SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT : CAUSES EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

UNIT – 6
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT : CAUSES EFFECTS AND
CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE
Lesson Structure
6·0 Objective
6·1 Introduction
6·2 Impacts of Solid Waste on Environment and
Human Health
6·3 CAuses of Waste Generation and Sources of Solid Waste
6·4 Classification, Composition and Characteristics of Solid
Waste
6·5 Solid Waste Management-Functional Elements
6·6 Solid Waste Disposal Methods
6·7 Industrial Solid Waste Mangement
6·8 Summary
6·9 Questions for Exercise
6·10 Suggested Readings

6.1 Introduction, Definition and Meaning :

In our day.to-day life we encounter with variety of waste, whether it be solid waste, liquid
waste or gaseous waste. The urban settlements are locations of waste generation. One can feel the
gaseous pollutants on the urban streets and roads. These pollutants are mostly emitted by the vehicles.
The wastewater or sewerage network of a city carries the wastewater which is being generated by
household, commercial and industrial activities.
Solid waste is different from gaseous and liquid waste. As the name suggest these are solid in
nature. Based on the physical state the waste can be classified as solid, liquid and gas. It is easy to
identify the solid waste. Whenever we enter a city we can see heap of waste lying on the banks of
roads. These wastes emit foul smell and give filthy scene.
6.1.1 What is Solid Waste?
Waste is an unwanted substance at a particular place and time. Depending on their physical
state wastes are classified as solid wastes, liquid wastes and gaseous wastes.
Solid waste can be defined as non-liquid material that no longer has any value to the person
who is responsible for its generation. The words rubbish, garbage, trash or refuse are often used as
{205}
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT : CAUSES EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

synonyms when talking about solid waste. It is also defined as material that is cheaper to throw away
than to store or use. It is considered as unwanted material to be dumped out of the site. Solid wastes
are simply 'material at wrong place, which can be segregated, transformed, recycled and reused with
great financial and environmental benefits. Due to rapid increase in the production and consumption
processes, societies generate as well as reject solid materials regularly from various sectors—agricultural,
commercial, domestic, industrial and institutional. The considerable volume of wastes thus generated
and rejected is called solid wastes. In other words, solid wastes are the wastes arising from human and
animal activities that are normally solid and are discarded as useless or unwanted.
6.2 Impact of Solid Waste on Environment and Human Health :
Unless properly managed, the solid waste is a potential source of impact on soil, water, ground
water and air environment. The solid waste directly comes into the contact with the soil when the
waste is unscientifically dumped at any place. Water infiltrating through the waste causes generation
of leachate. The leachate ultimately gets percolated down the soil and contaminates the ground water.
The degradation of waste causes emission of gases like methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulphide. Gases like hydrogen sulphide is responsible for foul smell. Methane and Carbon dioxide
are the Greenhouse gases. The greenhouse gases are responsible for global warming. Solid waste
lying on the ground gets dumped in surface water sources when they are carried away by surface
runoff during the rains. The urban solid waste dumping in urban wetlands are responsible for the
death and damage of wetlands. The wind action on solid waste dump causes scattering of waste and
dust resulting in the ugly scene in the vicinity.
Volatile organic compounds and dioxins in air-emissions are attributed to increasing cancer
incidence and psychological stress for those living near incinerators or land disposal facilities. Drain
clogging due to uncollected wastes leading to stagnant waters and subsequent mosquito vector breeding
are a few of the environmental health issues, which affect the waste workers as well as the public.
The pneumonic plague that broke out in November 1994 in India (Surat, Gujarat) is a typical example
of solid waste mismanagement.
Gastrointestinal disorders, jaundice, diarrhoea, respiratory infection, dermal diseases are also
caused by the solid waste. The waste handlers are subject to injuries of solid waste such as sharp
object, glasses, chemically reactive substances present in the heap of waste at urban locations. The
biomedical waste originating from the hospitals and other health care establishments are infectious in
nature. Biomedical waste includes, human anatomical waste, waste sharps, microbiological waste,
discarded medicines etc. Biomedical waste are potential threats for HIV -AIDS, Hepatitis and other
disease if not handled and disposed off properly.
Due to the absence of standards and norms for handling municipal wastes, municipal workers
suffer occupational health hazards of waste handling. At the dumpsites in the city of Mumbai, for
example, 95 workers were examined and it was found that about 80% of them had eye problems,
73% respiratory ailments, 5 I % gastrointestinal ailments and 27% skin lesions. Also, municipal workers
and rag pickers who operate informally for long hours rummaging through waste also suffer from
similar occupational health diseases ranging from respiratory illnesses (from ingesting particulates
and bio-aerosols),infections (direct contact with contaminated material), puncture wounds (leading to
tetanus, hepatitis and HIV infection) to headaches and nausea, etc. Studies among the 180 rag pickers
at open dumps of Kolkata city reveal that average quarterly incidence of diarrhoea was 85%, fever
72% and cough and cold 63%.
{206}
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT : CAUSES EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

