MCTORLADIARANTES CRYSTALLECTURES A'LEVEL TUTORIALS 08065453710 CSC110/111 LADI CSC 110 INTRODUCTION TO ‘COMPUTER COMPLETE SUMMARY GUIDE PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. YOU EITHER Make A onan A raps ee) FOR RESERVATIONS CALL | 08065453710 hat ES HOLD AT BOILING "TUTORIALS/LECTURES HO! 'G POINT TUTORL y UESIDE NADIA BAKERY 19™ STREET BpPA DING FINAL REVISION HOLDS BEFORE THE EXAM)an VICTOR LADIARANTES CRYSTAL LECTURES K'LEVEL TUTORIALS 99065453710 CSC110/1 COMPUTER yuters were large in “The compute is fast becoming the universal machine ofthe twenty-first century, Early com size and too expensive to be owned by individuals DEFINITION , rocess and then shows dat +> Computer isan electronic machine which receives data through input devices, Proce and then s ‘on output devices. ; ; > Computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts data, perform mathematical gprs ls operations at high speed, and display the results ofthese operations.) ee > Computer isan electronic device which is capable of eciving information deta) fh se ae performing a sequence of operations in accordance with a predetermined Pit ng ae i information or signal . | instructions (program) fo produce result in the form of in ! es } Anelectronie machine that can store and work with large amounts offi est Fan Satometie electronic machine that can store and process data is known 5 CH ics ofa > ‘Acomputer is generally defined as a programmable machine. The ove Pri TT Mic en ‘computer are: it responds toa specifi set of instructions in 0 waldne ann recorded list of instructions (a program) bp hrs’ ich i ng information (data) in @ partic } An electronic device which is capable of receiving informatio ed re tet a sequence of operations in accordance witha predeterfined (program) to produce a result inthe form of i > A computer i an cletronie device that manipulates informay ge sl al and process data, You probably already know, fat ‘you ean use comps OE eeccktins, fae la ‘the Web. You can also use to edit or ereate spreas play games, and browse the Web. You can alsg R videos. "7 : > Itcan process both numerical and yee (arithmetic and logical) calculations. / > A-computer has four functions: J a. accepts data Input“ b, processes data Provgssing) vi «¢, produces output,» Output d.stores results ““{Storage f am hs. Jar form and of perfortnin tructions « | Ithas the ability to store, retriev. Data || Processing }——| Information 1 tn F HISTORY OF COMPUTING ash coupulernight be described with deceptive simplicity as “an apparatus tat performs routine ‘alcalal{6ns automatically.” Such a definition would owe its deceptiveness to a naive and narrow view ¢ ‘cal€uftion as a strictly mathematical process. > Infact, caleulation underlies many activities that are not normally thought of as mathematical, Walking ‘across oom, for instance, requires many complex, albeit subconscious, calculations. Computers, too, proved capable of solving avast array of problems, from balancing a checkbook to even—in the form < ‘guidance systems for robots—walking across a room. > The abacus, the earliest known calculating device is probably the abacus. It dates back at least 103 [BCE and is still in use today, particularly in Asia. > This scheme allowed a wide range of numbers to be represented by just a few beads and, together wit! invention of zero in India, may have inspired the invention of the Hindu-Arabic number system. 2VICTOR LADIARANTES CRYSTAL LECTURES K'LEVEL TUTORIALS 08065453710 CSC110/111 The abacus was developed by the Babylonians > The word calculus comes from the latin word pebble > many case, abacus beads can be readily manipulated to perform the common arithmetical operations — ion, and division—that are useful for commercial transactions and in addition, subtraction, multiplicatic bookkeeping. > Calculating devices took a different turn when John Napi discovery of logarithms in 1614. > ‘Avany peron ean attest, adding two 10- “This simplification is posible because ofthe following logarithmic propery: the logarithm ofthe Product cof two numbers is equal to the sum of the logarithms of tne numbers ‘ote? > By 162, tables with 1 significant digits wee available forthe logarithms of number from 1 19 20,000, and scientists quickly adopted the new labour-saving tool for tedious astronomical calculations > 1m 1620 Edmund Gunter, the English mathematician who coined the terms cosine and cotangent, built a device for performing navigational calculations: the Gunter scale, or, ahavigato® simply called it the gumier. ‘ x “Aon 1652 an English clergyman and mathematician named Witiam Ongfiged built the frst side rule, drawing on Napier ideas. That frst slide rule was circular, bil! Quahtred also bull the first rectangular one in 1633. } 1n11623 the German astronomer and mathematician Wilhelm Sehickard built the ft calculator. He described it in a letter to his friend the astronomer Johannes Kepler, and in 1624 he wrote again to explain that a machine he had commissioned to be built for Kepler was, apparently along with the prototys destroyed ina fire. He called i a Calcuating,Clsek, which modern engineers have been able to reproduce from details in his letters. ~ >. Even yeneral knowledge of the clock had bBen temporarily perished during the Thirty Years’ War, * % A reproduction of Wilhelm Schf¢kand's Calculating Clock. The device could add and subtract six-digit numbers (with a bell for seven-digit overflows) through six interlocking gears, each of ‘which turned one- i tenth of a rotation for each fullrotation of the gear to its right, Thus, 10 rotations of any gear would produce a “carry” of one digit 6h the following gear and change the corresponding display. } But Schickard may not have been the true inventor of the calculator. A century earlier, Ls sketched plans for a'@alculator that were sufficiently complete and correct for modern engineers to build a calculator on their basis.