REBILITATION OF R.C.

C STRUCTURES

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL:
Cement concrete is one of the most important construction materials and it has end up being
practically basic to the present development. Concrete is strong enough mechanically, yet it is
vulnerable to deterioration and thus gets damaged and even fails. This deterioration of the
structures may be due to the weathering action, fire, soil failure, defects in construction and
also due to natural calamities like flood, tsunami, earthquake etc. Sometimes, even engineers
do not realize that the reinforced concrete structures require periodic maintenance. That’s why
the factors important for durability of concrete structures many times not given due importance
for construction and maintenance. Due to these reasons, some measures are adopted to reduce the
effect of deterioration which greatly enhances the durability of structures. According to the
consideration of time and money, repair of the damaged part of structure is the most favourite.
Repair is the technical aspect of rehabilitation which refers to the modification of a structure
partly or wholly which is damaged in appearance or serviceability. Repair and rehabilitation
extended the life time of concrete structure so there is no issue for spending the billions on the
repair of concrete structures. Repair of deteriorated structures having situations or conditions
which are totally different from those encountered in new construction, although every repair
have unique conditions and special requirements. Hence, it is important to select more
appropriate repair material for particular type of deterioration. Structure repair and
rehabilitating is a technique by which the probability of the existing structure can be enhanced
so that it will survive for a long period of time. This can be accomplished through the addition
of new structural elements, the strengthening of existing structural elements and/or the addition
of base isolators. Repair and rehabilitation for concrete structures can be classified broadly into
two categories:

1. Repair in which damages due to deterioration and cracking is corrected to restore the
original structural shape and size while the core is mostly intact
2. Repair which is necessary to strengthen the load carrying capacity of members which
have become structurally deficient over a period of time.

[1]
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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

require repair to regain strength, durability and stability as it was before. The new technologies
and new repair materials which have been extensively being used by the advanced countries
are also being tried in developed country like India. Many construction materials are being used
for the repair of existing structures so in this paper, different repair materials which are used
for the purpose of regaining the strength of structures have been discussed. It also highlights
the various methods used for repair and rehabilitation of structures.

Repair and Rehabilitation is an Art of Civil Engineering work which enables to extend the
service life of a structure. Repair and Rehabilitation is defined as the process of achieving the
original state of structure when it undergoes any sort of defects or deterioration or destruction.
Restoration of structure is an ultimate aim of Repair and Rehabilitation where it plays a major
role by maximizing the functional utility of the structure. Repair and Rehabilitation technique
is also used to modify a structure to meet new functional and other requirements. Many
structures may need Repair and Rehabilitation for one of the following reasons:

1. Deterioration due to Environment effect.

2. New functional or loading requirements entering modifications to a structure
3. Damage due to accidents

Repair and Rehabilitation includes several systematic approaches that are lined up with various
strategies to promote a desired level in attaining maximum life of the structure. Generally, life
of a structure depends on geography of location, Building material, Technology and
Workmanship. Geography of location includes various aspects such as type of strata, water
table, earthquake or wind or cyclone or flood or snow, pollutant, landslide and tree location
with respect to building. Building materials includes cement, lime, fine sand, coarse sand,
quality of water, bamboo or wood, brick. Technology includes various aspects such as
architectural design, construction methods, and quality practices. One of the major work
includes various aspects such as structural work, finishing work, waterproofing work,
maintenance of building. The basic process flow employed in Repair and Rehabilitation
includes identification of the building that should be rehabilitated, history of the building,
preliminary survey which includes preliminary tests that are performed, identification of
problems, and suitable solution for the problem which should be feasible to the building
topography conditions.

1. Selection building or model creation

2. Data collection

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3. Identification problem
4. Selection of suitable solution for problem

Fig;1: cracks

some of the use full information may be obtained from this pictures of damaged structure, like
nature of distress, type of distress, extent damage and its classification etc, their causes
preparing and documenting the damages, collecting the samples for laboratory testing and
analysis, planning for in situ testing, special environmental effects which have not been
considered at the design stage and information on the loads acting on the existing structure at
the time of damage may be, obtained. To stop further damages, preventive measure necessary
may be planned which may warrent urgent execution.

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

1.1.1 FINEAGGREGATE

The fine aggregate used was locally available river sand without any organic impurities and
conforming to IS: 383 – 1970. The fine aggregate was tested for its physical requirements such
as gradation, fineness modulus, specific gravity and bulk density. A concrete can be made from
sand consisting of rounded grains as good as form that in which the grains or granular.

1.1.2 CEMENT:

A building material that is a powder made of a mixture of calcined limestone and clay; used
with water and sand or gravel to make concrete and mortar. types: Portland cement, hydraulic
cement. a cement that hardens under water; made by heating limestone and clay in a kiln and
pulverizing. A cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens,
and adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but
rather to bind sand and gravel together. Cement of 53 grades is used for experimental work.
Initial and final setting time of the cement was 30 minutes and 600 minutes.

1.1.3 WATER:

Water is an important ingredient of concrete as it activity participates in the chemical

reaction with cement and potable water available in laboratory with pH value of not less than
6.5 and not more than8.5, conforming to the requirement of IS 456 2000 were used for
mixing concrete and curing the specimen. The water which is fit for drinking should be used
for making concrete.

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1.2 Structural Failure:

1.2.1 Site Selection and Site Development Errors: Failures often result from unwise land use or

site selection decisions. Certain sites are more vulnerable to failure. The most obvious examples are

sites located in regions of significant seismic activity, in coastal regions, or in flood plains. Other

sites pose problems related to specific soil conditions such as expansive soils or permafrost in cold

regions.

1.2.2 Design Errors: These failures include errors in concept; lack of structural redundancy;

failure to consider a load or combination of loads; deficient connection details; calculation errors;

misuse of computer software; detailing problems including selection of incompatible materials,

failure to consider maintenance requirements and durability; inadequate or inconsistent

specifications for materials or expected quality of work and unclear communication of design

intent.

1.2.3 Construction Errors: Such errors may involve excavation and equipment accidents;

improper sequencing; inadequate temporary support; excessive construction loads; premature

removal of shoring or formwork; and nonconformance to design intent.

