Lec1- introduction to info.

System

System: is a set of elements or components that interact to accomplish goals

• Systems have inputs, processing mechanisms, outputs, and feedback.
• System processes the input to create the output.
Information: is a collection of facts.
• It can take many forms (text, numbers, images, audio clips, video clips).
• Information and data are two closely related terms often used interchangeably.
Information system (IS): is a set of interrelated components that collect (input),
manipulate & store(process), and disseminate (output) information, and provide a
feedback mechanism to meet an objective.
• Input: is the activity of gathering and capturing data.
• Processing: means converting or transforming this input into useful outputs
• Output: involves producing useful information, usually in the form of documents and
reports
• Feedback: is information from the system that is used to make changes to input or
processing activities
The characteristics of valuable information:
1. accessible: information should easily accessible by authorized users so they can
obtain it in the right format and at the right time.
2. accurate: accurate information is error free.
• In some cases, inaccurate information is generated because inaccurate data is
fed into the transformation process.
3. complete: complete information contains all the important facts, but not more facts
than are necessary.
4. economical: information should also be relatively economical to produce.
• Decision makers must always balance the value of information with the cost of
producing it.
5. Flexible: can be used for a variety of purposes.
6. Relevant: it is important to the decision maker.
7. Reliable: can be depended on.
• In many cases, the reliability of the information depends on the reliability of the
data-collection method (the source of the information).
8. Secure: Information should be secure from access by unauthorized users.
9. Simple: Information should be simple, not overly complex. Sophisticated and
detailed information might not be needed.
• too much information can cause information overload, whereby a decision maker
has too much information and is unable to determine what is really important.
10. Timely: Timely information is delivered when it is needed.
11. Verifiable: Information should be verifiable. This means that you can check it to
make sure it is correct.

1
Manual and Computerized Information Systems:
• An information system can be manual, for example paper-based, or computerized.
• Computer-based information system (CBIS): is a single set of hardware,
software, databases, telecommunications, people, and procedures that are configured
to collect, manipulate, store, and process data into information.
Hardware: consists of computer equipment used to perform input, processing, and output
activities
1. Input devices: include keyboards, mice and other pointing devices, automatic
scanning devices, and equipment that can read magnetic ink characters.
2. Processing devices: include computer chips that contain the central processing
unit and main memory.
3. Output devices: include computer screens and printers.

Software: consists of the computer programs that govern the operation of the computer.
1. System software: controls basic computer operations, including start-up, input
and output. (Microsoft Windows)
2. Applications software: allows you to accomplish specific tasks, including word
processing and drawing charts. (Microsoft Excel)
Database: is an organized collection of facts and information, typically consisting of two
or more related data files.
• An organization’s database can contain information on customers, employees,
inventory, competitors’ sales, online purchases, and much more.
Telecommunication: is the electronic transmission of signals for
communications, which enables organizations to carry out their processes and tasks
through computer networks
Networks: connect computers and equipment in a building, around the country, or
around the world to enable electronic communication
The Internet: is the world’s largest computer network, actually consisting of
thousands of interconnected networks, all freely exchanging information.
People: include users of the system and information systems personnel, including all
the people who manage, run, program, and maintain the system.
• People are the most important element in most computer-based information systems.
Procedures: include the strategies, policies, methods, and rules for using the CBIS,
including the operation, maintenance, and security of the computer.
• Good procedures can help companies take advantage of new opportunities and avoid
potential disasters
• Poorly developed and inadequately implemented procedures can cause people to
waste their time or result in inadequate responses to disasters

2
Business Information Systems:
• The most common types of information systems used in business organizations are
those designed for electronic and mobile commerce, transaction processing,
management information, and decision support.
• These systems help employees in organizations accomplish routine and special tasks.
• They are often integrated in one product and delivered by the same software package.
E-commerce: involves any business transaction executed electronically.
1. B2B (business-to-business): commerce between companies.
• represents the major volume of e-commerce, and its fastest- growing segment.
2. B2C (business-to-consumer): commerce between companies and consumers.
3. C2C (consumer-to-consumer): commerce between consumers and other
consumers.
M-commerce (mobile commerce): refers to transactions conducted anywhere, anytime.
• Relies on wireless communications that managers and corporations use to place
orders and conduct business with handheld computers, portable phones, laptop
computers connected to a network, and other mobile devices.
ERP system (enterprise resource planning): is a set of integrated programs that manage
the vital business operations for an entire multi-site, global organization
• The scope of an ERP system might vary from company to company.
• An ERP might do the job of some or all of the other types of Business Information
Systems (particularly TPS, MIS and DSS).
• They are used to schedule inventory purchases and the manufacturing process, so
that the right number of products are built at the right time, to meet customer
demand.
TSP (Transaction Processing Systems): is an organized collection of people, procedures,
software, databases, and devices used to record completed business transactions
• TPS is an operational system. Operational systems help organizations perform and
integrate important tasks, such as paying employees and suppliers, controlling
inventory, sending out invoices, and ordering supplies
• A transaction is any business-related exchange such as payments to employees,
sales to customers, or payments to suppliers (related to money).
MIS (management information system): is an organized collection of people, procedures,
software, databases, and devices that provides routine information to managers and
decision makers.
• focuses on operational efficiency.
• The output of a TPS is the input to a MIS. MIS typically provide standard reports
generated with data and information from the TPS.
DSS (decision Support System): is an organized collection of people, procedures,
software, databases, and devices that support problem-specific decision-making
• A human being is still in charge of making the decision, unlike in a system with
Artificial Intelligence.
• Decision support systems are used when the problem is complex and the
information needed to make the best decision is difficult to obtain and use.

