Rehabilitation and Retrofitting of structures

Module -1

Repair: To bring back the position of the structure to its previous condition so it gives
performance same as previously. It doesn’t cover the strength aspect of the structures.
Some examples of repair:
 Decoration of structure, Painting, White Washing
 Checking the wiring of building
 Replastering of any wall if required
 Repairing of damaged flooring
 Repair of door and window
 Checking or repairing of pipe line connections, gas line connections and plumbing serveries.
 Relaying disturbed roof tiles

Rehabilitation: Rehabilitation of a building means returning a building or a structure to a

useful state by means of repair, modification, or alteration.
 It is related to the strength aspect of structures.
 To bring back the position and condition of the structure by considering the strength aspect.
Some of the examples of Rehabilitation:
 To fill the wide cracks using some suitable material
 Injecting epoxy like material in to cracks in walls, columns, beams, etc.
 Removal of damaged portion of masonry and reconstructing it using rich mortar mix.
 Addition of reinforcing mesh on both sides of the wall

Retrofitting:
 Earthquake creates great devastation in terms of life, money and failures of structures.
 Seismic Retrofitting is a collection mitigation technique for Earthquake Engineering.
 It is the modification of existing structures to make them more resistant to seismic activity,
ground motion, or soil failure due to earthquakes.
 The retrofit techniques are also applicable for other natural hazards such as tropical cyclones,
tornadoes, and severe winds from thunderstorms.

Some examples of retrofitting:

 Increasing the lateral strength in one or both directions, by reinforcement or by increasing
wall areas or the numbers of walls and columns
 Giving unity to the structure by providing a proper connection between resisting
elements.
 Eliminating features that are sources of weakness, asymmetrical plan distribution of
resisting members, abrupt changes of stiffness from one floor to the other.
 Avoiding the possibility of brittle modes of failure by proper reinforcement and
connection of resisting members

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 Rehabilitation and Retrofitting of structures

Types and Causes of Concrete Deterioration

 Cement concrete is the most extensively used material for construction of different types of
structures/components such as buildings, bridges and shell roofs and also for precast products
such as pipes, poles, sleepers etc…
 Too much emphasis is placed on concrete compressive strength rather than on environmental
factors, which are known to affect concrete durability.
 This is one of the main reasons for serious deterioration of concrete structures

Physical Causes of concrete deterioration

 Freezing and thawing
 Construction errors
 Design errors
 Settlement and movements
 Temperature changes
 Fire on concrete
 Abrasion and Erosion
 Plastic shrinkage
 Drying shrinkage

 Freezing and thawing

 The most severe climatic attack on concrete occurs, when concrete containing moisture is
subjected to cycle of freezing and thawing.
 The capillary pores in the cement paste are of such a size that water in them will freeze, when
the ambient temperature is below 0C.
 The freezing water contained in the pore structure expands as it is converted into ice. The
expansion causes localized tension forces and leads to fracture of concrete.
 The repeated cycles of freezing and thawing have a cumulative effect.
 Freeze and thaw deterioration generally occurs on horizontal surfaces that are exposed to
Water.

Preventive measures:
 Use of low water cement ratio.
 Adequate air entrainment has been found effective to control the freezing damage.
 Use of durable aggregate
 Designing the structure to minimize the exposure to moisture i.e. providing positive drainage
rather than flat surfaces.

 Construction errors
 Failure to follow specified procedures and good practice or outright carelessness may
lead to number of conditions that may be grouped together as construction errors.

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 Rehabilitation and Retrofitting of structures
 These errors do not lead directly to failure or deterioration of concrete but they enhance
the adverse impacts of other mechanisms.
 Adding water to concrete
 Improper alignment of formwork
 Improper consolidation
 Improper curing
 Improper location of reinforcing steel
 Premature removal of shores or reshores
 Setting of the concrete
 Vibration of freshly placed concrete
 Improper finishing of flat work.

