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 Every element in A is in the domain of the function; that is, every element of A is mapped to some
element in the range. (If some element in S has no mapping (arrow), then the relation is not a function!)
 No element in the domain maps to more than one element in the range.
 The mapping is not necessarily onto; some elements of T may not be in the range.
 The mapping is not necessarily one-one; some elements of T may have more than one element of S
mapped to them.
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS  S and T need not be disjoint.
I. RELATION

i. Let A and B be two sets. A relation between A and B is a collection of ordered pairs (a, b) such that a
A and b B V. Types of functions
ii. If 𝑅: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a relation from A to B, then 𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐵
iii. If n(A) = m, n(B) = n ,then total number of relations from A to B is 2mn.  Injections A function f from A to B is called one to one (or one- one) if whenever 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 ) = 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 ) ⟹
iv. Domain of R = {𝑎: (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅} 𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐 . 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛(𝐴) ≤ 𝑛(𝐵).
v. Range of R = {𝑏: (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅}  Surjections. A function f from A to B is called onto if for all b in B there is an a in A such that f(a) = b.
vi. Co-domain of R = 𝐵 ⟹ ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∶ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦. 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛(𝐴) ≥ 𝑛(𝐵). Range = Co-domain.

II. Equivalence Relation  Bijections are functions that are injective and surjective i.e. a function f from A to B is called a bijection
if it is one to one and onto.𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛(𝐴) = 𝑛(𝐵)
Let S be a set and R a relation between S and itself. We call R an equivalence relation on S if R has the VI. Some special functions with their domain, range and nature
following three properties:
1. Polynomial function p(x) = a0 + a1x+a2x2+…+anxn ; domain = R; range = R ; continuous
 Reflexivity: Every element of S is related to itself ⟹ (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆. 2. Constant Function f(x) = k domain = r ; range = {k} ; continuous
 Symmetry: If a is related to b then b is related to a . (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 ⟹ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆.
 Transitivity: If a is related to b and b is related to c, then a is related to c. (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 , (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 ⟹ 3. Identity function I(x) = x ; domain = R; range = R ; continuous
(𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆. 4. Exponential function f(x) = ex or ax domain = R; domain = (0, ∝) ; continuous
5. Logarithmic function f(x) = logx or In x domain = (0, ∝) : range = R ; continuous
Antisymmetric - A relation is antisymmetric if a R b and b R a⟹ a=b for all values a and b.
6. Square root function f(x) = √𝑥 ; domain = (0, ∝) ; range = (0, ∝) ; continuous.
III. FUNCTIONS :
7. Sine function - sin: R→ [−1,1]; 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠
 Definition - Any relation on A x B in which
i. No two second elements have a common first element and 8. Cosine function - cos: R→ [−1,1]; 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠
ii. Every first element has a corresponding second element is called a function. It is also called mapping. (2𝑛+1)𝜋
A function is said to map an element x in its domain to an element y in its range. 𝑓: 𝐴 → 9. Tangent function - tan: R− {𝑥: 𝑥 = } → 𝑅; continuous in its domain
2
𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 where y is a function of x. (2𝑛+1)𝜋
 DOMAIN - The set of all the first elements of the ordered pairs of a function is called the domain 10. Secant function - sec: R− {𝑥: 𝑥 = } → 𝑅 − (−1,1); continuous in its domain
2
 RANGE - The set of all the second elements of the ordered pairs of a function is called the range
11. Cosecant function - cosec: R−{𝑥: 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 } → 𝑅 − (−1,1); continuous in its domain
 CODOMAIN - If (a, b) is an ordered pair of the function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 then the set B is called the Co-Domain. The
range is a subset of the co-domain. 12. Cotangent function - cot: R−{𝑥: 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍} → 𝑅; continuous in its domain
13. 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 x = Greatest integer that is less than or equal to x. domain= R, range = Z;
IV. Some important facts about a function from A to B: discontinuous.