3
Specialized Business Information Systems:
KMS (knowledge management systems): is an organized collection of people,
procedures, software, databases, and devices to create, store, share, and use the
organization’s knowledge and experience.
Artificial Intelligence: attempts to have the computer system take on the characteristics
of human intelligence.
Virtual reality: simulation of a real or imagined environment that can be experienced
visually in three dimensions.
Global Challenges in IS: changes in society as a result of increased international trade
and cultural exchange (often called globalization) has always had a big impact on
organizations and their information systems.
1. Cultural challenges: countries and regional areas have their own cultures. (for
example. McDonalds may find it difficult to establish other franchisee in other
continent like Asia due to preference of taste)
2. Language challenges (For example. companies must decide on choosing a
common language)
3. Time and distance challenges (For example. The products may have a delivery
time of days, weeks or even months to be received to other countries)
4. Infrastructure challenges: high-quality electricity and water might not be
available in certain parts of the world (for example. telephone services, Internet
connections, and skilled employees might be expensive or not readily available)
5. Currency challenges: the value of different currencies can vary significantly over
time, making international trade more difficult and complex.
6. Product and service challenges: traditional products that are physical or
tangible, such as a car or bicycle, can be difficult to deliver to the global market (For
example. it’s big and it will be difficult to transfer the item)
7. Technology transfer issues: most governments don’t allow certain military-
related equipment and systems to be sold to some countries. (For example. the
guns and weapons)
1. National laws: all countries have a set of laws that must be obeyed by citizens
and organizations operating in the country. Laws restricting how data enters or exits
a country are often called trans-border data- flow laws. (For example: alcohol)
• Keeping track of these laws and incorporating them into the procedures and
computer systems of multinational and transnational organizations can be very
difficult and time consuming, requiring expert legal advice.
8. Trade agreements: countries often enter into trade agreements with each other
(For example. India have a trade that they won’t sell something to Pakistan)
Principles:
1. The value of information is directly linked to how it helps decision
makers achieve the organization’s goals.
2. Computers and information systems are constantly making it possible
for organizations to improve the way they conduct business.
3. Knowing the potential impact of information systems and having the
ability to put this knowledge to work can result in a successful personal
career, organizations that reach their goals, and a society with a higher
quality of life.
4. System users, business managers, and information systems
professionals must work together to build a successful information
system.
5. Information systems must be applied thoughtfully and carefully so that
society, business, and industry can reap their enormous benefits.

4
 Lec2- Information Systems In Organizations

Organization: is a formal collection of people and other resources established to

accomplish a set of goals (through adding value or worth).
• Organization is a system, which means that it has inputs, processing mechanisms,
outputs, and feedback.
1. The input: resources (such as materials, people, and money).
2. The processing: transformation mechanism.
3. The output: are usually goods or services (which are of higher relative value than
the inputs alone).
The value chain: useful tool for analyzing where and how this value gets added. The
value chain is a series (chain) of activities that includes:
1. inbound logistics (receiving product)
2. warehouse and storage (place)
3. production ▪ Managing raw materials
(upstream management)
4. finished product storage (style)
5. outbound logistics (delivery) ▪ Managing finished products storage
(downstream management)
6. marketing and sales (advertise)
7. customer service (after sell)