 Design Errors
Design errors mainly due to:
 Inadequate structural design
 Poor design details
 Abrupt changes in section
 Insufficient reinforcement at corners and openings
 Inadequate provision for deflection
 Inadequate provision for drainage
 Insufficient travel in expansion joints
 Incompatibility of materials
 Rigid joints between precast units
 Inadequate joint spacing in slab

 Settlement and movements

 There is two types of mechanism in settlement and movement in concrete structural
members: Differential and Subsidence
 Various elements of a structure are moving with respect to one another are caused by
differential movements. If it increases the member subjected to overstressed condition and
cracks will appear.
 Single element of a structure such as monolith is moving with respect to the remainder of
the structure is caused by subsidence.
 In case of subsidence the concerns are not over cracking or spalling but rather stability
against overturning or sliding

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 Rehabilitation and Retrofitting of structures

 Changes in temperature
Changes in temperature cause a corresponding change in the volume of the concrete.
Basically there are 3 temperature change phenomena that may cause damage to concrete.
 First there are temperature changes generated internally by the heat of hydration of
cement.
 Second there are temperature changes generated by variations in climatic conditions.
 Third there are temperature changes generated from external source-fire damage.
Internally generated temperature differences:
Mechanism: The hydration of Portland cement is an exothermic chemical reaction. In large
volume placements significant amount of heat may be generated. The temperature rise is not
uniform throughout the mass of the concrete and temperature gradients developed. These
temperature gradients give rise to a situation those outer portions of concrete loosing heat while
inner portions are gaining. If this difference is more cracks may occur. This is known as internal
restraint condition.
 Due to that internal restraint condition, as the concrete mass begins to cool a reduction in
volume takes place.
 If that reduction is prevented by external conditions the concrete is externally restrained and
cracking occurs.
Symptoms:
• Cracks from internal restraint will be shallow and isolated.
• Cracks from external restraints will extend to full section
• Temperature induced cracks are perpendicular to large dimensions of concrete.
Preventive measures:
• Using low heat cement
• Placing concrete at minimum practical temperatures
• Selecting aggregate should have low moduli of elasticity and low coefficient of thermal
expansion

 Externally generated temperature differences:

Mechanism:
• In this the temperature difference leading to the concrete volume change is caused by external
factors usually changing climatic conditions.
• Ex: a pavement slab is cast in summer, in winter as the temperature drops the slab may
undergoes a temperature difference and would experience a shortening. If that slab we restrained,
such movement would lead to cracking.

Symptoms:
 Visual examination show regularly spaced cracking
 Spalling at expansion joints Preventive measures:
 Use contraction and expansion joints
 Provision of reinforcing steel will help to distribute cracks and minimize the size of them
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 Fire on concrete
A fire in concrete structures causes damage. The extent of which depends up on intensity and
duration of the fire
The principal types of damages are:
 Reduction in strength of concrete
 Cracking and spalling of concrete
 Deflection and deformation members
 Dis coloration
 In RC structures fire resistance is depend on type of concrete and thickness of cover.
 The fire introduces high temperature gradients and as a result of it surface layers tend to
separate and spall from surface.
 The heating of reinforcement expands both laterally and longitudinally resulting in loss of
bond and loss of strength of reinforcement. If concrete subjected to above 3000C definite
loss of strength takes place.
 Abrasion and erosion
Abrasion refers to wearing away of the surface by friction.
 Erosion refers to wearing away of the surface by fluids.
 Cavitation refers to the damage due to non-linear flow of water.
 The concrete used in the roads, floors, the pavements and the concrete used in the
hydraulic structures should exhibit resistance against abrasion, erosion and cavitation.
 The more compressive strength the higher the resistance to abrasion erosion and
cavitation
 The shape and surface texture of aggregate plays an important part in the abrasion
resistance of the concrete.
 Use of steel fibers and polymer based systems in concrete matrix improves abrasion
resistance of concrete

 Plastic shrinkage
 During the period between placing and setting, most concrete will exhibit bleeding to
some degree. Bleeding is the appearance of moisture on the surface of the concrete.
 Usually the bleed water evaporates slowly from the concrete surface. If environmental
conditions are such that evaporation is occurring faster than water is being supplied to
the surface by bleeding, so high tensile stresses can develop.
 The stresses lead to development of cracks on the concrete surface. Generally these
cracks are wide and shallow.
 The primary cause of plastic shrinkage cracks is rapid evaporation of water from the
surface of concrete.
 These cracks occur within few hours after placing concrete.
 These cracks occur on horizontal surfaces spaced 0.3m to 1.0m apart
 They can be deep and width varying from 0.1mm to 3mm.