‘ _ The first calelator or adding machine to be produced in any quantity and actualy used was the Pascaline, “> or Arithmetic Machin, designed and built by the French mathematician-philosopher Blaise Paseal Between 1642 and 1644. 0 y, It could only do addition and subtraction, with numbers being entered by manipulating its dials. Pascal ~# snveried thé machine for his father, a tax collector, soit was the first business machine too (if one does not “Pou the abacus). He built $0 of them over the next 10 years. > ThelArithmetic Machine, or Pasealine, a French monetary (nondecimal) calculator designed by Blaise Pascal c. 1642. Numbers could be added by turning the wheels (located along the bottom of the machine) clockivise and subtracted by turning the wheels counterclockwise. Each digit in the answer was displayed i 1 separate window, visible at the top of the photograph. } In 1671 the German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz designed a calculating machine called the Step Reckoner, (It was frst builtin 1673.) The Step Reckoner expaniled on Pascal's ideas and did multiplication by repeated addition and shifting. > Apart from developing one of the ‘world’s earliest mechanical calculators, Leibniz is remembered for another important contribution to computing: he was the man who invented binary code, a way of ier, a Scottish mathematician, published his lost when Schickard and his entire family secnarde da VinciVICTOR LADIARANTES CRYSTAL LECTURES A'LEVEL TUTOW decimal number using ont J one inber using only the two digits zero and on ee eulatr, set thers inkl 1 10H i = iden to invent # EW corpe Book (1815-1861) wed IE representing, > Although Leibniz made no use of binary in century ater Leibniz had died English of mathematics called Boolean algebra. Inmodern computers, inary cae an Boolean algebra allows cOmPwIe comparing long strings of zeros and ones. Hut, inthe 19ih cer ene Time t would tke another $0-100 years for matherateans and compuie 16 use them > Leilnie was a strong advocate ofthe binary ramber system. Binary Pat they rege oly to digits, which can easiy be represented (he 00 Computers became elctoni, te inary sytem was particulary appropriate oo seat tat on could represen re, of could Frese e riateness of the binary system in ted numbers In de simple decisions PY fr alvad of ther out how b to make ideas were still I tists 40 figure & ers are ideal for mpc hie eel vd oft states of a switel W' pecausé an electrieal felt ‘and the flow of carret but his on 10 ‘would directly represent the flow of logic Leibniz was prescient in seeing the approp" machine did not use it. Instead, the Step Reckoner represen alcalting, machines» aibel really qualified fo do sums—but It noed> ‘without a) eat recipe) yph-Marh position dials. Neither the abacus, nor the mechanical calculators constructed by Paveal a computers. A calculator is a device that makes it quicker and easier for people mi human operator. A computer, on the other hand, is a mé line that ean operate automatically, suman help, by following a series of stored instructiogg€alled'n program (a kind ‘of mathematica! © ‘There was one major exception: the Jacquard loom, invented in [801-05 by a French weaver, Josey Jacquard. orev 4 > The Jacquard loom was a marvel of the Indusifial Revolution. A textile-weaving loom, it coul called the first practical information-processing devite. ‘The loom worked by tugging vvarious-coloued threads thto patterns by means of a peratdp.could control the motion of the rods and thereb3 inserting a card punched with hol pattern of the weave. , oe, rrrcover, the loom was equippedswith a card-reading device that slipped a new card from a prepunched deck into place every time thé! shultl@ vas thrown, so that complex weaving patterns ‘could be automated. irre wae extroordingr about the device was that it transferred the design Process from a labour-intensive ‘Once the cards had been punched and assembled, the design was could be sii weaving stage to a card-Punching stage. complete, and the 168m, soetgesid the design automatically. The Jacquard loom, therefore, to be programed for diferft patterns by these decks of punched cards tard loom provided important lessons; the sequence > For thas inteit'og mechanizing calculations, the Jacqu .¢ controlled to make the machine do something quite of opécatins tha chine performs could bs could be used as a medium for directing the machine; and, most important, & itteret my ‘card device edbld bé directed to perform different tasks by feeding it instructions in a sort of language— ifig, the fhachine programmable. a RgaT isnot to great a stretch to Say that, in the Jacquard loom, programminy snot 1 1g was invented before the coniputer. The close relationship between the device and the a program became aj ‘with Charles Babbage’s invention of the first computer. vac sctaaiat a aad ciate Babbage was an English mathematician and inventor: he invented the coweatcher, reformed thi Woe el and was a pioneer in the fields of operations research and actuarial science. : who first suggested that the weather of yea i f ilies fascination with keys, ciphers, and wnechanieal dlls, ee er ger. > The completed porti ' s ee et wih es elt Biagio vehi of anes oe oleae i wigation, positions of the toothed wheels marked with docldal mbes peer nee ag greeny te / i al 1d also be mn array of rods. BY yy alter the v keVICTOR LADIARANTES CRYSTAL LECTURES N'LEVEL TUTORIALS 00065453710 CSC110/111 > Asa founding member ofthe Royal Astronomical Society, Babbage had seen a clear need to design and ‘build a mechanical device that could automate long, tedious astronomical calculation > He began by writing a letter in 1822 to Sir Humphry Davy, president of the Royal Society, about the possibilty of automating the construction of mathematical tables~speciically, logarithm tables for use it tavigation He then wrote a paper, “On the Theorctcal Principles ofthe Machinery for Calculating Tables, ‘which he read to the society later