• SCM & CRM are two key parts of managing the value chain
SCM (Supply chain management): helps determine what supplies are required for the
value chain, what quantities are needed, how they should be turned into finished products
and shipped to customers.
• it is accomplished using the Internet and B2B e-commerce increasingly.
CRM (customers relationship management): programs help a company manage all
aspects of customer encounters, including marketing and advertising, sales, customer
service after the sale, and help retain loyal customers.
Organizational structures: refers to organizational subunits and the way they relate to
each other.
• An organization’s structure depends on its approach to management, and can affect
how it views and uses information systems.
5
Types of organizational structures:
1. Traditional organizational structure: Hierarchy of decision making and
authority flows from the strategic management at the top, down to operational
management and non-management employees.
• Flat organizational structure: reduce the number of management levels, or layers, in
the traditional organizational structure. (today’s trend)

2. Project organizational structures: is centered on major products or services.

• Each major product has its own marketing, finance and production departments.
3. Team organizational structures: is centered on work teams or groups.
• Teams can be small or large, permanent, or temporary

4. Virtual organizational structure: is made up of individuals, teams, or complete

business units that work with other individuals, teams, or complete business units in
different geographic locations (the people might never meet physically)
• This almost always requires the use of the Internet (or other telecommunications) to
facilitate communication
Organizational change: Most organizations are constantly undergoing change, both
minor and major.
• The need for organizational change can come from new managers, staff leaving,
activities wrought by competitors or stockholders, new laws, natural occurrences
(such as a hurricane), and changes in general economic conditions.
• An new IS will cause change.

6
BPR (Process Redesign and Business Process Reengineering): involves the radical
redesign of business processes, organizational structures, information systems, and
values of the organization to achieve a success in business results.
Continuous improvement: involves constantly seeking ways to improve business
processes and add value to products and services. (to attract the customers)
Technology Acceptance:
1. Technology diffusion: is a measure of how widely technology is spread
throughout an organization. An organization in which computers and information
systems are located in most departments and areas has a high level of technology
diffusion.
2. Technology infusion: is the extent to which technology permeates an area or
department. In other words, it is a measure of how deeply embedded technology is
in an area of the organization.
Competitive advantage: the ability of a firm to outperform its industry, that is, to earn a
high rate of profit than the industry norm
• It can result from higher-quality products, better customer service, and lower costs.
• Often, a competitive advantage will depend on a carefully designed information
system.
Evaluating IS: once an information system has been implemented, management will
want to assess how successful it has been in achieving its goals.
• Often this is a difficult thing to do, and many businesses do not attempt to take
anything more than an informal approach to evaluation.
Some approaches to evaluating IS include:
1. Productivity: examine how output has changed since implementation.( a measure
of output achieved divided by input required)
2. Return on Investment: examine how profits have increased
3. Earnings Growth: another measure of profit increase
4. Market Share: examine the change in market share since implementation
5. Customer Awareness and Satisfaction: possibly qualitative measure of
satisfaction
6. Total Cost of Ownership: estimate the total cost of the IS breaking cost into
areas (such as the cost to acquire the technology, technical support, administrative
costs, and end-user operations).

7
Careers in Information Systems:
1. Operations: System operators primarily run and maintain IS equipment, and are
typically trained at technical schools or through on-the-job experience. They are
responsible for starting, stopping and correctly operating mainframe systems,
networks, back-up drives, disc devices, printers and so on.
2. Systems Development: The systems development component of a typical IS
department focuses on specific development projects and ongoing maintenance
and review.
3. Support: The support component of a typical IS department provides user
assistance in hardware and software acquisition and use, data administration, user
training and assistance, and web administration.
• Primary responsibilities in information systems: operations, systems development,
and support.
4. Systems analysts: help users determine what outputs they need from the system
and construct plans for developing the necessary programs that produce these
outputs.
5. Computer programmer: uses the plans the systems analyst created to develop
or adapt one or more computer programs that produce the desired outputs.
6. Database administrator: focuses on planning, policies and procedures
regarding the use of corporate data and information.
7. Web administration: is another key area for support staff.
8. Chief Information Officer: The role of the chief information officer (CIO) is to
employ an IS department’s equipment and personnel to help the organization attain
its goals.
9. LAN administrators: Local area network (LAN) administrators set up and
manage the network hardware, software and security processes.
10. Internet Careers: Web operations, Web development, and Web administration
11. System developers
12. Technical writing
13. User interface design
14. Database administration

Principles:
1. The use of information systems to add value to the organization is strongly
influenced by organizational structure, and the organization’s attitude and ability
to change.
2. Because information systems are so important, businesses need to be sure that
improvements to existing systems (or completely new systems) help lower
costs, increase profits, improve service, or achieve a competitive advantage
3. Cooperation between business managers and IS personnel is the key to
unlocking the potential of any new or modified system.