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 Rehabilitation and Retrofitting of structures
Preventive measures
 Moisten the subgrade and formworks.
 Erect temporary wind-breakers to reduce wind velocity.
 Erect temporary roof to protect green concrete from hot sun.
 Reduce the time between placing and finishing. If there is delay use Polythene sheets,
 Minimize evaporation by covering concrete with burlap and curing compounds.

 Drying Shrinkage
 It is the long term change in volume of concrete caused by the loss of moisture.
 If this shrinkage take place without any restraint there would be no damage to the
concrete.
 Generally concrete structure is subjected to some degree of restraint by foundation, by
another part of structure, or by the difference in shrinkage between the concrete at the
surface and that in the interior of a member.
 The combination of shrinkage and restraints causes tensile stresses that can lead to
cracking
Symptoms
 Drying shrinkage is caused by physical loss(evaporation) and chemical loss (hydration)of
water during the hardening process.
 These cracks appear at 7-10 days after concreting and 80% of drying shrinkage takes
place in about a year.
 Drying shrinkage influenced by a number of factors such as cement content, water
content, aggregates, curing, temperature.
 These cracks generally confined to nonstructural members.
 Total drying shrinkage is made up of irreversible shrinkage and reversible shrinkage

Preventive measures:
 Use of minimum water content
 Use of highest possible aggregate content
 Providing adequate and early curing
 Eliminate the external restraints as much as possible.

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Chemical Action or Causes of concrete deterioration

When we are dealing with durability, chemical attack which results in volume change, cracking
and consequent deterioration of concrete become a major cause of concern

Types of Chemical attack

 Sulphate attack
 Alkali aggregate reaction
 Chloride ion attack - Corrosion
 Carbonation
 Acid Attack
 Effect on concrete in Seawater

 Sulphate attack
 Sulphate occur in both soil and ground water
 Solid sulphate does not attack the concrete severely
 But water sulphate enter into porous concrete and react with the hydrated cement
product(HPC) forming a whitish appearance
 This indicates sulphate attack.
 Increase in the volume of cement paste in concrete or mortar due to chemical reaction
between the product of HPC and solution containing sulphates
 In hardened concrete C-A-H can react with sulphate salt from outside, forming calcium
sulphoaluminate in the frame work of HCP.
 Due to the increase in volume of the solid phase (which can go up to 227%) a gradual
disintegration of concrete takes place.
 Sulphate attack manifest in the form of expansion and cracking of concrete.

Methods of controlling sulphate attack

o Use of sulphate resisting cement: the sulphate attack on the concrete can be prevented by
use of sulphate resisting cement. The sulphate resisting cement has low percentage of C3A
o Addition of Pozzolana: Addition of pozzolana or partial replacement of cement by
Pozzolana also improves the resistance to sulphate attack
o Use of air-entrainment: Use of air-entrainment up to about 6 %, reduces segregation and
bleeding and improves workability of concrete. Thus, permeability, of concrete reduce
o Quality of concrete: Use of low water-cement ratio, properly designed, mixed, placed well
compacted concrete, good workmanship, reduced porosity, sufficient cover over
reinforcement gives a higher resistance to sulphate attack
o High pressure steam curing: the high pressure steam curing improves the resistance
concrete to sulphate attack

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 Alkali aggregate reaction

 Normally, aggregates used in concrete are considered as inert material, but some of the
aggregates contain reactive type of silica, which reacts with alkalis present in cement i.e.
(sodium oxide (Na2O) and potassium oxide (K2O)).
 As results the alkali silicate gel of ultimate swelling type are formed. This reaction is known
as “alkali aggregate reaction”
 The alkali silica gel formed by alkali aggregate reaction is confined by the surrounding
cement paste and internal pressure is developing leading to expansion, cracking, and
disruption of cement paste.
 This expansion appears to be due to hydraulic pressure generated through osmosis, but can
also be due to swelling pressure of the still solid products of alkali silica reaction.
 This indicates that the swelling of hard aggregate is most harmful to concrete. The
reactivity of aggregate depends upon its participle size and porosity as these influences the
area over which the reaction can takes place
 The high alkali contain in cement in cement is also an important factor contributing to the
alkali aggregate reaction.to prevent the deterioration of concrete due to alkali aggregate
reaction alkali content in cement should not exceed 0.6 percent
 The ideal temperature for the promotion of alkali aggregate reaction is in the range of 100c
to 380c.If the temperature is below 100c or more than 380c, it may not provide an ideal
situation for the alkali aggregate reaction.
Measures to control alkali aggregate reaction
 Selection of non-reactive type of aggregate
 By restricting alkali content in cement below 0.6%
 By controlling temperature
 By controlling moisture condition
 By the use of corrective admixture such as pozzolanas
 By controlling the void space in concrete.
 By not using very fine ground cement