Following are the groups at risks due to solid waste

• Populations in areas where there is no proper waste treatment method.
• Children
• Waste workers
• Populations living close to waste dump
• Animals
The menace of Solid Waste
q Piles of Unattended Garbage on the roadside, mars scenic beauty
q Choked sewers, streams and rivers
q Stirk, flies, stray animals
q Diseases like cholera, jaundice, gastroenteritis
q Contamination of land
q Pollution of ground water
q Generation of GHGs
q Unscientific burning leads to emission of carcinogenic dioxin and nature
q Death of wetlands, the kidneys of nature

{207}
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT : CAUSES EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

6.3 Causes of Waste Generation and Sources of Solid Waste :

Waste generation encompasses those activities in which waste, be it solid or semi-solid
material, no longer has sufficient economic value for its possessor to retain it. The processing of
raw materials is the first stage when wastes are generated, and waste generation continues thereafter
at every step in the process as raw materials are converted into final products for consumption.
The simplified material-flow diagram indicating the path of generation of solid wastes is presented
in figure 2. The figure suggests that we can reduce the amount of solid waste by limiting the
consumption of raw materials and increasing the rate of recovery and reuse.
There needs to be, therefore, a societal change in the perception of wastes. This sounds simple.
But, implementing changes in the society is difficult, unless appropriate management solutions are
provided. The various factors responsible for increase in the amount of waste are as below
• Population growth
• Rate of consumption of resources
• Decrease in the life span of product /resource
• Urbanization and industrialization
• Change in the life style of communicty

Fig. 2 : Material flow and waste generation

{208}
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT : CAUSES EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

6.3.1 Sources of solid waste

Solid wastes are generated from various sources eg.
Residential areas - Single-family and multifamily dwellings. This category of wastes includes
all organic and inorganic refuse from residential areas. The organic component include food waste,
textile, plastic, rubber etc. The inorganic portion includes, metals, glass etc.
Commercial areas - Commercial areas include stores, restaurants, markets, office buildings,
hotels, motels, auto shops, etc. This category mostly include paper, plastics, glass, metal, food waste,
batteries, oil and paints etc.
Institutional–Institutional sources includes Schools, hospitals, prisons, government organisitions.
etc. The type of waste generated from these areas are paper, plastics, food waste, chemicals and
hazardous waste from laboratoiries etc.
Construction and demolition- The sources include new construction sites, road repair,
renovation sites etc. The types of wastes are concrete, cement, dirt, wood, plumbing material electrical
fittings etc.
Municipal services - These wastes are generated by operation and maintenance of the municipal
facilities. The types are street cleaning, landscaping, catch-basin cleaning, parks, recreation etc.
Treatment plant sites - The sources are Water, wastewater, industrial treatment processes.
Types of waste being produced from these areas are sludge, chemicals, outdated parts etc.
Industrial - The sources are small, medium and large industries including construction,
fabrication, light, and heavy manufacturing, refineries, chemical plants etc. waste produced are both
hazardous and non-hazardous substances.
Agricultural- The sources are field and raw crops, orchards, farm etc. The waste being
generated from these sources are harvest residues, waste grains and stalks etc.
Biomedical waste- The sources are hospitals, blood banks, pathology and veterinary hospitals
etc. The biomedical waste include human anatomical waste, waste sharps like needles, scalpels,
cytotoxic drugs, discarded medicines, bandages, swab and biotechnology waste etc.