that year (It won the Royal Society's first Gold Medal in 1823.) Tables then in use often contained error, whigh could bea life-and-death matter for sailors at sea, and abbaye argued that, by automating the production of the tables, he could assure their accuragy, Having tained support in the society for his Difference Engine, ashe called i, Babbage next turned fo the British povernment to fund development, ebaining one of the world’s frst government grants for tegsre and technological development. at > itbape approached the projet very sericsly he hired a master machinist, se up rgprodtigsekshop, ‘un built a dustproof environment for testing the device. Up until then calculatins were Farely Carried out ro hore than 6 digits; Babbage planned to produce 20- or 30-igit results routTily. “3 } The Difference Engine was a digital device; it operated on discrete digit rather{in smjdoth quantities, and the dipts were decimal (0-9), represented by positions on toothed wheel gather than the binary digits that Leilmiz favoured (but did not use) , > The Difference Engine was more than a simple calculator, hooBRer At ineagtens not just a single calculation but a whole series of calculations on a number of yariables to Solve a complex problem. Itwent far beyond calculators in other ways as well, Lake moll conpiter, the Difference Engine had storage-—that i, place where data could be held temporarily fo later processing—and it was designed to ‘stamp its output into soft metal, which could late be xiSed 10 -¢ a printing plate. > Nevertheless, the Difference Engine performéd only one operation. The operator would set up all of its data (ers with the original data, and then tt Moats ration would be repeatedly applied to all of the crs, ultimately producing a solution. Stil, in complenity and audacity of design, it dwarfed any ing device then in existence. , > The fll engine, designed to be Foott-si, va bover built, at least not by Babbage. Although he sporadically received several 's—governments changed, funding often ran out, and he had to personally bear some of the financial costs—he was working at or near the tolerances of the construction ‘methods of the day, apd he ran into numerous construction difficulties. 4%) All design and construction ceased in 1833, when Joseph Clement, the machinist responsible for actually building the machinedrefused to continue unless he was prepaid. (The completed portion of the Difference Engine is on permanent exhibition at the Science Museum in London.) calcul » 1 ANALYTICAL ENGIN While working on the Difference Engine, Babbage began to imagine ways to improve it, Chiefly he thought bout generalizing its operation so that it could perform other kinds of calculations, By the time the funding ¥ had rtin odt in 1833, he had conceived of something far more revolutionary: a general-purpose computing ‘Fauchine called the Analytical Engine. > Orly partially built atthe time of his death in 1871, this portion contains the “mill” (functionally analogous toa modern computer's central processing unit) and a printing mechanism, > The Analytical Engine was to be a general-purpose, fully program-controlled, automatic mechanical digital computer, It would be able to perform any calculation set before it > Before Babbage there is no evidence that anyone had ever conceived of such a device, let alone attempted to build one. > The machine was designed to consist of four components: the mill, the store, the reader, and the printer, ‘These components are the essential components of every computer today. The mill was the calculating unit, unalogous to the central processing unit (CPU) in a modern computer, the store was where data were held 5VICTOR LADIARANTES CRYSTALLECTURES X'LEVEL TUTORIALS 09005459710 C86H10/111 prior to processing, exactly analogous to memory and storage in today’s computers; and the reales op printer were the input and output devices. Jive store As with the Difference En, ~ the project was far more complex than anything | theretofore i cs ‘was tobe large enough to hold 1,000 S0.tiit numbers; this was larger than the storage caPacllY computer built before 1960, The machine was tobe steam-driven and run by one atendath > The printing capability was also ambitious as it had been forthe Difference Engine: Babbage wa vtomate the process as much as possible, right up to producing printed tables of numbGR The reader was another new feature ofthe Analytical Engle: Dats (Qaumbers) were 10 be ety yunched cards, using the card-reading technology of the Jacquard loom. fixvecen, By most definitions the Analtel Engine was real compute 8 understood tee pel we fad not Babbage run into implementation problems again. Actually building is anions judged infeasible given the current technology, and Babbage’s failure to gener . m Secnaitna fh tnathematical tables with his Difference Engine had dampened enthusiasm for Os er BC 5 mean Indeed, it was apparent tothe British government that Babbage was more itengst° in ny constructing tables. . > Lady Lovelace, (Ada Byron) was the first programmer , > fae Ada King, the countess of Lovelace, as the daughter, Ou Bergpiten 4 the mathematically inclined Anne Millbanke. One of her tutors was Augiistus,De Morgan, a famous ‘mathematician and logician. < it > Because Byron Fre ved in @ notorious scandal auife ime her bith, Ada's mater encouraged her tmathematieal and scientific interests, hoping to suppress any inclination to wildness she may have inheritec from her father. o* 4 / ‘Toward that end, Lady Lovelace attended Babbage’s soirees and became fascinated with his Differance Engine. She also corresponded with hin, asking polnted questions. It was his plan forthe Analytical Engin that truly fired her imagination, howeyer. In 1843, at age 19, she had come to understand it well enough te publish the definitive paper exp! nfngahe device and drawing the crucial distinetion between this new thit and existing calculators. ‘ “The Analytical