1.2.4 Material Deficiencies: While it is true that most problems with materials are the result of

human errors involving a lack of understanding about materials, there are failures that can be

attributed to unexpected inconsistencies in materials.

1.2.5 Operational Errors: Failures can occur after occupancy of a facility as the result of

owner/operator errors. These may include alterations made to the structure, change in use,

negligent overloading and inadequate maintenance.

1.3 Structural Problems:

1. Deteriorated Pointing affects many old houses. Mortar starts to disintegrate between the
bricks, which can cause the entire wall to collapse, or single bricks to crumble.
Dirty or stained brickwork can be caused by moisture, time, dirt along with rain or sprinklers.

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

2. Efflorescence results from bricks getting wet, which leaves deposits of salts that are drawn
out of the masonry as the moisture evaporates the brickwork and find the source of the

moisture.

3. Spalled brickwork is also common. Once bricks have been wet, the expansion of freezing

water breaks off the top surface of the brick, leaving the inner surface exposed. After a

time, most of these bricks will crumble completely.

1.4 Non-Structural Problems:

Plaster is pretty tough stuff, but like any wall, it's going to get banged or gouged, and age will
take it's toll.

1.Impact Damage can be serious problem in an old house. Over the years, the walls are going
to get banged and dented. Generally we have to replace the plaster 6-12" from the visible hole
to reach plaster that is still keyed to the lath tightly.
2.Nearly every wall has a few nail holes. These can usually be fixed with a tiny bit of spackle
applied with the finger. Not perfect, but they will be unnoticeable when the wall is painted.
3.Water is the enemy of plaster. Brownish stains on the walls or ceilings are evidence for
bowing out of plaster. Water-damaged plaster can be very friable.

4.Old walls and old houses often have cracks. Stress cracks are a sign of possible structural
shifting, extreme temperature changes, incorrect plaster mix, improper curing or leaks.
Diagonal cracks over doorways signal settlement, or a nearby source of vibration, such as a
highway or railroad.

5.Bulging plaster is an indication that the plaster keys have broken off and allowed the plaster
layers to separate from the lathe behind them. Bulging can be repaired with plaster washers.
Structural Audit forms a preliminary step towards rehabilitation of buildings. Health
assessment/structural Audit of any existing structure, do determine whether its functionality is
as per desired and acceptable. It ensures the existing structure is thoroughly inspected as per
relevant codes, techniques and the serviceability of the structure is judged based on it. It is an
activity where actual data related to civil structures is observed, measured, registered and
conclusions are drawn. This is performed through all times by responsible designers,
contractors and owners with almost identical objectives to check that the existing structures
behave as intended. The Audit helps to understand critical areas to repair and enhance life cycle
of building by suggesting preventive and corrective measures like repairs and retrofitting. As
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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

per the Cooperative Housing Societies Bye-laws, structural Audit is also mandatory in India. It
has to be performed once in 5 years for buildings aging between 15 to 30 years and every 3
years for buildings having age above 30 years. Non destructive tests which do not alter the
original properties of the structural members are performed on the structure. The information
on these tests is available in A.C.I. 228, IS 13311 (Part 1 & Part 2)1992.
The engineering which involves in modifying the existing buildings for structural behavior
without hampering its basic intent of use is termed as retrofitting. It becomes necessary to
improve the performance of structures including those facing loss of strength due to
deterioration or which have crossed their anticipated lifespan. The realization of retrofitting
depends on the authentic cause and measures adopted to prevent its further deterioration. This
development includes repair, retrofit, renovation and reconstruction wherever required.

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

CHAPTER-2

SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE

To recognize the types of structural defects:

1. To identify any signs of material deterioration.

2. To identify any signs of structural distress and deformation.

3. To identify any alteration and addition in the structure, misuse this may result in over
loading.

4. To identify any signs of material deterioration.

5. To identify any signs of structural distress and deformation.

6. To identify any alteration and addition in the structure.

7. Remedies for the restoration of the structure.

8. To fill wide cracks using some suitable material.

9. Injecting epoxy like material into cracks in walls, columns, beams.

10. Removal of damaged portion of masonry and reconstructing it using rich mortar mix.

11. Addition of reinforcing mesh on both sides of walls.

Common objectives are as follows –

1) Patching up defects such as cracks and fall of plaster.

2) Repairing doors, windows, replacement of glass panels.
3) Checking and repairing electrical wiring.
4) Checking and repairing gas pipes, water pipes & plumbing services.
5) Re-building structural walls, disturbed roof tiles etc.
6) Relaying cracked flooring

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

7) To fill wide cracks using some suitable material.

8) Injecting epoxy like material into cracks in walls, columns, beams.
9) Removal of damaged portion of masonry and reconstructing it using rich mortar mix.

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

CHAPTER-3
REVIEWS OF LITERATURE

Wael W. El-Dakhakhni1, Ahmad A. Hamid and Mohamed Elgaaly, 13th

August 1-6, 2004:
In engineered masonry FRP walls supply the compressive strength stabilizing out-of-plane
buckling, confine in-plane tensile failure, and increase load carrying capacity, more energy
dissipation, apparent post peak strength, minimize the anisotropic behaviour due to joints.

Stephen P. Leatherman, Arindam Gan Chowdhury, and Carolyn J. Robertson

2007:
Experimenting with such full-scale destructive testing, performance-based evaluation, and
failure-mode analysis, innovative mitigation techniques will be developed. Wall of Wind
experimentation has the potential for revolutionizing our building and retrofitting practices.

J Rehabil Med 2008 Nov:

Any type of rehabilitation may have an effect at an early stage of decreased work ability, being
ineffective later on if applied as the only mode of rehabilitation. Where chronic disability is
already present, multimodal medical rehabilitation needs to be combined with vocational
rehabilitation in order to reduce absenteeism and disability pensions. It is essential that the
workplace is integrated into rehabilitation.

Joseph M. Barcci Sashi K Kunnath JSE Jan.1997:

Using ADRS format, comparison of various proposed seismic retrofitting schemes can be done,
as in this case study, for relative improvement in strength and deformation demands and
capacities of original and modified structure. one can ascertain the best suitable method for
adoption.