8
 Lec3- Hardware

• Each computer processes its input through one or more central processing units
and primary storage.
CPU consists of three associated elements:
1. The arithmetic / logic unit (ALU): performs mathematical calculations and
makes logical comparisons.
2. The control unit(CU): sequentially accesses program instructions, decodes
them, and coordinates the flow of data in and out of the ALU, registers, primary and
secondary storage, and various output devices.
3. Registers are high-speed storage areas used to temporarily hold small units of
program instructions and data immediately before, during, and after execution by
the CPU.

Hardware Components in Action:

1. The instruction phase:
• Step 1: fetch instruction
• Step 2: decode instruction
2. The execution phase:
• Step 3: execute instruction
• Step 4: store results
3. Instruction time (I-time)
4. Execution time (E-time)
Hardware components: central processing unit (CPU), input and output devices,
communications devices, primary storage devices, and secondary storage devices.
Storage: Primary storage:
• Primary storage or main memory provides the CPU with a working storage area for
program instructions and data
• The chief feature of it that it rapidly provides the data and instructions to the CPU
as it is closely associated with the CPU
• Main memory devices contain thousands of circuits imprinted on a silicon chip.
Each circuit is either conducting electrical current (on) or not (off), known as binary
digits, or bits
• Data is stored in memory as a combination of on or off circuit states, with each
character represented by 8 bits
• It holds the program instructions and data immediately before or after the registers.
9
Types of memory:
1. Random access memory (RAM): is temporary and volatile
• Static random-access memory (SRAM) used for high-speed registers and caches
• Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) used for main memory
2. Cache memory: a type of high-speed memory that a processor can access more
rapidly than main memory.

3. Read-only memory (ROM): is nonvolatile. It provides permanent storage for

data and instructions that do not change. (If the computer is off the data won’t
change or get lost).
Multiprocessing:
1. Multiprocessing: The simultaneous execution of two or more instructions at the
same time. (the computers can do more than one job at the same time)
2. Coprocessor: speeds processing. Executes specific types of instructions while
the CPU works on another processing activity. (for example the first CPU is an
antivirus, and the second CPU is the web and it’s working at the same time)
3. multicore microprocessor: combines two or more independent processors
into a single computer.

Computing:
1. Parallel computing: The simultaneous execution of the same task on multiple
processors to obtain results faster. (performing parallel tasks using more than one
computer)
2. Grid computing: a collection of computers working in a coordinated manner to
solve a common problem. (for example. a businessman has the ability to access an
entire network of computers in order to forecast the growth of particular stock).

Secondary storage: also called permanent storage, allows organizations to store

large amounts of data and instructions more permanently than main memory allows
• Compared with main memory, secondary storage offers the advantages of non-
volatility, greater capacity, and greater economy
• The amount of data that companies store digitally is increasing at a rate of close to
100 percent per year!

10
 Access Methods:
1. Sequential access:
• Data must be retrieved in the order in which it is stored
• Devices used are called sequential access storage devices (SASDs)
2. Direct access:
• Records can be retrieved in any order
• Devices used are called direct access storage devices (DASDs)

Secondary Storage Devices:

1. Magnetic tapes:
• Sequential secondary storage medium.
• Primarily for storing backups of critical organizational data.
2. Magnetic disks:
• Direct-access storage device.
3. Optical secondary storage devices:
• Compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM): Storage capacity is
740 MB
• Digital video disc (DVD): 6 x capacity of CD
• Blue-ray high-definition video disk: 3 x capacity of DVD
4. Solid State Drive (SSD):
• Store data in memory chips rather than magnetic or optical media
• Advantages: Have few moving parts, so they are less fragile
than hard disk drives.
• Disadvantages: High cost per GB of data storage, Lower
capacity compared to current hard drives(HD).

Enterprise storage options:

1. Attached storage: secondary storage devices attached to a single computer
2. Network-attached storage(NAS): storage devices that attach to a network
instead of to a single computer
3. Storage area network(SAN): similar to network-attached storage, except
there is a dedicated, special-purpose, high-speed network that provides direct
connections between data- storage devices and computers across the enterprise.

11
Data input: Input often requires transferring human-readable data, such as a sales
order, into the computer system

1. Human-readable: means data that people can read and understand.

2. Machine-readable data: can be understood and read by computer devices.
(such as a barcode)
• Getting data into the computer system is a two-stage process:
1. Data entry: human-readable data is converted into a machine-readable.
2. Data input: transferring the machine-readable data into the system.