Fig.-3 Sources of solid waste

{209}
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT : CAUSES EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

6·4 Classification, Composition and Characteristics of Solid Wastes :

6·4·1 Classification of Sold Waste :
Solid Waste can be classified on the basis of its source, methods available for the treatment and
their environmental effects.
Classification based on source : This classification is based on the area or place from where
the waste are being generated like residential, commercial, industrial, biomedical, agricultural etc.
Classification based on methods available for the treatment :
a. Biodegradable / Non Biodegradable : Biodegradable wastes mainly refer to
substances consisting of organic matter such as leftover food, vegetable and fruit peels, paper,
textile, wood, etc., generated from various household and industrial activities. Because of the
action of micro-organisms, these wastes are degraded from complex to simpler compounds.
Non biodegradable wastes consist of inorganic and recyclable materials such as plastic, glass,
cans, metals, etc.
b. Combustible / Non - Combustible : These consist of wastes generated from households,
institutions, commercial activities, etc., excluding food wastes and other highly putrescible material.
Typically, while combustible material consists of paper, cardboard, textile, rubber, garden trimmings,
etc., non-combustible material consists of such items as glass, crockery, tin and aluminium cans,
ferrous and non-ferrous material and dirt.
c. Recyclable / Non - recyclable : These consists of waste which can be recycled with use of
existing waste recycling practices. Waste like plastic, glass, metal and paper are recyclables materials.
Classification based on their environmental effects :
a. Inert / Reactive / Infectious : Inert waste are those which does not react at normal condition
and remains as it is for a longer duration like construction and demolition waste. Biomedical waste
which are generated from hospitals are highly infectious in comparison to other waste.
b. Hazardous/ Non Hazardous : Hazardous wastes are those defined as wastes of industrial,
institutional or consumer origin that are potentially dangerous either immediately or over a period of
time to human beings and the environment. This is due to their physical, chemical and biological or
radioactive characteristics like ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity. Note that in some cases,
the active agents may be liquid or gaseous hazardous wastes.
6.4.2 Composition of municipal Solid waste :
The composition of municipal solid waste is the term that describes the distribution of each
component of waste by its percent weight of the total. The information is required for the selection of
suitable treatment and disposal methods. For instance, MSW containing high percentage of
biodegradable wastes e.t., food wastes and yard wastes are suitable for composting. Similarly, if
recyclable materials like paper, plastic, cardboards, glass are presented in solid wates, these materials
should be recovered and recycled.
The composition of MSW has been studied extensively. The precise composition depends
upon the locality, season of the year, standard of living, landuse etc. Important constituents of
MSW generated in Indian cities are food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, rubber, textile, leather,
{210}
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT : CAUSES EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

yard wastes, wood, glass, tin, aluminium and other metals, and silt/dirt and construction and
demolition wastes.
The typical composition of Municipal Solid Waste in India is presented in table 1.
Table 1 - typical composition of municipal solid waste in India (Source: World Bank report)
Composition %
Year Biodegradables Paper Plastic Metal Glass Rags Other Inerts
rubber
1996 42.21 3.63 0.60 0.49 0.60 45.13
2005 47.43 8.13 9.22 0.50 1.01 4.49 4.016 25.16
Change + + + + + + + –
6.4.3 Characteristics of solid waste :
The physical, chemical and biological properties of municipal solid waste are important criteria
for designing waste collection, storage and transport facility, The solid waste characteristics are as
below:
Specific weight- It is defined as weight of solid waste per unit volume of the solid waste and
represented as Kg/m3. It is essential for the design of storage, transport and disposal facility.
Moisture Content- Moisture content of solid wastes is usually expressed as the weight of
moisture per unit weight of wet material.