Engine, she afgued, went beyond the bounds of arithmetic. Because it operated on general symbols rather than on numbers, it ished “a link...between the operations of matter and the abstract mental processes of thé most abstractbranch of mathematical science,” It was a physical device that was capable of operating in terealm of abstract thought. Lady LovelacerightlY-reportedithat this was not only something no one had built, it was something that 1 one beforeshad even conteivéd, She went on to become the world’s only expert on the process of sequenging instructions on the punched cards that the Analytical Engine used; that is, she beeame the world's first compuiter programmer. One feature ‘the'Analytical Engine was its ability to place numbers and instructions temporarily in its store and returd them to its mill for processing at an appropriate time. This was accomplished by the proy © Ssequéhcing®6f instructions and data in its reader, and the at Tiachine flexibility and power that was hard to grasp, > ‘The US. Constitution mandates that a census of the population be performed every 10 years. The fitst attempt at any mechanization of the census was in 1870, when statistical data were transcribed onto a ro Paper tape displayed through a small slotted window. As the size of America’s population exploded in t 19th century and the number of census questions expanded, the urgency of furthet mechani increasingly clear > Herman Hollerith develops Hollerith desk or census tabulator > 1890: Herman Hollerith designs a punch card system to calculate the 1880 census, just three years and saving the government $$ million. He estat become IBM. S, Py; oe ng. v > y 10 reorder instructions and data gave the tion becan accomplishing the t: es a company that would ultimately 6VICTOR LADIARANTES CRYSTAL LECTURES A'LEVEL TUTORIALS 08065453710 CSC110/111 > 1936: Alan Turing presents the notion ofa universal machine, later called the Turing machine, capable of computing anything that is computable, The central concept of the modern computer was based on his ideas. > 1937: J.V, Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics at lowa State University, attempts to build the first computer without gears, cams, belts or shafts. > 1939; Hewlett-Packard is founded by David Packard and Bill Hewlett in a Palo Alto, California, garage, according to the Computer History Museum, > 1941; Atanasoff and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, design a computer that can solve 29 equations simultaneously. This marks the first time a computer is able to store information on its main memory. > 1943-1944: Two University of Pennsylvania professors, John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, build the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). Considered the grandfather of digital computers, it fills a 20-foot by 40-foot room and has 18,000 vacuum tubes. y i > 1946: Mauchly and Presper leave the University of Pennsylvania and receive fundifg from the Census Bureau to build the UNIVAG, the first commercial computer for business and government applications. > 1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboraf6res fivent the transistor. They discovered how to make an electrie switch with solid materials and no,rted for vacuust. > 1953: Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which eventually becomes known as COBOL. “Thomas Johnson Watson J, son of IBM CEO Thomas Johnson Watson Sr-Peonceives the IBM 701 EDPM to help the United Nations keep tabs on Korea during the wart) tim. ug? gre Asin is developed by a } 1954: The FORTRAN programming language, an acronym f team of programmers at IBM led by John Backus, acegfding tothe University of Michigan. 3+ 1958: Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce unveil the integrated circuit, Known as the computer chip. Kilby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physies in 2000 for is ‘tk } 1964: Douglas Engelbart shows a prototype the modern édfiputer, with a mouse and a graphical user interface (GUI, This marks the evolution 6th compute from a specialized machine for scientists and ‘mathematicians tc technology that is more atgessible jo the general public. > 1969: A group of developers at Bell Labs produce UNIX, an operating system that addressed compatibility issues. Written in the C programming lariguage; UNIX was portable across multiple platforms and became the operating system of choice among mainframes at large companies and government entities. Due to the ‘slow nature of the system, it never quite gained traction among home PC users. i) > 1970: The newly formed Intel unveils the Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access Memory (DRAM) chip. > 1971; Alan Shugart lead a team of IBM engineers who invent the "Toppy disk," allowing data tobe shared among computers > > The first IBM personal computer, credit: IBM) > 1981: The first I]BNE personal computer, code-named "Acorn," is introduced. It uses Microsoft's MS-DOS ‘operating system. It has an Intel chip, two floppy disks and an optional color monitor. Sears & Roebuck and |, Computer land sel the machines, marking the Fist ime a computer is avilable throgh outside distributors. 