Input devices:
1. Keyboard and mouse
2. Speech-recognition technology: enables a computer equipped with a
source of audio input such as a microphone to interpret human speech as an
means of providing data or instructions to the computer
3. Digital cameras
4. Scanning devices
5. Optical data readers: optical mark recognition (OMR) such as that used on a
multiple-choice exam to detect a mark on a page, and optical character recognition
(OCR) to ‘read’ handwritten (or typed) characters
6. Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)devices: used to read
‘magnetic ink’, found at the bottom of bank cheques
7. Point-of-sale devices: (for example. a bar code reader)
8. Automated teller machine (ATM) devices: special-purpose input/output
devices that bank customers use to perform withdrawals and other transactions with
their bank accounts
9. Pen Input Devices: data can be input by touching a screen with a pen input
device, on a tablet PC for instance
10. Touch-Sensitive Screens

Output devices:
1. Display Monitors: the display monitor is a device similar to a TV screen that
displays output from the computer
2. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs): LCD displays are flat displays that use
liquid crystals to form characters and graphic images on a backlit screen.
3. Printers and plotters: paper output remains one of the most
popular and useful forms of output
Printer: is a small printer that print small pictures
Plotter: is a big printer that print large pic
4. Digital audio player: an mp3 player, or iPod
5. Computer-based navigation systems: GPS systems are becoming more
popular with drivers
6. 3D printers are specialized output devices
7. E-book readers ( for example. kindal )

12
Types of computer system:
1. Handheld computer: also known as pocket PCs , or PDAs
these are extremely mobile, multi-function devices
2. Smart phone: when a handheld computer can also be used to
make phone calls, it is a smart phone (there is no agreed definition
on how smart a phone has to be, before it is classed as a smart
phone)
3. Portable Computers: laptops and tablet PCs
4. Thin Client: low cost, these have limited capabilities and perform
only essential applications, so they remain ‘thin’ in terms of the client
applications they include.
5. Desktop PC: the traditional view of what a computer looks like
6. Work station: more powerful than a Desktop PC , but essentially look
the same
7. Server: used by many users to perform a specific task, typically these
have large memory and storage capacities, along with fast and efficient
communications abilities.
8. Mainframe Computers: a large, powerful computer shared by
dozens or even hundreds of concurrent users connected to the
machine over a network (Many users are using the network at the
same time)
9. Supercomputers: the most powerful computers with the fastest
processing speed and highest performance, these are special-purpose
machines designed for applications that require extensive and rapid
computational capabilities.

13
 Lec4- Software

computer program: is a sequence of instructions for the computer

Software: consist of computer programs that control the workings of computer hardware.

1. System Software: controls the operations of computer hardware.

Supports the application programs’ problem- solving capabilities
1. Operating systems: Operating system (OS), is a set of programs that
controls the computer hardware and acts as an interface with
applications.
Functions of OS:
• Get input from the keyboard or another input device
• Retrieve data from disks
• Store data on disks
• Display information on a monitor or printer
• Provide a user interface.
User interface and input/output management:
• User interface: Allows individuals to access and command the
computer system
• Command-based user interface: Requires that text
commands be given to the computer to perform basic activities.
users types commands at a prompt
• Graphical user interface (GUI): user interface that uses icons
and menus displayed on screen to send commands to the
computer system
• Natural user interface: Allow people to use touch screens
• Memory Management: Allows computer to execute program
instructions effectively and to speed processing
• Processing Tasks:
Multitasking: More than one program can run at the same time
Time-sharing: Allows more than one person to use a computer
system at the same time
scalability: ability of the computer to handle an increasing
number of concurrent users smoothly
• Networking capability: Allows computers in a network to send
and receive data and share computing resources
• Access to system resources and security: Protection
against unauthorized access. OS establishes a logon procedure
• File management: Ensures that files in secondary storage are
available when needed and that they are protected from access by
unauthorized users
14
 Common Operating Systems:
• Microsoft Windows: Around 90% of all PCs run Microsoft
operating software, the various versions and editions of Windows
• Apple Computer Operating Systems: especially popular in
the fields of publishing, education, graphic arts, music, movies, and
media
• Linux (or ‘GNU Linux’) : Linux is open source software, which
means it is free and anyone can see program code (although most
users would not want to)
Workgroup Operating Systems:
• These support high end network usage, data-storage
requirements, and data-processing speeds.
• Windows Server
• UNIX
• NetWare
• Red Hat Linux
• Mac OS X Server
Enterprise Operating Systems:
• New mainframe computers provide the computing and storage
capacity to meet massive data processing requirements and offer
high performance and excellent system availability, strong security,
and scalability
• z/OS: an OS from IBM which makes it easier and less expensive
for users to run large mainframe computers
• MPE/iX, HP-UX, and Linux
Mobile Operating Systems:
• These OS are also called embedded operating systems because
they are typically embedded within a device – a phone, digital
camera, TV, etc.
• Palm OS
• Windows Embedded & Windows Mobile
• Android
2. Utility programs: Help perform maintenance or correct problems with a
computer system
• Hardware Utilities
• Virus-Detection and Recovery Utilities
• File-Compression Utilities
• Spam and Pop-Up Blocker Utilities
• Network and Internet Utilities: monitor hardware and network
performance and trigger an alert when a web server is crashing or a
network problem occurs
• Server and Mainframe Utilities