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14. Ceiling function x = Least integer that is greater than or equal to x.domain= R; range = Z; IX. Inverse of a composition
discontinuous
1
15. Reciprocal function f(x) = ; domain = R - {o};range = R - {o} continuous in R+ and R-
𝑥
𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
16. Modulus function f(x) = |𝑥| = { ; Domain = R; Range = R + ; continuous.
−𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
|𝑥| 1, 𝑥 >0
, ∀𝑥 ≠ 0
17. Signum function f(x) = { 𝑥 = { 0 , 𝑥 = 0 ; domain = R ;range = {-1 , 0 ,1}; discontinuous.
0 , 𝑥=0 −1, 𝑥 < 0 The inverse of g o ƒ is ƒ–1 o g–1.
VII. COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS - function composition is the application of one function to the
results of another. For instance, the functions f: X → Y and g: Y → Z can be composed by computing The inverse of a composition of functions is given by the formula
the output of g when it has an input of f(x) instead of x. A function g ∘ f: X → Z defined by (g ∘ f)(x) =
g(f(x)) for all x in X. X. BINARY OPERATION on a set – Let A be a non-empty set.A binary operation * on the set A is a
function ∗: 𝐴 × 𝐴 → 𝐴 such that a*b ∈ 𝐴∀ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐴
 The composition of functions is always associative. That is, if f, g, and h are three functions with suitably
chosen domains and codomains, then f ∘ (g ∘ h) = (f ∘ g) ∘ h,  Commutative property - A binary operation * on the set A is said to be commutative if a*b = b*a
∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴.
 The functions g and f are said to commute with each other if g ∘ f = f ∘ g.  Associative property - A binary operation * on the set A is said to be associative if a*(b*c) = (a* b)*c
∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴
VIII. INVERSE OF A FUNCTION - Let ƒ be a bijective function whose domain is the set X, and whose  Identity element of a binary operation – Given a binary operation ∗: 𝐴 × 𝐴 → 𝐴, a unique element e ∈ 𝐴,
range is the set Y. Then, if it exists, the inverse of ƒ is the function ƒ–1 with domain Y and range X, if it exists , is called the identity element for * if a*e = a = e*a ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.
defined by the following rule:  Inverse of an element - Given a binary operation ∗: 𝐴 × 𝐴 → 𝐴, the identity element e ∈ 𝐴, an element a
is called invertible w.r.t.* if ∃𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐚 ∗ 𝐛 = 𝐞 = 𝐛 ∗ 𝐚 .Then b is called the inverse of a
 A function with a codomain is invertible if and only if it is both one-to-one and onto or a bijection and and is denoted by a-1 i.e. a * a-1= e = a-1 * a.
has the property that every element y ∈ Y corresponds to exactly one element x ∈ X. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
 Domain (f) = range(f-1) and range (f) = domain (f-1)

 Inverses and composition - If ƒ is an invertible function with domain X and range Y, then INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS or cyclometric functions - are the so-called inverse
functions of the trigonometric functions, when their domain are restricted to principal value branch to make
the trigonometric functions bijectiveThe principal inverses are listed in the following table.
 There is a symmetry between a function and its inverse. Specifically, if the inverse of ƒ is ƒ–1, then the
inverse of ƒ–1 is the original function ƒ. i.e. If 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐼𝑋 then 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝐼𝑌
 Only one-to-one functions have a unique inverse.
Range of usual Range of usual
 If the function is not one-to-one, the domain of the function must be restricted so that a portion of the Domain of x for
Name Usual notation Definition principal value principal value
graph is one-to-one. You can find a unique inverse over that portion of the restricted domain. real result
(radians) (degrees)
 The domain of the function is equal to the range of the inverse. The range of the function is equal to the
domain of the inverse.
arcsine y = sin-1 x x = sin y −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 −π/2 ≤ y ≤ π/2 −90° ≤ y ≤ 90°

arccosine y = cos-1 x x = cos y −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 0≤y≤π 0° ≤ y ≤ 180°