 Chloride ion attack - Corrosion

 Due to high alkalinity of concrete protective oxide film is formed on the surface of steel
reinforcement.
 This protective layer can be lost to carbonation and presence of chloride in the concrete.
This action of chloride in inducing corrosion of reinforcement is more serious than any
other reasons.
 Chloride enters the concrete from cement, water, admixtures and aggregates. When there
is chloride in concrete, there is an risk of corrosion of embedded metal. The higher the
chloride content, the greater the risk of corrosion all constituents may contain chloride
and concrete may be contaminated by chlorides from external environment.
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 To minimize the chance of deterioration of concrete from harmful chemical salts, the
level of such salts in concrete coming from cement, water aggregate and admixtures
should be limited
 Carbonation
 Carbonation of concrete is a process by which carbon dioxide from the air penetrates into
concrete and reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonates.
 In actual practice, CO2 present in atmosphere permeates into concrete and carbonates the
concrete and reduces the alkalinity of concrete.
 When all the Ca(OH)2 has become carbonated, the pH value will reduce up to about 8.3. In
such a low pH value, the protective layer gets destroyed and the steel is exposed to
corrosion.
 The depth of carbonation in good dense concrete is about 3 mm at an early stage and may
increases to 6-10 mm after 30-40 years.
 Poor concrete may have a depth of carbonation of 50 mm after say 6-8 years. The rate of
carbonation depends on time,cover,concrete density,cement content,water-tocement ratio
and the presence of cracks
 The highest rate of carbonation occurs at a relative humidity between 50 and 70 percent.
 Protective coating is required to be given for long span bridge girders, flyovers, Industrial
structures and chimneys. Such as plastic paints (Impermeable)
 Deep cover plays an important role in protecting the steel from carbonation.

 Acid Attack
 Concrete is susceptible to acid attack because of its alkaline nature. The components of the
cement paste break down during contact with acids.
 The decomposition of the concrete depends on the porosity of the cement paste, on the
concentration of the acid, the solubility of the acid calcium salts and on the fluid transport
through the concrete
 The degree of attack increases as acidity increases. The rate of attack also depends on the
ability of hydrogen ions to be diffused through cement gel after Ca (OH)2 has been
dissolved and reached out.
Places where acid attack encountered are:
 Concrete is used for the storage of many kinds of liquids, some of which are harmful to
concrete
 Acid attack is encountered also under industrial conditions.in industrial plants, concrete
floors come in contact with acids, which damage the floors
 In damp condition SO2 and CO2 and other acid fumes present in the atmosphere affect
concrete by dissolving and removing part of the set concrete. This form attack occurs in
chimneys and stream railway tunnels
 Sewerage water also very slowly causes deterioration of concrete.
 If acids or salts are able to reach the reinforcement steel through porosity of concrete,
corrosion of reinforcement takes place.
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6. Durability in sea water

Generally seawater contains 3.5 per cent of soluble slats by weight. The ionic concentration of
Na+ and Cl- are maximum in seawater, normally 11,000 and 20,000 mg/lit respectively.
Seawater also contains Mg2+ and SO42- about 1400 and 2700 mg/li respectively. The pH of
seawater fluctuates between 7.5 and 8.4. The average pH is taken about 8.2. Seawater also
contains some amount of CO2. If higher concentration of CO2 dissolved in seawater then the
pH may fall below 7.5.