15
 3. Middleware: Middleware is software that allows different systems to
communicate and exchange data
• It can also be used as an interface between the Internet and older
legacy systems. (Legacy software is a previous, major version that
continues to be used)
• Middleware could be used to transfer a request for information from
a corporate customer on the corporate website to a traditional
database on a mainframe computer and return the results to the
customer on the Internet.
2. Application Software: people, workgroups, and the entire enterprise the ability
to solve problems and perform specific tasks
• When you need the computer to do something, you use one or more application
programs.
• Users are more concerned about application software than system software.
• A company can develop a one of a kind program for a specific application
• Proprietary software: one-of-a-kind program for a specific application, usually
developed and owned by a single company. It is not in the public domain you can’t
walk into a shop and buy it
• Alternatively, a company can purchase an existing software program called off the
shelf software because it can literally be purchased ‘off the shelf’ in a shop
• Off-the-shelf software: existing software program that is purchased. It is
cheaper and often more reliable than proprietary software, but it may not meet
company needs exactly.
Common applications:
• Word Processing
• Spreadsheet Analysis
• Database Applications
• Graphics Programs
• Software Suites and Integrated Software Packages
Software issues and trends:
• Most software products are protected by law using copyright or licensing provisions
• Open source software is freely available to anyone in a form that can be easily
modified
1. Software Bugs: Defect in a program that keeps it from performing as it should
Some tips for reducing impact of software bugs:
• Register all software
• Check read-me files for work-arounds
• Access support area of the manufacturer’s Website for patches
• Install latest software updates
2. Copyrights and Licenses: Most software products are protected by law using
copyright or licensing provisions:
• In some cases , you are given unlimited use of software on one or two computers
• In other cases , you pay for your usage ; if you use the software more, you pay
more

16
 Some software now requires that you register or activate it before it can be fully used
Software Licences:
1. Single-user licence: Permits you to install the software on one computer, or
sometimes two computers, used by one person.
2. multiuser licence: Specifies the number of users allowed to use the software and
can be installed on each user's computer.
3. Concurrent- user licence: Designed for network-distribute software, this licence
allows any number of users to use the software but only a specific number of users
to use it at the same time.
4. site licence: Permits the software to be used anywhere on a particular site.

Programming languages: allow humans to communicate instructions to be executed

by a computer.
Principles:
• Systems and application software are critical in helping individuals and
organizations achieve their goals
• Do not develop proprietary application software unless doing so will meet a
compelling business need that can provide a competitive advantage
• Choose a programming language whose functional characteristics are appropriate
for the task at hand, considering the skills and experience of the programming staff
• The software industry continues to undergo constant change; users need to be
aware of recent trends and issues to be effective in their business and personal life

17
 Lec5- Organizing and storing data

Database: the center of almost every information system.

Relational database: is a series of related tables, stored together with a minimum of
duplication to achieve consistent and controlled pool of data.
• The most common database is the relational database.
1. Tables: A relational database is made up of a
number of tables
2. Fields (attributes): Each record is made up
of a number of fields. are the specific items of
data stored about an entity (name, data of
birth, address, etc.)
3. Entity: each table stores the data about
someone or something of interest to the firm,
known as an entity.
4. Records: A table is made up of a number of
records. collects all the data about one specific
entity.
• Each record must be unique in some way.
Keys:
1. The primary key: is a field that is defined to be unique for each entity (ID)
• Primary keys are used to join tables: ‘Post’ a primary key into another table to join
the two.
2. Foreign key
Database design: (is also known as a data model or a database schema) It is a list of all
the tables in the database, along with all the fields, with any primary and foreign keys
identified.
One approach to database has 4 stages:
1. Identify all entities: Identify all entities you want to store data about.
2. Identify all relationships between entities
3. Identify all attributes (fields)
4. Resolve all relationships: deciding how to implement it.

Degree: The number of entities involved in a relationship.

Cardinality: In a relationship, cardinality is the number of one entity that can be
related to another entity.
Optionality: If binary relationship is optional for an entity.