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

Rajandre Desai, Rupal Desai1992

The use of Socio-Eco friendly pattern and materials, in the construction of these houses, is evolution
based on wisdom and experience of centuries of respective areas, not only in Kachchh but all over
the country. Most of the material used in construction of traditional buildings are more economical,
easily recyclable and produces no or less pollution. The day in and day out, use of cement and steel
is skyrocketing, leading to very high rate of exploration, which will generate a situation, of scarcity
of the recourses, in the coming decades, in our country. Authors therefore are calling for the attention
of, researchers and designers and suggest that it is the need of the hour to develop a methodology
which will upgrade the traditional methods to comply seismic resistivity specifications.

Fatemi Amir Abbas, Tabriziem Zahara, Ghodvati G.Amiri, Hossein M.Ali Beigi,
IJESE (Oct.2011):

selection of method of retrofitting depends on:

1.Cost that would generate due to delay of traffic during execution of work.
2.simplicity of method of application.
3. Classification of damages and relative retrofittingmethod is essential to arrive at appropriate design.
Gaba Harpreet, Singh S.P:

In designing the structure load path is predetermined. Any departure, at any point of time in the life
of structure, will create damages in the structure. To prevent arising of such situation and for the
safety of structure and occupants it is essential to keep on monitoring the 'Health ofthe structure and
retrofit as, when and where it is essential.

Iacobucci D. Richard, Shsikh A. Shamim and Bayrak Oguzhan (AIC Structural

Journal/Nov 2003):

CFRP jacketing has ease of installation, can increase ductility and energy dissipation capacity,
improve seismic resistance, shear and moment capacities. For higher axial load larger amount of
CFRP required.

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

CHAPTER-4

TESTS ON R.C.C MEMBERS

4.1 REBOUND HAMMER TEST:

Rebound Hammer test is a Non-destructive testing method of concrete which provide a convenient and rapid
indication of the compressive strength of the concrete. The rebound hammer is also called as Schmidt hammer
that consist of a spring controlled mass that slides on a plunger within a tubular housing.

4.1.1 Objective of Rebound Hammer Test:

1) To determine the compressive strength of the concrete by relating the reboundindex. and the
compressive strength.
2) To assess the uniformity of the concrete.
3) To assess the quality of the concrete based on the standard specifications.
4)To relate one concrete element with other in terms of quality

4.1.2 Principle of Rebound Hammer Test:

Rebound hammer test method is based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass
depends on the hardness of the concrete surface against which the mass strikes. When the
plunger of rebound hammer is pressed against the concrete surface, the spring controlled mass
in the hammer rebounds. The amount of rebound of the mass depends on the hardness of
concrete surface. Thus, the hardness of concrete and rebound hammer reading can be correlated
with compressive strength of concrete. The rebound value is read off along a graduated scale
and is designated as the rebound number or rebound index. The compressive strength can be
read directly from the graph provided on the body of the hammer.

4.1.3 Procedure for Rebound Hammer Test:

The rebound hammer is held at right angles to the surface of the concrete structure for taking
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the readings. The test thus can be conducted horizontally on vertical surface and vertically
upwards or downwards on horizontal surfaces. If the rebound hammer is held at intermediate
angle, the rebound number will be different for the same concrete.

Apparatus is easy to use. Determines uniformity properties of the surface. The equipment used
is inexpensive Used for the rehabilitation of old monuments

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Fig;4.1: rebound hammer

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4.2 ULTRASONIC PLUS VELOCITY:

The UPV Test measures the time of travel of an ultrasonic pulse passing through the concrete.
The high UPV Test and lower time of travel indicate good quality of concrete in terms of
density, uniformity, homogeneity, etc. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test is performed on concrete
to assess the quality of concrete by passing ultrasonic pulse velocity.

4.2.1 Objectives of UPV Test:

The ultrasonic pulse velocity test is used to measure the following parameters;

1. The concrete homogeneity,

2. The availability of cracks, voids, and other imperfections,
3. Structural changes of concrete which may occur with time,
4. To assess concrete quality,
5. To compare the quality of one member of concrete with another,
6. To measure the value of the dynamic modulus of
7. elasticity.

4.2.2 Principle of UPV Test:

The ultrasonic pulse is generated by an electro-acoustical transducer. When the pulse is induced
into the concrete from a transducer, it undergoes multiple reflections at the boundariesof the
different material phases within the concrete.
A series of ways are induced in concrete which includes longitudinal (compression), shear
(transverse), and surface (Rayleigh) waves. The transducer placed on another side detects
fasted longitudinal waves.
The velocity of ultrasonic pulse primly depends on the shape, size, and geometry of concrete
material through which they pass and depends only on its elastic properties. This method is
suitable for assessing the structural properties of concrete.
As per the ultrasonic pulse velocity principle when concrete quality is good in terms of density,
homogeneity, and uniformity, it comparatively obtains higher velocity in concrete. On
another hand, if the concrete quality is poor, the velocity obtained is lower.

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In case, if the concrete has cracked, voids inside, the strength of pulse velocity is reduced and it
passes around discontinuity, thereby following the longer path for travel Consequently, lower
velocities are obtained.

The velocity of the pulse depends on concrete material or mix proportion. Aggregate density
and modulus of elasticity also had a significant effect on the velocity of the pulse.

4.2.3 Apparatus:

The Instruments and devices used for the ultrasonic pulse velocity test:

1. Electrical pulse generator

2. Transducer – one pair
3. Amplifier
4. Electronic timing device

Fig;4.2 ultrasonic sonic pulse velocity

4.2.4 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test Procedure:

During the test, the transducer held in contact with one surface of concrete and it traverse a
known path length Q in the concrete, and then an electrical signal passed the secondtransducer
held in contact with the other surface of the concrete member, and the transit time
(T) of the pulse to be measured.

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The pulse velocity (V) is given by:

V = L/T

Once the path is discovered by the transducer the pulse velocity is transmitted at a right angle
to the surface of the concrete to get the best result.