Effect of Seawater on Concrete Structures

 The constituents of seawater reacts chemically with constituents of cement concrete which
results damage to the concrete structure in several ways. The magnesium sulphate present in
seawater reacts with calcium hydroxide of cement and forms calcium sulphate as well as
magnesium hydroxide precipitation.
 Magnesium sulphate also reacts with hydrated calcium aluminate and forms calcium sulpho
aluminate. These final formations are the primary reasons for chemical attack on concrete
structures.
 The deterioration of concrete structures by seawater is more due to leaching rather than
expansion of concrete. Leaching more effects the small concrete structures than expansion
while large concrete structures are affected by leaching as well as expansion.
 Sulphates attack the concrete and cause expansion but due to the presence chlorides in
seawater the swelling of concrete retards. Hence, erosion and loss of concrete takes place
without showing much Expansion
 The lime content present in the concrete also lost due to leaching. Both calcium hydroxide
and calcium sulphate are soluble in seawater this will result in increased leaching action. The
temperature is also a factor chemical attack, higher the temperature more will be the attack.
 Concrete is not 100% impervious. When seawater enters into the pores of concrete and
reaches the reinforcement then corrosion will occur. It will affect the durability of structure

How to Improve Durability of Concrete in Seawater?

To improve durability of concrete structure which are exposed to marine conditions?
 Cement with low C3A content should be preferable to make concrete.
 Prepare rich concrete with low water cement ratio which makes the concrete impervious.
Then the pores in concrete are very small and they cannot hold seawater results in the
prevention of expansion by freezing of water and crystallization of salt in the pores.
 The concrete is of low water cement ratio. To make it workable for construction, Water
reducing admixtures can be added to the concrete which is recommended by ACI 318 and
ACI 357.
 The admixtures should not contain chloride in any form otherwise corrosion of reinforcement
takes place.
 Adequate cover should be provided for reinforcement in concrete structure to enhance
durability. ACI 357 recommended cover for reinforcement bars which is shown in below
table
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 Good compaction and well-made construction joints in the structure helps the concrete
structure to withstand against expansion caused by seawater.
 Use of pozzolanic material in the preparation of concrete is good against salt water.
 For better durability, High pressure steam cured concrete elements can be used for
construction of structure in marine conditions.
 Both ACI 318 and ACI 357 recommended that suitable air entraining agents can be used to
prevent the effect of seawater on concrete.
 Aggregates used for making concrete should be thoroughly washed with fresh water to
reduce the chloride ion concentration in it.

Evaluation of structural damage to the concrete structural elements due to

earthquake
 Earthquakes are the most destructive natural hazards throughout human history.
 Hundreds of thousand people lost their lives and loss of billions of dollars’ properties
occurred in these disasters.
 Occurred medium or high-intensity magnitude earthquakes in last twenty years showed that
these loses continue

Causes and failure of reinforced concrete (R/C) buildings

In appropriate design such as
 soft and weak stories,
 Inadequate transverse reinforcement in columns and beams
 strong beam–weak column,
 short column
 Inadequate gaps between adjacent building
 Failure of gable wall
 in-plane/out-of-plane movement of the walls causes damages

 Soft and weak storey mechanism

 In some R/C buildings, especially at the ground floor, walls may not be continuous along
to height of building for architectural, functional, and commercial reasons.
 While ground floor generally encloses with glass window instead of brick infill walls,
partition walls are constructed above from this storey for separating rooms for the
residential usage.
 This situation causes brittle failures at the end of the columns. In mid-rise reinforced
concrete buildings, the most common failure mode is soft-storey mechanism, particularly
at the first storey.
 Failures can be concentrated at any story called as weak storey in which the lateral
strength changes suddenly between adjacent stories due to lack of or removing of
partition walls or decreasing of cross section of columns. Thus, during an earthquake,
partial and total collapses occur in these storey
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 Inadequate transverse reinforcement in columns and beams

 Shear forces increase during an earthquake especially at columns and beam–column
joints. Consequently, special attention should be paid to construction and design of
beam–column joints and columns.
 Seismic design requires increasing of ductility of structures for performance-based
design approach. In particular, columns of buildings can be having insufficient transverse
reinforcement in the plastic hinge region.
 Therefore, structural elements which have such details show low performance against to
dynamic loads and lost their shear and axial load carrying capacity

 Short column
 This type of mechanism can be developed due to structural adjustments and/or to
continuous openings at the top of infill walls between columns.
 Lateral forces that occurred by an earthquake are carried by columns and shear walls.
Length of column is an important factor for dissipation of these loads.
 When the length of column decreases, the column becomes stiffer and brittle than the
other columns and this column attracts more shear forces. Thus, shear failure which is a
critical type of concrete column damage occurs at these columns.