18
 The six types of binary relationship:
1. One-to-one relationship, obligatory on both sides
2. One-to-one relationship, optional on one side
3. One-to-one relationship, optional on both sides
4. One-to-many relationship, many side obligatory to one side
5. One-to-many relationship, many side optional to one side
6. many-to-many relationship
Creating and modifying the database:
Data definition language (DDL): collection of instructions and commands
used to define and describe data and relationships in a specific database
• It allows the database’s creator to describe the data and relationships
that are to be contained in the schema
Data Dictionary: A detailed description of all the data used in the
database.
Database Output:
• After a database has been set up and loaded with data, it can produce
any desired reports, documents
• These outputs usually appear in screen displays or hard-copy printout.
• management reporting system: is a system that provides business information.
This information can be in the form of reports and/or statements.
Database Management System (DBMS): a group of programs used as an interface
between a database and application programs or a database and the user.
• Creating and implementing the right database system ensures that the database
will support both business activities and goals.
Database Administration (DBA): their role is to plan, design, create, operate, secure,
monitor, and maintain databases. They work with both users and programmers.
Data warehouse: database that collects business information from many sources in the
enterprise, covering all aspects of the company’s processes, products, and customers.
Data mining: information-analysis tool that involves the automated discovery of patterns
and relationships in a data warehouse. (data-mining tools help users find answers to
questions they haven’t thought to ask)
• There are a number of data mining tools and techniques
• Association rules algorithms are used to find associations between items in the
data.
Web mining: is the application of data mining techniques to discover patterns from the
World Wide Web.
Text mining: (also referred to as text data mining) roughly equivalent to text analytics, is
the process of deriving high-quality information from text.

19
Business intelligence (BI): process of gathering enough of the right information in a
timely manner and usable form and analyzing it to have a positive impact on business
strategy, tactics, or operations. (Turns data into useful information that is then distributed
throughout an enterprise)
Distributed database: database in which the data may be spread across several
smaller databases connected via telecommunications devices.
• Gives corporations more flexibility in how databases are organized and used.
Replicated database: database that holds a duplicate set of frequently used data.
Online Analytical Processing (OLAP): software that allows users to explore data
from a number of different perspectives
• OLAP supports data analysis and decision making and provides query driven data
analysis.
• Each aspect of information ( product, pricing, cost, region, time period) is different
dimension
Visual Database: Databases for storing images
Audio Database: Databases for storing sound
Virtual database systems: allow different databases to work together as a unified
database system.
Principles:
1. Data management and modelling are key aspects of organizing data and
information
2. A well-designed and well-managed database is central to almost all information
systems and is an extremely valuable tool in supporting decision- making
3. The number and type of database applications will continue to evolve and yield real
business benefits

20
 Lec6- Computer networks

Telecommunication: The electronic transmission of signals for communications.

Telecommunications medium: Any material substance that carries an electronic
signal to support communications between a sending and receiving device such as
telephone, radio, and television.
• Telecommunications impacts businesses greatly because it lessens the barriers
of time and distance
General model of telecommunications:
1. A sending unit (1) (such as a person, a computer
system, a terminal, or another device) sends the
message signal to a telecommunications device.
2. The telecommunications device (3) may
process the signal (2), such as convert it into a
different form or from one type to another. (from
analog to digital or digital to analog)
3. The telecommunications device then sends the
signal through a medium (4).
4. Another telecommunications device (5)
connected to the receiving computer (6)
receives the signal.
5. The process can be reversed, and the receiving unit
can send another message to the original sending
unit (1).
Communication can occur synchronously or asynchronously (both types of
communications are important in business):
1. synchronous communication: the receiver gets the message almost
instantaneously, when it is sent. (Examples. a phone call, and instant messaging
services such as MSN)
2. asynchronous communication: there is a measurable delay between the
sending and receiving of the message, sometimes hours or even days. (Examples.
sending a letter through the post office and e-mail)
Telecommunication Channels:
1. Simplex channel: transmits data in only one direction. (For example: radio, TV)
2. Half-duplex channel: transmits data in either direction but not simultaneously.
(For example: the Wakie talkie)
3. Full-duplex: channel permits data transmission in both directions at the same
time. (For example: the phone, telephone)
Channel bandwidth: refers to the rate at which data is exchanged, usually measured in
bits per second (bps). (The speed that messages are sent in )

21
Telecommunication media types:
1. Guided transmission: (using a solid medium)
• Twisted-pair wire
• Coaxial cable
• Fiber-optic cable
• Broadband over
• power lines

2. Wireless Transmission Media Types:

• Microwave Transmission: is a high-frequency (300 mhz–300 ghz) signal sent
through the air.

• Satellite Transmission: communications satellites are relay stations that

receive signals from one Earth station and rebroadcast them to another.