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TEST ON R.C.C MATERIALS

4.3 FINEAGGREGATE:

The fine aggregate used was locally available river sand without any organic impurities and
conforming to IS: 383 – 1970. The fine aggregate was tested for its physical requirements such
as gradation, fineness modulus, specific gravity and bulk density. A concrete can be made from
sand consisting of rounded grains as good as form that in which the grains or granular.

4.3.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS FOR FINE AGGREGATE

Sieve analysis for fine aggregate test help to determine the fineness modulus and grain size
distribution of fine aggregates. The sieve analysis of fine aggregate indicates the size
distribution of fine aggregate particles in a given fine aggregate sample.

Test Apparatus:

Sieve analysis for fine aggregate requires the following test apparatus:

1. I.S. Sieve (size 10mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 microns, 300 microns and
150 microns with lid and pan)
2. Oven
3. Balance 0.01 g accuracy
4. Tray
5. Brush
6. Mechanical sieve shaker

Procedure:

1) Take 1 kg of representative sample out of 10 kilograms with the help of the quartering
method.
2) Arrange the sieve set in such a manner so that the largest size sieve should be at the
topmost and the smallest one at the bottom (10mm sieve at the top and all other sizes
of sieves are arranged in decreasing manner. i.e., 4.75mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18mm, 600 µm,
300 µm, 150 µm), and below 150µm sieve, a pan is fixed.
3) After putting 1kg of the sample into the topmost sieve, close the lid, and then the whole
sieve set is arranged in a sieve shaker.

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4) Sieve analysis for fine aggregate is carried out by sieving the sample aggregate in a
sieve shaker for not less than l0 minutes.
5) At the end of sieving, find the mass of fine aggregate material retained on each sieve

Fig;4.3: sand sieve process

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4.3.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY FOR FINE AGGREGATES:

Specific gravity of fine aggregate (sand) is the ratio of the weight of given volume of
aggregates to the weight of equal volume of water.

Apparatus for Specific Gravity Test:

1) A balance of capacity not less than 3kg readable and accurate to 0.5 gm andof such a
type as to permit the weighing of the vessel containing the aggregateand water.
2) A well ventilated oven to maintain a temperature of 100ºC to 110ºC
3) Pycnometer of about 1litre capacity having a metal conical screw top with a 6mm
hole at its apex. The screw top shall be water tight.
4) A means supplying a current warm air.
5) A tray of area not less than 32cm².
6) An airtight container large enough to take the sample.
7) Filter papers and funnel.

Fig;4.4: picnometer

Procedure of Test

7. Take about 500g of sample and place it in the pycnometer.

8. Pour distilled water into it until it is full.
9. Eliminate the entrapped air by rotating the pycnometer on its side, the hole in the
apex of the cone being covered with a finger.
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10. wipe out the outer surface of pycnometer and weigh it (W)
11. Transfer the contents of the pycnometer into a tray, care being taken to ensure that
all the aggregate is transferred.
12. Refill the pycnometer with distilled water to the same level.
13. Find out the weight (W1)
14. Drain water from the sample through a filter paper.
15. Place the sample in oven in a tray at a temperature of 100ºC to 110º C for 24±0.5
hours, during which period, it is stirred occasionally to facilitate drying.
16. Cool the sample and weigh it (W2)

Fig;4.5: specific gravity test

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4.3.3 BULK DENSITY FOR FINE AGGREGATES:

Bulking of fine aggregate or sand is the phenomenon of increase in sand volume
due to the increase of moisture content.

Excessive presence of moisture content in the sand makes concrete to less durable and
lose its strength. Remember, excessive presence of moisture content increase the workability
of concrete but loses its strength.

Apparatus:

1. 250ml measuring cylinder

2. Fine aggregate

Procedure

1. Pour the sand into 250 ml measuring cylinder up to the 200 ml mark.
2. Fill the cylinder with water and stir well (sufficient water should be poured to
submerge the sand completely and it can be seen that the sand surface is now below
its original level)
3. Take the reading at the sand surface (160 ml)

Fig;4.6: bulk density of fine aggregate test

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4.4 CEMENT:

A building material that is a powder made of a mixture of calcined limestone and clay;
used with water and sand or gravel to make concrete and mortar. types: Portland cement,
hydraulic cement. a cement that hardens under water; made by heating limestone and clay in a
kiln and pulverizing. A cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets,
hardens, and adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its
own, but rather to bind sand and gravel together.

4.4.1 INITIAL SETTING TIME AND FINAL SETTING TIME OF CEMENT:

The initial setting time of concrete is the time when cement paste starts
hardening while the final setting time is the time when cement paste has hardened sufficiently
in such a way that a 1 mm needle makes an impression on the paste in the mould but 5 mm
needle does not make any impression.

Apparatus Required:

1. Vicat’s apparatus
2. Balance
3. Measuring cylinder
4. Stop watch
5. Glass plate
6. Enamel tray
7. Trowel

Test Procedure:

Test for Initial Setting Time:

1. Place the test block confined in the mould and resting on the non-porous plate, under
the rod bearing the needle.
2. Lower the needle gently until it comes in contact with the surface of test block and
quick release, allowing it to penetrate into the test block.
3. In the beginning the needle completely pierces the test block. Repeat this procedure
i.e; quickly releasing the needle after every 2 minutes till the needle fails to pierce
the block for about 5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould. Note this time
(T2).

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Test for Final Setting Time:

1. For determining the final setting time, replace the needle of the Vicat’s apparatus by
the needle with an annular attachment.
2. The cement is considered finally set when upon applying the final setting needle
gently to the surface of the test block; the needle makes an impression thereon, while
the attachment fails to do so. Record this time (T3).

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4.4.2 SPECIFIC GARAVITY OF CEMENT:

cement may contain excessive moisture content if it is exposed to the various

weather conditions and we all know that w/c ratio is a big factor which determines
the concrete strength. Because w/c ratio is directly proportionalto the workability.
If the cement contains a greater amount of moisture in it thenthe w/c ratio
will definitely affect the workability as well as the strength of concrete.

Aim:

To find the specific gravity of cement.