7“ Stalsd|popularizes the term PC. > “fhe history of computing remembers colorful characters like Babbage, but others who played important—i upporting—roles are less well known, At the time when C-T-R was becoming IBM, the world's most powerful ealeulators were being developed by US government scientist Vannevar Bush (1890-1974), > Im 1925, Bush made the first ofa series of unwieldy contraptions with equally cumbersome names: the New Recording Product Intergraph Multiplier. > Later, he built a machine called the Differential Analyzer, which used gears, belts, levers, and shafts to and carry out calculations in avery physical way, like a gigantic mechanical slide rut. ential Analyzer were only one of several outstanding contributions Bush ner came as the teacher of Claude Shannon (1916-2001), a brilliant ry cove with troduced on Aug. 12, 1981, used the MS-DOS operating system. (Image represent numbers > impressive machines like the Differ made to 20th-century technology. Anot! ‘mathematician who figured out how electrical circuits could be linked together to process 7ICTOR LADIARANTES CRYSTAL LECTURES A'LEVEL TUTORIALS 99005459710 C8C110/111 Boolean algebra (a way of comparing binary numbers using logic) and thus make simple decisions. The World War It years were a crucial period inthe history of computing, when powerful gargantuan computers began to appear. Just before the outbreak of the war, in 1938, ‘German engineer Konrad Zuse (1910-1995) constructed his Z1, the worl’ first programmable binary computer, In his parents living room. > The following year, American physicist John Atanasoff (1903-1995) and his assistant, electrical engineer Clifford Berry (1918-1963), built a more elaborate binary machine that they named the Atanasoft ‘Berry ‘Computer (ABC). It was a great advance—1000 times more ‘accurate than Bush's Differential Analyze. > Those were the fst machines that used electrical switches 1 store number: when a switchywas “oll i Trend the number zero; flipped over tits othe, "on", postion it stored the number one. Hundreds OF, thousands of switches could thus store a great many binary di (although binary js much less efiefent in this respect than decimal, since i takes upto eight binary cits © 0" three-digit decimal nuriber) vp These machines were digital computers unlike analog machines, whieh stored gumbers using the positions ‘of wheels and rods, they stored numbers as digits ’, +> de tar as mast people were concerned, vacuum tubes were pioneered Py ¢ more yisible omy ‘ppeared in 1946: the Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC). jg» a ENIAC'S inventors, two scientists fom the University of ennsylyai Joh Mauchly (1907-1989) and J. Presper Eckert (1919-199), were originally inspired by ‘Bushjs Differential Analyzer; years late rane railed that ENIAC was the “descendant of Dr Buss machi’ But the machine they constructed vas far more ambitious. It contained nearly 18,000 vei tubes (nige times more than Colossus), was round 24 m (80 ft) long, and weighed almost 30 tons, > ENIAC is generally recognized asthe worlds Grst lige, general-purpose, digital computer. Faas might have qualified for this tte 100, Butt was desiBned purely for one job (code-breaking): sinc! freouldnt store a program, it couldnt esily be reprogrammed to do oer Wings > ERIAC was just the bepinning, Is tp inventors formed the Eckert Mauchly Compare’ Corporation in the fae 1940s, Working wit a brilian€ Hungarianmatheratiian, John von News (1903-1957), who was based at Princeton University, they'thert designed a better ‘machine called EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer). “ > Ina key piece of work, von Neumarigghelped to define how the machine stored and processed its program laying the foundatiog$ or how all mofém computers operate, [6] After EDVAC, Eckert and Mauchly developed UNIVAC 1 (UNIVersal Automatic Computer in 1951, They were helped in this task by ‘young, largely unkndWwn Ai snathematician and Naval reserve named Grace Murray Hopper (1906 1992), who iad originally ben employed by Howard Aiken onthe Harvard Mark I > Like Herman Hollrithslabulator over $0 years before, UNIVAC 1 was used for processing data from the puter that af Ye US gus, was thet manufactured fo other ‘users—and became the world's first large-scale commercial computer.) yp” “jy ach gents hare y kama mprovemen's over the previo Beneation the technolog sed ull computers, the internal organization of computer systems, and programming languages. - “Abou not usualy associated with computer generations, there has been a steady improvement in es hms used in computational science. The following his organize sig these widely recognized generations as milepost een oe > THEVIRST CENERATION 1940-1950 asm tubes > The frst computers used vacuum tubes i y rs eum ibs fread agli drums for meory and ween xy were very expensive o operate and in addition to using ” fete cara don owing pel del of leet, generate ft of rt generation ccmputers relied on machi i ine language, the lo ‘ t Peden ee er mgr i only solveone problem at a time. ge understooVICTOR LADIARANTES CRYSTALLECTURES K'LEVEL TUTORIALS 00065489710 CSC110/111 % Input was based on punched cards and pape tape, and output as displayed on printouts » THE SECOND GENERATION (1956 1963) > Transistors replaced vacuum tubes ad ushered inthe ‘second generation of computers > One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes } Allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable + Sill generated a great deal of heat that can damage the computer, Second generation computers moved from erypi binary machine language 10 symbol oF assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words Second: generation computers sil relied on punched cards for input and penton for output > ‘These wore also the frst computers that stored thei instructions in their memory, which moyed front e magnetic drum to magnetic core technology > THE THIRD GENERATION (1964 - 1971) . . J The development ofthe integrated circuit was the hallmark of the thi generatfon of computers. > Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips called ‘semicondattors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. ag ¢ clash smaller and cheaper compare tothe second generation computers Sy) } Itcoutd carry out instructions in billionths of a second. 