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 Vidyarthi Tutorials H10 Raghu Nagar, Pankha Road, opp.Janakpuri. Ph 9818084221 6 Vidyarthi Tutorials H10 Raghu Nagar, Pankha Road, opp.Janakpuri. Ph 9818084221 7

𝑝 𝑏 𝑝 ℎ ℎ 𝑏
 Use 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (ℎ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (ℎ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑏 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (𝑝) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (𝑏) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (𝑝)
arctangent y = tan-1 x x = tan y all real numbers −π/2 < y < π/2 −90° ≤ y ≤ 90°
V. SUM FORMULA
arccotangent y = cot-1 x x = cot y all real numbers 0<y<π 0° < y < 180°
 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ± 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [𝑥√1 − 𝑦 2 ± 𝑦√1 − 𝑥 2 ].
 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 ± 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 [𝑥𝑦 ∓ √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑦 2 ]
0 ≤ y < π/2 or π/2 < 0° ≤ y < 90° or 90° < y ≤ 𝑥±𝑦
arcsecant y = sec-1 x x = sec y x ≤ −1 or 1 ≤ x  𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 ± 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
1∓𝑥𝑦
y≤π 180° 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧−𝑥𝑦𝑧
 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
1−𝑥𝑦−𝑦𝑧−𝑧𝑥

−π/2 ≤ y < 0 or 0 < −90° ≤ y ≤ 0° or 0° < y ≤ VI. MULTIPLE FORMULA

arccosecant y = csc-1 x x = csc y x ≤ −1 or 1 ≤ x
y ≤ π/2 90°
 2𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2 ]
 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 [2𝑥 2 − 1]
Properties of the inverse trigonometric functions 2𝑥 2𝑥 1−𝑥 2
 2𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 1−𝑥 2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 1+𝑥 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 1+𝑥 2
I. COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES:  3𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 [3𝑥 − 4𝑥 3 ]
 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 [4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥]
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 =  𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 =  𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥 =  3𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 1−3𝑥 2
3𝑥−𝑥 3
2 2 2

II. NEGATIVE ARGUMENTS:

CALCULUS
 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (−𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 I. ALGEBRAIC AND TRIGONOMETRICIDENTITIES
 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥
1. a3 + b3 = (a+b)(a2 – ab + b2) 7. cos (u±𝑣) = cos u  cos v  sin u  sin v
 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−𝑥) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥
2. a3 - b3 = (a - b)(a2 + ab + b2) tan u  tan v
 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (−𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥
3. sin2 x  cos2 x  1
 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 8. tan(u±𝑣) = 1 tan u  tan v
 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (−𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 4. 1  tan2 x  sec2 x 2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑢
9. 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑢 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢 = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢
5. 1  cot 2 x  csc2 x
III. RECIPROCAL ARGUMENTS: u  cos v  cos u  sin v
6. Sin (u±𝑣) = sin
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 
1 𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) = 2 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0 10. cos2u = cos2u – sin2u = 2 cos2u – 1 = 1 – 2sin2u = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢
2 tan u 1  cos 2u
1 1 𝜋
16. cos u 
2
 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥−1
 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) = − 2 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = −𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1
𝑥𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0 11. tan(2u) 
1  tan 2 u 2
1 1 𝜋
 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥  𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (𝑥) = 2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0 12. Sin3u= 3sinu – 4sin3u 1  cos 2u
13. Cos3u = 4cos3u – 3cosu 17. tan2 u 
 𝑠𝑒𝑐−1 1
(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
𝑥  𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 1
(𝑥) =
3𝜋 −1
− 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = 𝜋 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0 1  cos 2u
2 3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑢−𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝑢 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢−𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑢
14. Tan3u = 1−3𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑢 18. Sin3u =
IV. CONVERTION FORMULA 4
h 1  cos 2u 19. cos3u =
3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢+𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑢
p 15. sin2 u  4
 Use Pythagoras formula in a right triangle to get the 3rd side 2 1
b 20. sinu.sinv = [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑢 − 𝑣) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑢 + 𝑣)]
2