Apparatus:
1. OPC (Ordinary portland cement)

2. Specific gravity bottle / Le-Chatelier of 250 ml capacity / Pycnometer (100 ml).

3. Kerosene.

4. Weighing machine with 0.1 gm accurate.

Procedure Of Test:
1. Measure the weight of empty flask (W1). The flask should be totally dry and freeof
liquid

2. Fill half of the flask with cement (about 50 gm) and Measure the weight with its
stopper(W2)

3. Then fill the flask with kerosene up to the top level of the flask. kerosene properlyto
remove air bubble from it. Weigh the flask with cement and kerosene(W3).

4. Now empty the flask and again fill it with kerosene up to the top of the flask.
Weigh the flask (W4).

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Fig;4.7: specific gravity test on cement

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4.4.3 FINENESS OF CEMENT:

Fineness test of cement is done to determine the particle size of cement. the finer thecement particle the best will
be the cement and on the other hand the coarser the particle it willnot be that good.

Apparatus:

1. IS Sieve (90 µm) with lid

2. A balance of 0.01 gm sensitivity
3. A pure bristle or nylon brush
4. Sieve Shaking Machine (optional)
Procedure:

1. Take 1000 grams (1 Kg) of cement for the test sample and name it as (w1).

2. Rub the cement particle well with your hands so that no lumps are left.
3. Now pour the 1 Kg cement content in the sieve and close it perfectly with the sieve lid.
4. If you have a sieve shaking machine then it’s awesome, now you just need to put the sieve
in the shaking machine and start the machine for 15 minutes.
5. Brush the sieve base gently with the bristle brush so that nothing is left on the sieve surface.
6. Now just weight the retained amount of cement on the sieve and note it as (w2).
7. Now you need to find the percentage of the weight of cement-retained on the 90 µm sieve.
8. Repeat the test for at least three times to minimize the risk of errors.

Fig;4.4: retained sieved cement particles

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CHAPTER-5
REPAIR MATERIALS
Cement and steel are generally used for the repair of various types of damages. Besides
these, some special materials and techniques are available for best results in the repair works.
They are described below:

1) Shotcrete
2) Epoxy resins
3) Epoxy mortar
4) Gypsum cement mortar
5) Quick setting cement mortar

1) SHOTCRETE

Shotcrete is a strategy for applying a mix of sand and portland concrete which
blended pneumatically and passed on in dry state to the nozzle of a pressure gun, where water
is blended and hydration takes place only before expulsion. The material bonds splendidly to
the arranged surface of masonry and steel. In adaptability of use to curved or irregular surfaces,
its high quality after application and great physical attributes, make for a perfect way to
accomplish included auxiliary capacity in dividers and different components. There are some
minor limitations of clearance, thickness, course of use, and so on.

TYPES OF SHOTCRETE:

1) DRY MIX SHOTCRETE

2) WET MIX SHOTCRETE

1. DRY MIX SHOTCRETE:

The cementitious material and aggregate are thoroughly mixed and either bagged in
a dry condition, or mixed and delivered directly to the gun. The mixture is normally fed to a

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pneumatically operated gun which delivers a continuous flow of material through the delivery
hose to the nozzle. The interior of the nozzle is fitted with a water ring which uniformly injects
water into the mixture as it is being discharged from the nozzle and propelled against the
receiving surface.

Fig: 5.1 dry mixed concrete

2. WET MIX SHOTCRETE:

The cementitious material, aggregate, water, and admixtures are thoroughly

mixed as would be done for conventional concrete. The mixed material is fed to the delivery
equipment, such as a concrete pump, which propels the mixture through the delivery hose by
positive displacement or by compressed air. Additional air is added at the nozzle to increase
the nozzle discharge velocity.

Fig;5.2: wet mixed shotcrete

2) EPOXY RESIN:
These have high tensile strength as these are excellent binding agents. Epoxy resins
are prepared chemically whose compositions can be changed according to the requirements.
These are blended just before the application. The final product obtained is of low viscosity
and can also be easily injected in small cracks. While for the filling of larger cracks, higher
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viscosity epoxy resin may be used

Fig;5.2:epoxy resin

TYPES OF EPOXY RESIN

1. Glycidyl Epoxy:
Glycidyl epoxy refers to a class of epoxy resins that contain a glycidyl functional
group (-O-CH2-CH(CH2OH)-) in their chemical structure. These resins are widely used in the
manufacturing of coatings, adhesives, electronics, and composite materials. Glycidyl epoxy
resins are formed through the reaction of epichlorohydrin and a compound containing reactive
hydrogen, such as bisphenol A (BPA). This reaction produces a linear or branched epoxy
polymer that has high chemical and thermal resistance, excellent adhesion, and good
mechanical properties. However, glycidyl epoxy resins have been associated with health
concerns, as they often release potentially harmful substances such as bisphenol A and glycidol.
Regulatory bodies have established guidelines for the use of these materials in consumer
products.

2. Novolac Epoxy:

Novolac epoxy is a family of epoxy resins based on the reaction of phenolic novolac and
epichlorohydrin. Phenolic novolac is a resin that is formed from phenol and formaldehyde,
which results in a highly cross-linked structure. Novolac epoxy resins are highly cross-linked
and offer improved thermal stability, chemical resistance, and electrical properties compared
to conventional bisphenol A types. They are widely used in high-performance applications
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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

such as coatings, adhesives, and composites. Novolac epoxy resins are typically cured with
amines. This involves the reaction of the epoxy groups in the resin with the curing agent, which
results in a highly cross-linked network. Novolac epoxy resins may contain hazardous
substances, such as formaldehyde and phenol, and appropriate safety measures should be taken
when handling them.

3. Cycloaliphatic Epoxy:

Cycloaliphatic epoxy contains a cycloaliphatic ring in its chemical backbone. These resinsare
known for their high-performance properties such as excellent chemical resistance, mechanical
strength, and electrical insulation. Cycloaliphatic epoxy resins are synthesized from
cycloaliphatic compounds and epichlorohydrin. The reaction between these two results in a
more rigid and compact structure compared to conventional epoxy resins.