4 2 Users interact with third generation computers through eybodfus and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run ‘many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. » > Computers forthe first time became accessible toa mms audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors Previa? > ‘THE FOURTH GENERATION (1971 — igh = } ihe microprocessor brought the fourth gent tion oP computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.» J As these small computers became shofe powefil, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the developmeft ofthe Imernet. > Fourth generation computers als@ saw the ‘GWclopment of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devi THE FIFTH GENERATION (Today to future) } Based on Artificial Intelligence (AD. Sill in development. F Fheruce of parallel peessing and superconductors is helping to make artificial insligetes 8 reality J The goal is wo develop devices that respond to natural language input and are ‘capable of learning and self= organization. 9 weVICTOR LADIARANTES CRYSTAL LECTURES A'LEVEL TUTORIALS 08065453710 CSC110/111 COMPUTER GENERATIONS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS Generation Characteriten ~Famples zal ‘i ! Fit ‘Used ecu bes TBM UNIVAC T Digg, slower and es flcent (sed punch cans ; Noteommercilly wed Second set Tamsin TBM 1620 ¢ Fase and smaller than previous goneration » ‘Worked with higher level angus é P Tae Uriel iegrated ici To 360 i i Heute and sme por s . se Well sited fr commercial apliations | PDP HT Se avons mini conrae 4 Youth ‘Used Very Lange Seale Integrated Cireuits | IBM PC » (VLSI) Interactive general purpose machines] Apple UH y y ‘Allow rapid piston development ‘Super computers se fr personal apistion such a CRAY Cam be easily wed in etork serie computers Ta Torahie and spine TANT rotcbook Supetior in prcesing sped, user Pentium PCs fiendinss and Connectivity to yetwerk | PARAM 10000 Suppors aici iatliget etnies aS ¥ CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMRUTER , j > SPEED: The computer can manipulate large data at incredible speed and response time can be very fast % > The speed of a computer 1S calculated in Hertz > ‘The prefix kilo stands for 1 thousands, Mega stands for Imillion, Giga for billion, Tera stands fer 1 trillion ¥ > ACCURACY: TR ‘accu is very high and its consistency can be relied upon. Errors in computing are most fo uma athe than technological weakness. There is in-built error detecting schemes in sompuletd > STORAGE: I)}Ms both internal and external storage facilities for holding data and instructions. This capacity vatigs from one machine to the other. Memories are built up in K (Kilo) modules where @ — K=1024 mémory locations. ©Q> AUTONATION: means computer can execute instructions themselves, Once a program is in the “computer's memory it can run automatically each time itis opened. The individual has little or no «Instruction to give again. > RELIABILITY: Being a machine, a computer does not suffer human traits of tiredness and lack of ‘concentration. It wll perform the last job with the same speed and accuracy as the first job every time even if ten million jobs are involved. > FLEXIBILITY: It can perform any type of task once it can be reduced to logical steps. Modern ‘computers can be used to perform a variety of functions like on-line processing, multi- programming, real time processing e.t.c. > WORD LENGTH: a digital operates on binary digits 0 and 1, a binary di s called a bit, word length 10VICTOR LADIARANTES CRYSTAL LECTURES N'LEVEL TUTORIALS 00065453710 CSC110/111 is the number of bits a company can provess at atime CLASSES OF COMPUTER > ANALOG COMPUTERS: This class of computer are special purpose machines that surfaced in the late forties (1948). They are used solving scientific and mathematical equations or problems. An ‘example is the thermal analyzer. Data and figures are represented by pltysical quantities such as angular positions and voliage. > DIGITAL COMPUTERS: They are machines made up of combinations of chips, flip-flops, buttons ‘and other electronie devices to make them function at a very fast speed. A digital computes has its ‘numbers, data letters or other symbols represented in digital format, They are mostly spévial purpose ‘machines unless minor specifications are included in the design, é > A-computer that combines the features of a digital and analog computer is called’ F }YBRID computer. ‘TYPES OF COMPUTER SUPER COMPUTERS > A super computer is the most powerful computer available at any ‘ven times/These machines are built | to process huge amounts of information and do so very quigkly- a? > Supercomputers are built specifically for researchers or sélemtsis Working On projects that demand very | huge amounts of data variables; an example is in nucleargsearch, where scientists want to know ‘exactly what will happen during every millisecond of a nuelear lain reaction, (To demonstrate the for an air pollujion Gontrol project that involves more than $00,000 capability of super computers, canables it will ake a mini computer about"4S hous to complete the simulation process while it will » take a super computer 30 minutes only) "Y > They are big in size, generate a lot of he: nd ite very expensive. (Super computers are made by CRAY Company). . ¥ MAINFRAME COMPUTERS » > The largest types of computers in common,bse are the mainframe computers. They are designed to handle tremendous amadnts of input, offtput and storage. > They are used mainly by large organization lke the PHICN, NITEL, and CBN. > Other users access ainframe computers through terminals. Terminals consist of type of Keyboard and a video display i.e monitors. The mainframe is usually in the computer room (Mainframe computers are made by IBMBoroughs & Univac). MINI COMPUTERS $ aoe These are physically small compared to mainframes and are generally used for special purposes or sma scale general purge > The best way to ox «5, personal €ompuiters. » computers. ~ | +S Wuchougt’some minicomputers are designed fora single user, many carn hand ternitfals. ‘odern mini computers can out-perform older mainframes of > Advances in cireuitry means m ial Equipment Company's PDP If and Vax rang) - bilities of mini computers is to say they lie between mainframes and input and output than personal je dozens or even hundreds of