds the school and the
development. teachers of their very important role. This theory
Through the child's growing and developing body and helps teachers look into every child’s environmental
the interplay between his immediate system in order to understand more about the
family/community environment, and the societal characteristics and needs of each child, each learner.
landscape fuels and steers his development. Changes
or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout Bronfenbrenner believes that, “the primary
other layers. To study child's development then, we relationship needs to be with someone who can
must look not only at the child and her immediate provide a sense of caring that is meant to a last
environment, but also at the interaction of the larger lifetime. This relationship must be fostered by a
environment as well. person or people within the immediate sphere of the
child’s influence.”
Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model: Structure of
Environment Schools and teachers’ crucial role is not to replace the
lack in the home if such exists, but to work so that the
(Family, Church, School) school becomes an environment that welcomes and
The Microsystem is the layer nearest to the child. It nurtures families. Bronfenbrenner also stressed that
comprises structures which the child directly interacts society should value work done on behalf of children
with. at all levels, and consequently value parents, teachers,
extended family, mentors, work supervisors,
(extended family) legislators.
The Mesosystem serves as the connection between
the structures of the child’s microsystem.

(culture, subculture, social class)

The Exosystem refers to the bigger social system in
which the child does not function directly.

(Laws, values, costums)

The Macrosystem is found in the outermost part in
the child’s environment.

(time)
The Chronosystem covers the element of time as it
relates to a child’s environment.

The Role of Schools and Teachers

Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head Start, the publicly-
funded early childhood program in the US. He
concluded that “the instability and unpredictability of
family in life is the most destructive force to a child’s
development.”

Researchers tell us that absence or lock of children’s

constant mutual interaction with important adults has
negative effects on their development.