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1 (𝑢+𝑣) (𝑢−𝑣)
21. cosu.cosv = [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑢 − 𝑣)] 25. sinu - sinv = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 iii. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).
2 2 2 𝑥→𝑎
1
22. Sinu.cosv = [𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑢 − 𝑣)] 26. cosu + cosv = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠
(𝑢+𝑣)
𝑐𝑜𝑠
(𝑢−𝑣)  Discontinuity at a point- A function f(x) fails to be continuous at the point x = a if
2 2 2 i. f(x) is not defined at a i.e. the point a does not lie in the domain of f
1 (𝑢+𝑣) (𝑣−𝑢)
23. cosu.sinv = [𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑢 + 𝑣) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑢 − 𝑣)] 27. cosu - cosv = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ii. lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 i.e. either any of LHL or RHL do not exist or if they exist they are
2 2 2
(𝑢+𝑣) (𝑢−𝑣) 𝑥→𝑎
24. sinu + sinv = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 not equal.
2 2
a b c iii. Limit exists but lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎).
law of cosines: c  a  b  2ab cos C
2 2 2
28. law of sines:   𝑥→𝑎
sin A sin B sin C  Left continuity at a point – A function is said to be left continuous at x = a if lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑥→𝑎
1  Right continuity at a point – A function is said to be right continuous at x = a if lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).
29. area of triangle using trig. Area  ac sin B 𝑥→𝑎
2
 Removable discontinuity – if x = a is a point such that Limit exists but lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
II. CONIC SECTION FORMULA Then f is said to have removable discontinuity at x = a.
𝑓
 x  h   y  k   r 2  (provided g(x)≠ 0)
2 2
If f(x) and g(x) are continuous at x = a then so are f+g. f - g, kf , f.g,
1. Circle formula: 𝑔

 x  h  4 p  y  k  Composition of two continuous functions is continuous.
2

2. Parabola formula:
x2 y2 V. DIFFERENTIATION
 1 c  a 2  b2 f ( x  h)  f ( x )
a 2 b2 𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
3. Ellipse formula: I. Definition of derivative : If y = f(x) then y1 = = f ( x)  lim
2 2
𝑑𝑥 h 0 h
x y
4. Hyperbola formula:  1 c  a 2  b2  A function f of x is differentiable if it is continuous.
a 2 b2 𝒇(𝒂−𝒉)−𝒇(𝒂)
c  Left hand derivative – LHD = Lf’(a) = lim− 𝒉
𝑥→𝑎
e 𝑓(𝑎−ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
5. eccentricity: a  Right hand derivative – RHD = R f’(a) = lim+ ℎ
𝑥→𝑎

2 2
x y When LHD & RHD both exist and are equal then f(x) is said to be derivable or differentiable.
6. parameterization of ellipse:   1 becomes x  a cos t , y  b sin t
a 2 b2 II. FORMULAS OF DERIVATIVES
𝑑(𝐶) 𝑑(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥)
III. FORMULAS OF LIMITS 1. 𝑑𝑥 = 0 12. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
ln x 𝑑(𝑥) 𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥)
a. Change of base rule for logs: log a x  2. =1 13. = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
ln a 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑥 𝑛 ) 𝑛−1 𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥) 1
sin x e. lim
𝑒 𝑥 −1
=1 3. = 𝑛𝑥 14. = √1−𝑥 2
b. lim = 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑑(𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 𝑥) 1
x 0 x 𝑎𝑥 −1 4. = 𝑒𝑥 15. = − √1−𝑥 2
sin x f. lim = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑑(𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 )
c. lim = 0 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑(𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥) 1
x  x g. lim
log(1+𝑥)
=1 5. = 𝑎𝑒 16. = 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 𝑛 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑑(𝑎𝑥 )
𝑥 −𝑎
6. 𝑥
= 𝑎 . 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥) 1
d. lim 𝑥−𝑎 = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 17. = − 1+𝑥 2
𝑥→𝑎 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥) 1
7. =𝑥 𝑑(𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥) 1
IV. CONTINUITY 𝑑𝑥 18. 𝑑𝑥
=
|𝑥|√𝑥 2 −1
 DEFINITION - Continuity of a function(x) at a point – A function f(x) is said to be continuous at the 𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)
8. = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥) 1
point x = a if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎). 𝑑𝑥 19. = − |𝑥|√𝑥 2
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 −1
𝑥→𝑎 9. = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑓(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
 Continuity of a function f(x) at x = a means 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥)
20. = 𝑎𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 +b)
𝑑𝑥
i. f(x) is defined at a i.e. the point a lies in the domain of f 10. 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
ii. lim 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑖. 𝑒. lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) 11.
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥)
= −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑑𝑥

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III. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION 4. calculate 𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑥
at the assumed value of x
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑢
 Chain rule : if y = f(u) and u = g(x) then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 . 𝑑𝑥 5. Using differential calculate ∆𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
× ∆𝑥

 Product rule : If u and v are two functions of x then

𝑑(𝑢.𝑣) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑢. 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 ′ + 𝑢′𝑣 6. find the approximate value of the quantity asked in the question as y + ∆𝑦, from the values of y and ∆𝑦
𝑑𝑥 evaluated in step 3 and 5.
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣𝑢′ −𝑢𝑣 ′
 Quotient rule :If u and v are two functions of x then ( )= II. Tangents and normals –
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2
𝑑𝑦
dy  Slope of the tangent to the curve y = f(x) at the point (x0,y0) is given by }
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )
dy
 Parametric differentiation: if y =f(t), x= g(t) then ,  dt 𝑑𝑦
dx dx  Equation of the tangent to the curve y = f(x) at the point (x0,y0) is (y - y0) = } (x − x0 ).
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )
dt 𝑑𝑥
 Slope of the normal to the curve y = f(x) at the point (x0,y0) is given by − }
df 1 1 𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 ,𝑦 )
 Derivative formula for inverses  0 0
𝑑𝑥
dx x  f ( a ) df  Equation of the normal to the curve y = f(x) at the point (x0,y0) is (y - y0) = − } (x − x0 )
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 ,𝑦 )
dx x  a 0 0
 To curves y = f(x) and y = g(x) are orthogonal means their tangents are perpendicular to each other at the
 Logarithmic differentiation : If y = f(x)g(x) then take log on both the sides. point of contact
Write logy = g(x) log[f(x)]. Differentiate by applying suitable rule for differentiation. 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣  𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑥 ] × 𝑑𝑥 ] = −1
 If y is sum of two different exponential function u and v, i.e. y = u + v. Find 𝑎𝑛𝑑 by 𝑐1 𝑐2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
logarithmic differentiation separately then evaluate 𝑑𝑥 as 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
III. Increasing/Decreasing Functions
 Intermediate Value Theorem: If a function is continuous between a and b , then it takes on every value  Definition of an increasing function: A function f(x) is "increasing" at a point x0 if and only if there
between f (a ) and f (b) . exists some interval I containing x0 such that f(x0) > f(x) for all x in I to the left of x0 and f(x0) < f(x) for
 Extreme Value Theorem:If f is continuous over a closed interval, then f has a maximum and all x in I to the right of x0.
minimum value over that interval.  Definition of a decreasing function: A function f(x) is "decreasing" at a point x0 if and only if there
 Mean Value Theorem(for derivatives) : If f ( x) is a continuous function over a , b , and f(x) is exists some interval I containing x0 such that f(x0) < f(x) for all x in I to the left of x0 and f(x0) > f(x) for
all x in I to the right of x0.
f (b)  f (a )
differentiable in (a,b)then at some point c between a and b :  f (c) (the tangent at x = c is  To find the intervals in which a given function is increasing or decreasing
ba 1. Differentiate the given function y = f(x), to get f’(x)
parallel to the chord joining (a, f(a)) and (b , f(b)) ) 2. Solve f’(x) = 0 to find the critical points.