f the 60s. (Examples are WORKSTATIONS d | | > Between mini computers and micro computers ~ in terms of processing power 2 class of computers © known as workstations. ee > A workstation tooks like a personal computer and is typically used by one Person, although itis still more wwerful than the average personal computer. ; Th 1s are growing smaller. They significantly differ > ‘The differences in the capabilities of these types of machin it10 GNCIIO/AST rven ‘Turonians on0004ny7 pup of workstations are dest \uned VICTOR LADI ARANTES CRYSTAL LECTURES lI any or the 10 ways: the central processing, unit ters ct ‘most of the micro comp from micro computers in tw differently to enable faster processing of instructions and four major operating systems > Workstations [(Reduced Instruction Set Computing (USC use UNIX operating syste" (A note of caution: Many people use the term workstation 10 refer to any computer or tee connected to another computer, Although this usege was ‘once a common aneaninig. of the (ere ‘sun Microsyster 9): tecome outdated) (The biggest manufactures of workstations a MICRO COMPUTERS/PERSONAL COMPUTERS nthe sgl free: stoning oy a vaiation of It iru Hint IS it hu are used interchangeably 10 > The term microcomputers and personal computes omes ard classroo!ns. foday, HCE Me caved camera computers that are commonly found in offices. ra > Mary miro computers are bul pecially to bowed it watclos, clocks, of an ayy hallenging anaes and mini computers 1 reas In fc ny PB power ul sae atames of ust oF yrs ayo, al competion In prduelngamalarastet modes 6°17 ey "TYPES OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS 2 sansapite th ‘This is the first type of PCs ard the most Com an Moy deaths are sald enough (0M th bull in > THE DESKTOP: ‘ona desk, but are a little too big to carry around, ’ rf y THE LAPTOP: They weigh about 1Opounds SE) “they aff may opetted computers wit ye} be carried and used in loegonsa¥tlOQ, *rectrcity. Laptops typically have a they welgh about 6 to7 pounds (2:7 screens, They are d ‘almost full -sized keyboard. 4 to laptops and PCs, but sinaler. hey y 1 casily fi Inside a Briel } THE NOTEBOOK: They ate similar t 3.2kg), As the name implies, they are approxiafely tye sizepf # notebook and nce (PDAs) and are t case. THE PALMTOP: They are also knows personalidigital assistan i{than notebooks oF desktops model > portable computers. Palmiops are mugh less powerfil napplications such as word proces, They Are ‘mostly used to display Important telep! addresses. he smallest of and feature built hone numbers anid % € o OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS: Bfhe most common tasks computers perform include: 146% lot of things! os, letters, reports and briefs inting tasks FUNCTIONS Personal computers can ‘Writing documents suchas mem Budgeting and performing, Analyzing glamerie infopmaflon Searching through lists, reports for specific in ormation Schediling and plaiting projects. Creating illustratio d Communleating by using electronic mal > Advchisinggproducts and services. PERSONAL COMPUTER a single unt, A typical computer consist of several basle parts or components tha form any compute ask you need wo major components: the hardware and the Vvvvvy COMPONENTS OF A ‘A personal computer is 1 work together. To per software. [1] The hardware is the physial components of compute puter system. Generally you can think of the h wardware a sey potty conte that you ean see ot touch, Although the hardware of a computer is capa . performing marvelous tasks, if cannot accompli a it ‘ perpirange lish any of them without the vital instructions that the ‘You can't see of touch the software, [2] The software isa st of instructions tha els the hardware what ( do, 12{ [ICTORLADIARANTES CRYSTAL LECTURES A'LEVEL TUTORIALS 02085453710 CSC110/111 although you can see packages that contain the software, itis typically distributed on CD-ROM disc and is installed on the computer hard drive HARDWARE COMPOINENTS ‘The major hardware components of the personal computer consist of the following: [1] Input Devices: Input devices are the computer hardware that accepts data and instructions from 2 user. Input devices have been built in many forms to help in communicating with the computer. The most ‘common input devices are the keyboard and the mouse. i i. ‘The Keyboards The keyboard ofthe personal computer comes in a numberof styles. The yérious models may differ in size and shape, but except for a few special purpose keys, MDS keyboards are aid out almost ‘dentifiably, The most common keyboard used today was established by IBM. The computer key board is ‘more than just a typewriter. It contains all of the keys required for typing letters, anfimbers. plo the keys for entering commands and moving around on the screen. There are 101 keys argafiged in groups: Alphanumeric, Numeric, Function and Arrow/Cursor movement keys, and Compdter key ii, A mouse is a pointing device that enables you to quickly move around én the sergn, and to select commands from menus rather than type the commands. A mouse is us ip enables the user 10 point at items on the screen and clicks a button to select the ‘iston eal ‘entering certain data. iii, Track Balls: A trackball is an input device that works like. edhe ‘You rest your hand on the exposed ball and the fingers on the button. To move the eyrsor around tHe screen, you roll the ball with your thumb, Trackballs are much popular with notebook complitrs. They require less desk space than the mouse. 4 ‘s ‘The Joystick: This is a pointing device commonly" used for eames. It is not used for business applications ¥._ The Pen: Iti an input device that allows a uSer to write on or point ata special pad on the screen of @ pen based computer, such as a personal digital 858stant (PDAS). vi The Touch Sereen: A computer seregn that accepts input directly into the monitor; users touch electronic buttons displayed on the sereen, 1} i appropriate in environment where dirt or weather would render keyboards and pointing devices useless.) 