Due to their excellent properties, these resins are used in high-performance applications such
as aerospace, automotive, and the electronics sector. They are also used in the manufacturing
of composites, coatings, and adhesives. Like other epoxy resins, cycloaliphatic epoxy resins
may contain hazardous substances and appropriate safety measures should be taken when
handling these materials.

4. Aromatic Epoxy:

Aromatic epoxies contain an aromatic ring structure in their chemical backbone. They are
typically synthesized from bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin. Aromatic epoxies have excellent
thermal and chemical resistance properties, as well as high strength and stiffness. They are
commonly used in the manufacturing of coatings, adhesives, and composite materials that
require high performance under harsh environmental conditions. However, it is important to
note that some aromatic epoxies may contain hazardous substances, such as bisphenol A, which
has been associated with potential health concerns.
5. Aliphatic Epoxy

Aliphatic epoxies contain aliphatic structures in their chemistry. Aliphatic structures are
straight or branched chains of carbon atoms—unlike the ring structures in other resins. They
are typically synthesized from compounds such as aliphatic alcohols or polyols, and
epichlorohydrin. The reaction between these two compounds results in a more flexible and less
rigid structure compared to other types of epoxy resins.
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Aliphatic epoxies have excellent UV resistance and color stability, making them suitable for
outdoor applications, such as coatings and adhesives for cars and boats. They are also
commonly used in the food industry due to their low toxicity and low to zero odor. Some
aliphatic epoxy resins may still contain hazardous substances, and appropriate safety measures
should be taken when handling these materials.

6. Hybrid Epoxy

Hybrid epoxies are created by combining two or more resin types, or non-epoxy polymers.The
resulting hybrid resin aims to combine some desirable properties of each component, allowing
tuning of properties. A hybrid epoxy resin results from combining a cycloaliphatic epoxy with
a novolac epoxy. They will acquire chemical and thermal resilience from the cycloaliphatic
component and improved mechanical performance from the novolac part. Hybrid epoxy resins
are used in high-performance applications where specific property combinations are required.
They are often used in the manufacturing of coatings, adhesives, and composite materials for
industries such as aerospace, automotive, and construction.
3) EPOXY MORTAR:
In case of larger void spaces, epoxy resins of either low viscosity or higher viscosity are
combined with sand or aggregate to form epoxy mortar. This mixture of epoxy mortar has much
higher strength than the Portland cement concrete. The mortar is not a stiff material for
replacing reinforced concrete. It has also been reported that the epoxy is a combustible material.

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

Fig;5.3: epoxy motor

4) GYPUSUM CEMENT MORTAR:

The structural application of gypsum cement mortar is limited as it has lowest strength at
failure.

Fig;5.4: gypsum motor

5) QUICK SETTING CEMENT MORTAR:

This material is patented and was originally developed for the use as a repair material for
reinforced concrete floors adjacent to steel blast furnaces. It is non-hydrous magnesium
phosphate cement with two components, a liquid and a dry, which can be mixedin a manner
similar to Portland cement concrete.

Fig;5.5: quick cement

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

CHAPTER-6
USED MATERIALS

1. MYK ARMENT
2. RECRON 3S (FIBER)
3. ZYDEX COLD BOND

1. MYK ARMENT:
It is single component water based acrylic waterproof coating. It can be applied to most
structural surfaces to make them waterproof. The coating is UV stable and highly reflective
with high flexibility.

USES:

1) It is used for waterproofing of all types of RCC surfaces such as roofs chajjas,
Parapet walls and external walls.
2) Asbestos cement sheets roofs can also be waterproofed using scrim cloth or Aso
Joint Tape at the junctions overlaps and J - bolts as reinforcement.
3) As a damp proof course applied under the first layer of bricks or blocks in masonry
works.

FEATBURES AND BENEFITS:

1) UV Stable hence can be used for external application
2) Seamless application
3) Single component and easily brush applied
4) Breathable
5) Cures to give a permanently flexible and resilient surface resistant to a wide range of
temperatures
6) Mechanical damages to the membrane can easily be repaired by spot application
7) No cleaning solvents are 'required and can be washed off with water when it is still
wet.

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

Application Methodology:
Step no 1:
Surface Preparation The concrete surfaces should be thoroughly cleaned andfree from laitance,
dust, dried algae, loose material, oil, grease, etc. Old/repainted surfaces must be thoroughly
cleaned by mechanical means such as wire brushing and/or by high pressure water jet cleaning.
All surface cracks more than 2 mm and up to 5 mm width should be filled with Crack Filling
Compound or ReArm Crack Fill paste/powder as appropriate. Cracks morethan 5 mm and all
separation gaps should be filled with Rearm Bond Latex modified mortar oras specified after
opening the crack to a “V” cut.

Step no 2:
Priming For Primer dilute one part by volume of AquaArm Right Coatwith one part of clean
water and apply with a brush evenly on the surface.

Step No. 3:
Application of AquaArm Right Coat Use AquaArm Right Coat directly from the container. Stir
contents well before use. For Top Coating: Two Coats are recommended. Whenthe primer coat
is touch dry apply the first coat of AquaArm Right Coat. The second coat is tobe applied
perpendicular to the first coat within one hour or when the first coat is tack free, to ensure
uniform masking & even finish.

Do not undertake any further work over the coated area within 72 hrs of final coat. Allow the
coated surface to air cure fully for 7 days.

Fig;6.1: myk arment

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

2. RECRON 3S (FIBER):

Recron 3s is a state of art reinforcing material which is used to increase strength in a variety
of applications like automotive battery, paper, filtration fabrics, asbestos cement sheets, cement
based pre-cast products and for improving quality of construction. A product of extensive R&D
in Reliance's state-of-the-art Technology Centre, Recron 3s is made available when you need
it and where you need it through our vast distribution network.

Role of RECRON-3s

1. Controls Cracking:

RECRON 3s prevents the shrinkage cracks developed during curing making the
structure/plaster/component inherently stronger. Further when the loads imposed on concrete
approach that for failure, cracks will propagate, sometimes rapidly. Addition of RECRON 3s
in concrete and plaster prevents/arrests cracking caused by volume change (expansion &
contraction).