Wet weight-dry weight

Moisture Content (%) - ×100
Wet weight
Particle Size and size distribution - Particle size distribution of municipal solid wastes is an
important parameter to be considered for material recovery, composting, incineration, landfilling etc.
Permeability–
The permeability or hydraulic conductivity of wastes is defined as the ease with which a fulid
can flow through the waste. It is an important parameter that governs the movement of liquids and
gases in the landfill. Permeability of municipal solid wastes is affected by the shape and size of wastes
compoents, porosity, and the amount of compaction applied to the wastes. Compacted wastes have
lower permeability.
6.5 Solid Waste Management-Functional Elements :
The activities associated with the management of municipal solid wastes from the point of
generation to final disposal can be grouped into the six functional elements:
l Waste generation - Waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified
as no longer being of value (in their present form) and are either thrown away or gathered
together for disposal.
l Waste handling and separation, storage, and processing at the source - The second of the
six functional elements in the solid waste management system is waste handling, sorting, storage,
and processing at the source. Waste handling and sorting involves the activities associated with
management of wastes until they are placed in storage containers for collection. Handling also
{211}
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT : CAUSES EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the point of collection. Sorting of waste
components is an important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at the source.
l Collection - The functional element of collection includes not only the gathering of solid
wastes and recyclable materials, but also the transport of these materials, after collection, to
the location where the collection vehicle is emptied.
l Transfer and transport-, The functional element of transfer and transport involves two
steps: (i) the transfer of wastes from the smaller collection vehicle to the larger transport
equipment and (ii) the subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distances, to a
processing or disposal site. The transfer usually takes place at a transfer station.
l Separation, processing amd transformation of solid waste - The recovery of sorted
materials, processing of solid waste and transformation of solid waste that occurs primarily
in locations away from the source of waste generation are encompassed by this functional
element. Sorting of commingled (mixed) wastes, usually occurs at a materials recovery
facility, transfer stations, combustion faciltties, and disposal sites. Sorting often includes the
separation of bulky items, separation of waste components by size using screens, manual
separation of waste components, and separation of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
l Disposal - The final functional element in the solid waste management system is disposal.
Today the disposal of wastes by landfilling or uncontrolled dumping is the ultimate fate of
all solid wastes, whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a
landfill site, residual materials from Materials Recovery Facilities (MRFs), residue from the
combustion of solid waste, rejects of composting, or other substances from various solid
waste-processing facilities.
6.6 Solid Waste Treatment and Disposal Methods :
6.6.1 Solid Waste Treatment Methods :
The following methods are used for the treatment of solid waste. The choice of the method
used for the purpose of treatment of solid waste depends on the waste characteristics, degree of
volume reduction desired, detoxification of solid waste and value addition to the waste such as to
prepare manure etc.
Incineration- It is controlled process of burning the waste in presence of oxygen. In this process
the waste is converted into gases and ash. The volume reduction achieved in this process is 80-90%.
The heat generated in the process of burning of gas can be used for electricity generation. This
process is carried out in a device named incinerator. The incinerator works in a temperature range of
800-1000 ºC. The obnoxious gases produced during the process of incineration are controlled by air
pollution control devices such as scrubbers or electrostatic precipitators.
Pyrolysis - It is a process of breaking down combustible material at high temperature in the
absence of oxygen.
Composting - Composting (from the Latin compositum, meaning mixture) refers to a biodegradation
(aerobic/ anaerobic) process of a mixture of substrates carried out by a microbial community composed of
various populations in aerobic conditions and in the solid state. It is an exothermic process, produces
energy in the form of heat, passes through a thermophilic phase preceded and followed by two mesophilic
phases with temporary release of phytotoxins (intermediary metabolites, ammonia, etc.). At the end of the
process, this phytotoxicity is completely overcome and the final product is beneficial to plant growth. The
final production is carbon dioxide, water, minerals, and stabilized organic matter (compost).
{212}
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT : CAUSES EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