4 vii, The Seanner: This is an input device used Weopy images into a computer memory without manual keying. Tt works by converting any image into electronic form by shinning light on the image and sensing the intensity of reflection dt every point. There are several kinds of scanners. These includes: hand held, flatbed, and sheet-feds, viii The Bar-Code Reader: This is one of the most commonly used input devices after the keyboard and mouse. It is’¢ommonly found in supermarkets and department stores. This device converts a pattern of printed bars on products into a product number by emitting a beam of light frequently from a laser that refleis off the bar ode image. A light sensitive detector identifies the bar-code image by special bars at both ends of the image. Once it has identified the barcode, it converts the individual bar patterns into _ numeric digits. fn te ROCESSING DEVICES: Basically two components handle processing in a computer: the central progéssing unit (CPU) and the memory. a ‘The Central Processing Unit (CPU): ‘The central processing unit (CPU) is a tiny electronic chip own as the microprocessor located in the system unit Its installed onthe main circuit board ofthe computer, the motherboard, The CPU as the name implies is whee informatio is prvessed within the omputer In this regard, you might think ofthe CPU (processor) asthe rain ofthe compute. The CPU is Sthetaise known as microprocessor. Every CPU has at least two basic parts. THE CONTROL UNIT AND THE ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU). The control unit coordinates all the computer activities and The CPUs instruction to carry out commands. The ALU is responsible for carrying out arithmetic when the control unit encounters an instruction that involves arithmetic 13 cont ‘and logic functions. In other words,TOR LADIARANTES CRYSTAL LECTURES A'LEVEL TUTORIALS (08065453710 CSC110/111 and logic it refers it to the ALU. b. Memory: What happens to all the information we put into the comput information is processed? Is held in the computer memory of Ransom Actes memory to which we are referring here isnot the kind of long-term storage that a A opr disk and montis later tous ut ater a short term holding area that but int the computer andere, While the CPU is fast and ecient eannot remember anything by ise 1 often refers 4 ‘memory in the computer for software instruction and to remember what it is working on, The term RAI “ a changeable. we 1U searches through memory for the ee eee interchangeable. RAM refers to the way the CPU sears igh oan or the workings of a memory, information is stored in memory chips: get information faster from RAM than it ean from a disk. A compu + before, while and after Memory (RAM). The lows you to save work on ter then reads information opinstepetion Fess and stores the information inthe RAM whee can get the information icky. The, CP” processes the information and then returns to the RAM. . I Storage Devices: Among the most important part of a computer system aré the déyiees tbat allow ¥°E to aiee data on information, The physical components or materials on which data rf stored are called storage madi, A storage deviee isa piece of hardware that permanently stores infgrmatidn Unlike electronic memory, a storage device retains information when electric poy is turned off-here are several storage devices and primary among them are: We fe 7 a The Floppy Disk: The floppy disk is a circular flat piece offplastié made of a flexible (or floppy) ‘hagnetic material on which data are recorded. Floppy disk driVes store data on both sides of the disks. Earlier computers stored data on only a single side of the floppy disk. b. The Hard Disk: The hard disk is ennelvontyblgpreaise hhard disks are usually enclosed thin the system unit, The hard disk isa stack of metal platters that spin on one spindle like a stack of floppy disks. Unlike floppy disks where,the disk anddriye are separate, the hard-disk drive, or hard drive is the whole unit, Generally you cannotgemove the hard disk from its drive; however some manufacturers make removable hard disks that pli fpto a separate drive unit. , ¢. The CD-ROM: CD-ROMDuisks are hard, plastic, silver —a colored disk. CD-ROM is an acronym for Compact Disc Read ~ Only Memory. This implies that the disk can only be read, You cannot change or ‘overwrite the contents of a CD*ROM disk. 4. Tape Drives/A tape drive is device that reads and writes data to the surface of a magnetic tape, generally used for backing up or restoring the data of an entire hard disk. e. The Zip Drive; Zipidives are an alternative to tape backup units or tape drives. A zip drive can be internal or external. Zip rive’ have removable cartridges or disk. A zip drive holds about 100MB to 250 MB of Date. [4] Output Deviéés: Output devices return processed data, tha i, information back to the user. In ‘other Words, Sutpit devices allow the computer ‘talk’ to us. The most common output devices are the | ‘monitor ad thé printer. Others include modems and speakers. a. © Th€ Monitor: The monitor is an output device that enables the computer to dis A soiBB It evn lp tnt ofa selovaion Ite eethlyrfversd > oa the cach’ rien the in source for output of information from the computer. As data is entered through an ny oc at monitor changes to show the effects ofthe command. Messages displayed on the oe know if the command is correct. screen allow the user to b. The Printer: The printer is an output devie We take da fee eetie forth ad So tepes ak Copy oF @ print out on a paper printers; Laser, Inkjet and Dot = Matrix, + There are three principal types of ¢ The Sound Card: Sound Cards, otherwise kn si i device that produces audio sounds and usually Noun pons, aie Hei isa hard ware board It is a speakers. It is installed in one of the expansion slot inside the s) K ofa computer for external tse the system unit's motherboard,