 Inadequate gaps between adjacent buildings

 Buildings are sometimes constructed adjacent because of the lack of building lots. In this
layout plan, one or two faces of two buildings are in contact to each other.
 Consequently, the buildings that have not adequate gaps pound to each other during the
earthquake. If the floors of the buildings are not at the same level, pounding effect of the
buildings becomes more dangerous.

 Strong beam–weak column

 Deep and rigid beams are used with flexible columns in type of buildings. Therefore,
these beams resist more moments, occurred by dynamic loads, than weak columns.
 In such a design during an earthquake while deep and rigid beams show elastic behavior,
shear failure or compression crushing causes plastic hinges at flexible columns.

 Failures of gable walls

 The most common failure mode at gable walls is out-of-plane collapse in the earthquakes.
Although failures of gable walls are not structural damages, these damages may be cause
loss of lives and properties. Stability problems and large unsupported wall lengths cause
damages at these walls.

 Poor concrete quality and corrosion

 The other main reasons of damages are low concrete strength and workmanship.
Concrete quality is an important factor for building performance against to earthquakes.

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 Handmade concrete is used to without using vibrator in construction of old buildings.
Thus, homogeny mixing was not obtained and expected compressive strength was not
provided in these buildings.
 In addition to this, using of aggregates which have improper granulometry, corrosion
which decreases reinforcement bar area, and using of smooth steel reinforcement effected
strength of concrete

Causes and failure of masonry structures

 Corner Separation
 Earthen roof damages
 Out of plane failure
 In plane failure, diagonal cracking
 Floor/roof connection failure
 Disintegration of stone masonry wall

 Earthen roof damages

Thick and heavy earthen roofs are one of the reasons for the damages. The walls of the
buildings could not support heavy mass during an earthquake, and the heavy roof partially or
completely collapsed. This type of application should be refrain

 Corner damages
 Corner damages are common in the adobe and masonry buildings.
 During an earthquake, the stress concentrations increase at intersection of the walls. In this
way, vertical or inclined cracks appear in the corners of masonry buildings.
 If bond beams are not used in the corners or connection, two walls are not properly anchored
each other, intensity of the cracks increases and these cracks spread along the height of the
wall. Similar cracking may have been observed at adobe buildings .
 Poor connections between adjacent walls and the absence of bond beams cause serious
damages. In addition, there are no appropriate connections at the corner of the walls in
damaged buildings.

 Out-of-plane mechanism
 Out-of-plane mechanism may appear from the combination of several deficiencies. A lack of
bond beams, poor connections among the walls and the roofs, and large unsupported wall
lengths cause the separation of walls and cause damage to occur via the of out-of-plane
mechanism.
 Thus, the whole or the significant parts of the wall fall down during the earthquake. Wooden
logs that bear the weight of the floor of the building are generally placed on load-bearing
walls in only one direction. Thus, earthquake loads are transferred to perpendicular walls by
wooden logs. Therefore, the walls that are not supported by the wooden logs may easily
overturn to out-of-plane direction during the earthquake. This failure mechanism can be
commonly observed in the earthquake region
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 In-plane mechanism
 The seismic performance of the masonry buildings relates to the in-plane stiffness of the
walls.
 In-plane mechanism is generally observed in most of the masonry buildings that are
affected by shear cracking. Earthquake loads increase the shear force. It can damage walls
and their connections.
 These damages generally occur near openings, because most of the masonry buildings
don’t have sufficient and proper bond beams that distribute the lateral forces uniformly and
enhance the lateral strength of the walls.
 During the earthquakes, excessive bending and shear can produce in-plane failures
depending on the aspect ratio of the unreinforced masonry elements .
 In the areas struck by earthquake, three failure modes of the shear damages in masonry
buildings are generally observed, namely diagonal shear failures that proceed through
masonry units and mortar

 Disintegration (Delamination) of stone masonry walls

 Most of the masonry buildings are constructed with thick stone walls. As the thickness of the
walls is relatively large, these stone walls are constructed by using more than one stone along
the thickness direction.
 In these walls, stones are placed in a random order. These walls have two exterior vertical
Wythe’s of large coarse stones. However, smaller rubble stones with mud mortar are used
between two exterior layers.
 Using mud mortar instead of cement mortar causes insufficient adherence between the
layers. Thus, the interior and exterior layers of the wall behaved independently and separated
each other during the earthquake.
 Some reasons such as the quality of construction, poor workmanship, and the use of improper
materials increase the intensity of the disintegration.

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