Autoclaving - Autoclaving is a process of killing the microorganisms (sterilization) of solid

waste specially biomedical waste (waste generated from hospitals) at high pressure and temperature
in equipment known as autoclave.
6.6.2 Disposal of solid waste
Wastes Disposal : Wastes that can not be recycled or transformed need to be disposed off. Residues
from various wastes transformation processes also need final disposal. Long term options of wastes disposal
are: disposal on land, disposal deep below the earth surface and disposal at the ocean bottom.
Disposal on land is one of the oldest and most common methods. Disposal on scientifically
designed and engineered landfill sites is necessary to prevent ground water contamination and for the
protection of environment.
Disposal of solid waste in land fill
Wastes that can not be processed together with the residues need to be safely disposed off. The
long-term options of wastes disposal include disposal on land, disposal deep below earth’s surface
and disposal in ocean bottoms. Land disposal is the most widely used practice all over the world.
However, dumping of soilid wastes on land has serious environmental impacts. Most important, the
leachate through the waste infiltrates the soil contaminating the groundwater. Frequent outbreaks of
water borne diseases especially during the rainy season have been reported in developing countries.
Land disposal should therefore be carried out in a properly designed landfill i.e., an engineered landfill.
An engineered landfill is not a dump but is a waste dis.posal facility designed on scientific
principles to protect the envronment and public health.
Important terms relaed to land fill
l Landfilling is the term used to describe the process by which solid waste and solid waste
residuals are placed in a landfill.
l Secure landfills- Landfills for the disposal of hazardous wastes
l Uncontrolled land disposal sites or waste dumps - Those places where waste is dumped on
or into the ground in no organized manner
l Cell - used to describe the volume of material placed in a landfill during one operating
period, usually 1 day
l Daily cover- usually consists of 6 to 12 inch of native soil or alternative materials such as
compost, foundry sand etc that are applied to the working faces of the landfill at the end of
each operating period.
l Lift - a complete layer of cells over the active area of the landfill
l Landfill liners - materials (both natural and man-made) that are used to line the bottom area
and below-grade sides of a landfill (clay / geotextile)
l Final landfill cover - is applied over the entire landfill surface after-landfilling operations
are complete (compacted clay and/or geosynthetic material)
l leachate - the liquid that forms at the bottom of a landfill
l Landfill gas - Mixture of gases found within a landfill and escapes (CH 4 and CO2)
l Landfill closure - steps taken to close and secure a landfill site once the filling operation has
been completed.
{213}
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT : CAUSES EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

6·7 Industrial Solid Waste Managment :

Environmental pollution is the major problem associated with rapid industrialisation, urbnisation
and rise in living standard of people. For developing countries, industrialisation was must and still this
activity very much demands to build self reliant and uplifting nation’s economy. However,
industrialisation on the other hand has also caused serious problems relating to environmental pollution.
Therefore, waste seem to be a by-product of economic growth. This country like India can ill-afford
to losc them as sheer waste. On the other hand, with increasing demand for raw materials for industrial
production, the non-renewable resourccs arc dwindling day-by-day. Therefore, efforts are to be made
for controlling pollution arising out of the disposal of waste by conversion of these unwanted wastes
into utilisablc raw materials for various. beneficial uses. The problems relating to disposal of industrial
solid waste are associated with lack of infrastructural facilities and negligence of industries to take
proper safeguards. The large and mcdium industries located in identified (conforming) industrial
areas still have some arrangements to dispose solid waste. However, the problem persist with small
scalc industries. In number of citics and towns. small scale industries find it easy to dispose waste
here and there and it makes difficult for local bodies to collect such waste though it is not their
responsibility. In some cities industrial, residential and commercial areas are mixed and thus all waste
gets intermingled. Therefore, it become necessary that the local bodies along with State Pollution
Control Board (SPCB) work out requisite strategy for organising proper collection and disposal of
industrial solid waste.
Managcment of Industrial Solid Waste (ISW) is not the responsibility of local bodies. Industries
generating solid waste have to manage such waste by themselves and are required to seek authorisation
from respective State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) under relevant rules. However, through
joint efforts of SPCBs, local bodies and the industries, a mechanism could be evolved for bettcr
management.
6.7.1 Health consequences of poor industrial waste disposal :
Skin contact :Chemieals that cause dermatitis usually do so through direct contact with skin.
Some chemicals like corrosive acids can damage the skin by a single contact while others, like organic
solvent may cause damage by repeated exposure.
Inhalation : lnhalation is the most common source of workplace exposure to chemicals and
the most difficult to control. Air pollutant can directly damage respiratory tract or gets absorbed
through lung and cause system/systemic effects. An adult male breathes about 10 cubic meters of air
during a normal working day.
Ingestion : Ground water and sub soil water contamination from leachates from refuse dumps
and poorly managed landfill sites can result in ingestion of toxic chemicals by population groups who
live far away from the factory sites and decades after the garbage has been dumped.
6.7.2 Disposal of industrial solid waste :
Industrial waste. whilst presenting the same disposal problems as domestic waste, also contains
hazardous waste, thereby exacerbating the difficulties of disposal. Fortunately, the types of industrial
wastes generated in a municipal area of a developing country are such that there are not usually large
quantities of particularly hazardous wastes for disposal. In the past there has been little control over
the disposal of industrial wastes; indeed, it has only been during the last decade that even developed