2. Reduces water permeability:

A cement structure free from such micro cracks prevents water or moisturefrom entering and
migrating throughout the concrete. This in turn helps prevent the corrosion of steel used for primary
reinforcement in the structure. This in turn improves longevity of the structure.

3. Reduces Rebound in Concrete - Brings Direct Saving &Gain:

RECRON 3s fibers reduce rebound "splattering" of concrete and shotcrete. The raw
material wastage reduces & results in direct saving in terms of raw material. More
importantly it saves a great deal of labour employed for the job, which couldbe completed
earlier.

4. Increases Flexibility:

The modulus of elasticity of RECRON 3s is high with respect to the modulus ofelasticity of the
concrete or mortar binder. The RECRON 3s fibers help increase flexural strength.

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

5. Safe and Easy To Use:

RECRON 3s fibers are environmental friendly and nonhazardous. They easilydisperse and

separate in the mix.

Fig;6.2: recron 3s (fiber)
3. COLD BOND (ZYDEX)

Cold Bond is an acrylic based high performance bonding agent that is reactive and flexible for use in
concrete/concrete and concrete/plaster joints. It exhibits a pull off adhesion strength equal to 17 N/mm2 and is
highly water resistant ensuring a permanent joint between structures.
Joint between the old & newly cast part becomes a weak link due to migration of water from newly cast concrete
to cured side.
PCC / RCC are cast in parts, leading to joints which develop cracks due to thermal cycling and shrinkage stresses.
The junction of PCC or RCC structures with bricks walls also has joints which develop cracks. This leads to
seepage / leakage.
1.A new generation of acrylic copolymer technology
2.Exhibits dual properties of reactive and acrylic copolymer
3.Imparts very high strength through molecular level reactive bonding
4.Makes the joining interface water resistant
5.Ensures flexible polymeric film formation at the interface
This results in formation of a very strong and flexible bond and creation of monolithic joints. Boil testing of
simulated joint done with Cold Bond confirms water resistance & wet bond strength.

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Application Areas:
RCC to PCC interface, RCC to RCC joints, RCC (Beam / Column) to Masonry joints, RCC / PCC
Bricks to Coving joints, RCC to Gypsum, RCC to POP, PCC / Plaster to PCC / Plaster (repair) interface, RCC /
Bricks to Plaster interface.

Application Method:
Use Cold Bond as it is or in diluted form (with potable water @ 1:1) based on the application need.
Spray / Brush apply on the construction joints of concrete, plaster or bricks. Construction Window after applying
Cold Bond: 30 mins. to 72 hours

Features:
1. Reactive Bonding to Concrete & Plaster Surfaces
2. Strong and Flexible Bond resulting in Monolithic Joints
3. Highly Water Resistant
4. Pull-off Strength of 17 N/mm2

Fig;6.2: cold bond

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

CHAPTER-7
RESULTS :

REBOUND TEST RESULTS:

Rebound Hammer test is a Non-destructive testing method of concrete which provide a convenient and rapid
indication of the compressive strength of the concrete. The rebound hammer is also called as Schmidt hammer
that consist of a spring controlled mass that slides on a plunger within a tubular housing.

Average Rebound Number Quality of Concrete

>40 Very good hard layer
30 to 40 Good layer
20 to 30 Fair

<20 Poor concrete

0 Delaminated

TEST RESULT:

Pulse Velocity by Cross Probing (Km /

Sr. No. Concrete Quality Grading
Sec)

1. Above 4.5 Excellent

2. 3.5 to 4.5 Good

3. 3.0 to 3.5 Medium

4. Below 3.0 Doubtful

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

SIEVE ANALYSIS RESULT :

Sieve analysis for fine aggregate test help to determine the fineness modulus and grain size
distribution of fine aggregates. The sieve analysis of fine aggregate indicates the size
distribution of fine aggregate particles in a given fine aggregate sample.
TEST REUSLT:

SPECIFIC GRAVITY FOR FINE AGGREGATE RESULT:

Fineness test of cement is done to determine the particle size of cement. the finer thecement particle the best will
be the cement and on the other hand the coarser the particle it willnot be that good.

TEST RESULT:
The specific gravity of fine aggregates is to be around 2.65.

BULK DENSITY FOR FINE AGRREGATE RESULT:

Bulking of fine aggregate or sand is the phenomenon of increase in sand volume
due to the increase of moisture content.

Excessive presence of moisture content in the sand makes concrete to less durable and
lose its strength. Remember, excessive presence of moisture content increase the workability
of concrete but loses its strength.
TEST RESULT:

% of Bulking of fine aggregate = (200-160/160) x100

INITIAL AND FINAL SETTING TIME OF CEMENT:

The initial setting time of concrete is the time when cement paste starts hardening while the
final setting time is the time when cement paste has hardened sufficientlyin such a way that a
1 mm needle makes an impression on the paste in the mould but 5 mm needle does not make
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any impression.

TEST RESULT:

Initial setting = 30 minutes

Final setting =600minutes

FINENESS OF CEMENT RESULT:

Fineness test of cement is done to determine the particle size of cement. the finer thecement particle the best will
be the cement and on the other hand the coarser the particle it willnot be that good.

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

CHAPTER-8

METHODOLOGY OF REHABILITATION

1 BONDING WITH EPOXIES:

1. Cracks in concrete may be bonded by the injection of epoxy bonding compounds

under pressure
2. Usual practice is to;
3. Drill into the crack from the face of the concrete at several locations
4.Inject water or a solvent to flush out the defect
5. Allow the surface to dry
6. Surface-seal the cracks between the injection points
7. Inject the epoxy until it flows out of the adjacent sections of the crack or begins to
bulge out the surface seals
8. Usually the epoxy is injected through holes of about ¾ inch in diameter and ¾ inch
deep at 6 to 12 inches centers
9. Smaller spacing is used for finer cracks.
10. The limitation of this method is that unless the crack is dormant or the cause of
cracking is removed and thereby the crack is made dormant, it will probably recur,
possibly. Usually the epoxy is injected through holes of about ¾ inch in diameter
and ¾ inch deep at 6 to 12 inches centers
11. Also, this technique is not applicable if the defects are actively leaking to the extent
that they cannot be dried out, or where the cracks are numerous.