• 3G Wireless Communication: wireless communication for mobile devices has

evolved through four generations of technology and services.
• 4G Wireless Communication: broadband mobile wireless is delivering
enhanced versions of multimedia, smooth video streaming, universal access,
portability across all types of device and, eventually, worldwide roaming.
• Wifi: is a medium-range wireless option typically operating up to about 30 meters
around a single building

22
Telecommunications Hardware:
1. Modems: a device that converts (modulates and
demodulates) communications signals so they can be
transmitted over the communication media.
• Modulation: translating data from digital to
analogue.
• Demodulation: and translating data from
analogue to digital.
2. Multiplexer: a multiplexer is a device that encodes
data from two or more data sources onto a single
communications channel, thus reducing the number
of communications channels
3. Private Branch Exchange: is a telephone
switching exchange that serves a single organization.
It enables users to share a certain number of outside lines (trunk lines) to make
telephone calls to people outside the organization.
4. Bridge: A bridge connects one local area network (LAN) to another LAN that uses
the same telecommunications protocol.
5. Switch: a device containing ports to which all the devices on the network can
connect
6. Router: a telecommunications device that forwards data packets between computer
networks
7. Gateway: a telecommunications device that serves as an entrance to another
network
Networks and distributed processing:
Computer network: consists of communications media, devices, and software needed
to connect two or more computer systems or devices.
Network nodes: the computers and devices on the networks. Nodes can share data,
information, and processing jobs
• Organizations can use networks to share hardware, programs, and databases
• Networks enable geographically separated workgroups to share information, which
fosters teamwork, innovative ideas, and new business strategies
Network types:
1. Personal Area Network: supports the interconnection of information technology
close to one person (one room)
2. Local Area Network (LAN): connects computer systems and devices within a
small area (an office or a home, building)
3. Metropolitan Area Network: connects users and their devices in an area that
spans a campus or city.
4. Wide Area Network (WAN): connects large geographic regions.
5. International networks: Networks that link systems between countries are called
international networks.

23
Client/Server systems: in client/server architecture computers called servers are
dedicated to special functions.
• Each server is accessible by all computers on the network
• Servers can be computers of all sizes
Client: is any computer (often a user’s personal computer) that sends messages
requesting services from the servers on the network
The Internet: is the world’s largest computer network. It is a collection of interconnected
networks, all freely exchanging information.
The World Wide Web: (web, WWW, or W3) menu-based system that organizes Internet
resources into a series of menu pages, or screens, that appear on your computer.
• was developed as an internal document-management system. (management
system that hold millions of documents)
• It has grown to a collection of tens of thousands of independently owned computers
that work together as one in an internet service.
Web browser: is used to access and read Web pages which are usually written in
HyperText Markup Language (HTML).

(HTML): standard page description language for Web pages

Search engine: Web search tool
Web 2.0: (also called as Social Web) refers to World Wide Web websites that emphasize
user-generated content, usability, participatory culture and interoperability (this means that
a website can work well with other products, systems, and devices).
Web 2.0 Technologies:
1. Wikis: a website or database developed collaboratively by a community of
users, allowing any user to add and edit content. (In wiki anyone can edit the
constant so it’s not reliable)
2. Tags: It provide a useful way to group related posts together and to quickly
tell readers what a post is about. (#)
3. Blogs: A blog is a discussion or informational website published on the
World Wide Web. (It’s controlled by a person so if I want to edit I have to get
the permission from the user so it’s more reliable)
4. Netcast: A broadcast transmitted over the Internet. (Netflix)
5. Self-Publishing: It is the publication of media by its author without the
involvement of an established publisher.
6. Social Networking: the use of dedicated websites and applications to
interact with other users, or to find people with similar interests to one's own.
7. Viral Marketing: a method of marketing whereby consumers are
encouraged to share information about a company's goods or services via
the Internet.
8. Crowd sourcing: obtain (information or input into a particular task or
project) by getting the services of a large number of people, either paid or
unpaid, typically via the Internet.

24
 1. Intranet: an intranet is an internal company network built using Internet and World
Wide Web standards and products.
2. Extranet: When selected externals (such as supplies, customers, business
partners) are given access to the intranet, it becomes an extranet.
Principles:
1. Effective communications are essential to organizational success
2. Communications technology lets more people send and receive all forms of
information over great distances
3. The Internet is like many other technologies – it provides a wide range of services,
some of which are effective and practical for use today, others are still evolving, and
still others will fade away from lack of use
4. Because the Internet and the World Wide Web are becoming more universally used
and accepted for business use, management, service and speed, privacy, and
security issues must continually be addressed and resolved

‫بالتوفيق‬
Telegram: @VVATEEN

25