{214}
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT : CAUSES EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

countries have brought in legislation to curb the uncontrolled and environmentally unacceptable
practices that were widesprcad. Without such legislation, disposal is almost always by uncontrolled
landfill at sites which often pose a threat of water pollution due to leachatcs.
6.7.3 Waste management approach for industrial solid waste :
Prevention- A Waste Minimisation Approach
Inventory Management and Improved Operations
• Inventorisation and tracing of all raw materials;
• Purchasing of fewer toxic and more non-toxic production materials;
• Implementation of employees' training and management feedback; and
• Improving material receiving, storage and handling practices,
Modification of Equipment
• Installation of equipment that produce minimal or no wastes ;
• Modification of equipment to enhance recovery or recycling options;
• Redesigning of equipment or production lines to produce less waste;
• Improving operating efficiency of equipment; and
• Maintaining strict preventive maintenance programme.
Production Process Changes
• Substitution of non-hazardous for hazardous raw materials;
• Segregation of wastes by type for recovery;
• Elimination of sources of leaks and spills;
• Separation of hazardous from non-hazardous wastes :
• Redesigning or reformulation for products to be less hazardous; and
• Optimisation of reactions and raw material use.
Recycling and Reuse
• Installation of closed-loop systems;
• Recycling off site for use; and
• Exchange of wastes.
6.8 Summary :
Solid waste can be defined as non-liquid material that no longer has any value to the person
who is responsible for it. The words rubbish, garbage, trash or refuse are often used as synonyms
when talking about solid waste. Unless properly managed, the solid waste is a potential source of
impact on soil, water, ground water and air environment. The degradation of waste causes emission
of gases like methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Gases like hydrogen sulphide are
responsible for foul smell. Methane and Carbon dioxide are the Greenhouse gases. The main cause of
increase in amount of solid waste is change in life style, urbanization, lack of scientific know how for
the collection and disposal of solid waste. The main sources of solid waste are residential areas,
commercial areas, industries and agricultural practices. Solid waste can be classified on the basis of its
source, methods available for the treatment and their environmental effects. The physical, chemical
{215}
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT : CAUSES EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

and biological properties of municipal solid waste are important criteria for designing waste collection,
transport, storage and transport facility. The six functional elements of waste management are Waste
generation, Waste handling and separation, storage and processing at the source, Collection, Separation,
processing, and transformation of solid waste and Disposal. The treatment of solid waste and disposal
methods include Incineration, Pyrolysis, Composting and Autoclaving. The scientific methods of
waste disposal are engineered landfill.
6.9 Questions for Exercise :
1. Explain various steps and functional elements of municipal solid waste management
2. What are the numerous sources of solid waste? Write with example.
3. Enumerate the various factors which are responsible for the increase in the amount of solid
waste.
4. What are the methods for solid waste treatment and disposal?
5. Discuss the impacts of solid waste on environment.
6. Write a note on solid waste classification.
7. Write a note on solid waste composition and characteristics.

4.10 Suggested Reading :

I. Khan, LH. & Ahsan, N. (2003) Textbook of solid wastes management,
CBS Publishers, New Delhi
II. Tchobanoglous, G. (2002) Handbook of solid waste management,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
III. Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management (2000)
Central Public Health and Environmental engineering Organization, Ministry of Urban
Development, Govt. of India.
L L L

{216}