2. ROUTING AND SEALING:

It is used for treating both larger and fine pattern. This treatment reduces the chances of
moisture to reach the reinforcing steel or pass through the concrete which can cause surface
stains or other problems. For floors, the sealant should be sufficiently rigid to support the
anticipated traffic.

Procedure for Routing and Sealing:

First a groove of depth ranging from 6 to 25 mm at the surface is prepared.

1. Then this groove must be cleaned by air blasting, sandblasting, or water

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blasting and further it was dried. c.

2. On the dry groove, a sealant is placed which is further allowed to cure.

3. STITCHING:
when the tensile strength of any structure needs to reestablished across the major
cracks, stitching as shown in Fig. 4 must be used. It involves the process of drilling the holes
on both sides of the crack and grouting in U-shaped metal units with short legs (staples or
stitching dogs).

1. Concrete can be stitched by iron or steel dogs

2. A series of stitches of different lengths should be used

3. Bend bars into the shape of a broad flat bottomed letter U between 1 foot and 3 feet
long and with ends about 6 inches long.
4. The stitching should be on the side, which is opening up first. if necessary, strengthen
adjacent areas of the construction to take the additional stress
5. the stitching dogs should be of variable length and/or orientation and so located that
the tension transmitted across the crack does not devolve on a single plane of the
section, but is spread out over an area
6. In order to resist shear along the crack, it is necessary to use diagonal stitching
7. The lengths of dogs are random so that the anchor points do not form a plane of
weakness

4. EXTERNAL STRESSING:

1. cracks can be closed by inducing a compressive force, sufficient to overcome the

tension and to provide a residual compression
2. The principle is very similar to stitching, except that the stitches are tensioned; rather
than plain bar dogs which apply no closing force to the crack
3. Some form of abutment is needed for providing an anchorage for the prestressing wires
or rods.

5. GROUTING:

1.same manner as the injection of an epoxy

2.cleaning the concrete along the crack
3. installing built-up seats at intervals along the crack
4. sealing the crack between the seats with a cement paint or grout
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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

5. flushing the crack to clean it and test the seal; and then grouting the whole.

6. BLANKETING:

1. similar to routing and sealing

2. applicable for sealing active as well as dormant cracks
3. Preparing the chase is the first step
4. Usually the chase is cut square
5. The bottom should be chipped as smooth to facilitate breaking the bond between
sealant and concrete.
6. The sides of the chase should be prepared to provide a good bond with the sealant
material
7. The first consideration in the selection of sealant materials is the amount of
movement anticipated
8. and the extremes of temperature at which such movements will occur
9. elastic sealants
10. mastic sealants
11. mortar-plugged joints.

7. USE OF OVERLAYS:

Sealing of an active crack by use of an overlay requires that the overlay be extensible and not
flexible alone. Accordingly, an overlay which is flexible but not extensible,Gravel is typically
used for roofs concrete or brick are used where fill is to be placed against the overlay. An
asphalt block pavement also works well where the area is subjected to heavy traffic can be bent
but cannot be stretched, will not seal a crack that is active.

8. GUNITING:

It is a process which utilizes dry material from the machine to the surface whichever needs to
be repaired through the nozzle by applying high velocity and compressedpressure. It is also
called as the dry-mix shotcrete process.

PROCEDURE OF GUNITING:

1. The cement is mixed with moist sand and afterward required amount of water is added as

the admixture comes out from the gun. Quantity of water can be regulated with the help of
a regulatory valve.

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

2. Firstly, the surface on which repair work required must be washed and cleaned. Then the
nozzle of gun is kept at a distance of about 750 mm to 850 mm from the surface to be
repaired and the velocity of nozzle varies from 120 to 160 m/s.

3. Sand and cement are initially dry mixed in a mixing chamber and the dry mixture is taken
through a pipe to a nozzle, where it is forcibly projected onto the surface to be coated.

4. The purpose of regulatory value is to provide a mix of desired stiffness which will adhere
to the surface against which it is projected.

9. DRILLING AND PLUGGING:

Drilling and plugging a crack consist of drilling down the length of the crack and grouting it
to form a key. This technique is applicable only when cracks run in reasonable straight lines
and are accessible at one end. This method is often used to repair vertical cracks in retaining
walls.

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

CHAPTER-9

CONCLUSION

Repair and Rehabilitation is necessary to save hazardous failure of structures due to deterioration. It is recommended
for old buildings which have some signs like cracks, corrosion of embedded materials, etc. Therefore timely
maintenance of structures is required. The selection of technique is used as per cost, location of site and other factors.
Thus for proper maintenance, the techniques likewise Rebound Hammer Testing, Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
Evaluation, etc. are utilized. After analyzing the problem of building, we can apply the appropriate repair methods
which are described above i.e. Guniting, Routing and Epoxy Injection.

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 REBILITATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURES

CHAPTER-10
REFERENCES
1. Wael W. El-Dakhakhni1, Ahmad A. Hamid and Mohamed
Elgaaly, 13thAugust 1-6, 2004
2. Stephen P. Leatherman, Arindam Gan Chowdhury, and Carolyn J.
Robertson2007

3. J Rehabil Med 2008 Nov

4. Joseph M. Barcci Sashi K Kunnath JSE Jan.1997

5. Iacobucci D. Richard, Shsikh A. Shamim and Bayrak Oguzhan (AIC

Structural Journal/Nov 2003

6. Rajandre Desai, Rupal Desai1992

7. Joseph M. Barcci Sashi K Kunnath JSE Jan.1997

8. Rajandre Desai, Rupal Desai1992

9. Fatemi Amir Abbas, Tabriziem Zahara, Ghodvati G.Amiri, Hossein M.Ali

Beigi,IJESE (Oct.2011)

10. Gaba Harpreet, Singh S.P

11. Iacobucci D. Richard, Shsikh A. Shamim and Bayrak Oguzhan (AIC
Structural Journal/Nov 2003)

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