3. Consider all the subintervals of R formed by the critical points.( no. of subintervals will be one
 Rolle’s Theorem If (i) f ( x) is a continuous function over a , b , (ii) f(x) is differentiable in (a,b) (iii) f(a) more than the no. of critical points. )
= f(b)then there exists some point c between a and b such that f’(c) = 0 ( the tangent at x = c is parallel 4. Find the value of f’(x) in each subinterval.
to x axis ) 5. f’(x) > 0 implies f(x) is increasing and f’(x) < 0 implies f(x) is decreasing.
VI. APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVE
I. APPROXIMATIONS, DIFFERENTIALS AND ERRORS VII. CONCAVITY
 Absolute error - The increment ∆𝑥 in x is called the absolute error in x.  Definition of a concave up curve: f(x) is "concave up" at x0 if and only if f '(x) is increasing at x0 which
Δ𝑥 means f”(x)> 0 at x0 i.e. it is a minima.
 Relative error - If ∆𝑥 is an error in x , then x is called the relative error in x .
 Definition of a concave down curve: f(x) is "concave down" at x0 if and only if f '(x) is decreasing at x0
Δ𝑥
 Percentage error - If ∆𝑥 is an error in x , then x × 100 is called the percentage error in x which means f”(x) < 0 at x0 i.e. it is a maxima.
 Approximation -  The first derivative test: If f '(x0) exists and is positive, then f(x) is increasing at x0. If f '(x) exists and is
1. Take the quantity given in the question as y + ∆𝑦= f(x + ∆𝑥) negative, then f(x) is decreasing at x0. If f '(x0) does not exist or is zero, then the test fails.
2. Take a suitable value of x nearest to the given value. Calculate ∆𝒙
3. Calculate y= f(x) at the assumed value of x.]

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 The second derivative test: If f ''(x) exists at x0 and is positive, then f (x) is concave up or has minima at  Alternate method of finding extrema: If f(x) is continuous in a closed interval I, then the absolute
x0. If f ''(x0) exists and is negative, then f(x) is concave down or has maxima at x0. If f ''(x) does not exist extrema of f(x) in I occur at the critical points and/or at the endpoints of I.
or is zero, then the test fails.
VII. INDEFINITE INTEGRALS
VIII. Critical Points
 Definition of a critical point: a critical point on f(x) occurs at x0 if and only if either f '(x0) is zero or the Definition - if the derivative of F(x) is f(x) then ANTIDERIVATIVE or INTEGRAL of f(x) is F(x) , it is
derivative doesn't exist. denoted by∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶 where C is any constant of integration. The process of finding the
 Definition of an inflection point: An inflection point occurs on f(x) at x0 if and only if f(x) has a antiderivative or integral is called INTEGRATION.
tangent line at x0 and there exists and interval I containing x0 such that f(x) is concave up on one side of
x0 and concave down on the other side.  Theorem 1. If two functions differ by a constant, they have the same derivative.
IX. Extrema (Maxima and Minima)  Theorem 2. If two functions have the same derivative, their difference is a constant
 Definition of a local maxima: A function f(x) has a local maximum at x0 if and only if there exists some I. FORMULA OF INTEGRATION.
interval I containing x0 such that f(x0) ≥f(x) for all x in I. 1. ∫[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 7.
2. ∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶
 Definition of a local minima: A function f(x) has a local minimum at x0 if and only if there exists some
3. ∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)). 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑡
interval I containing x0 such that f(x0) ≤f(x) for all x in I. 4. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥) − ∫ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
8.
 Occurrence of local extrema: All local extrema occur at critical points, but not all critical points occur 9.
at local extrema. 5. where u is a variable, a is any constant,
and e is a defined constant.
 The first derivative test for local extrema: If f(x) is increasing (f '(x) > 0) for all x in some interval (a, 6.
x0] and f(x) is decreasing (f '(x) < 0) for all x in some interval [x0, b), then f(x) has a local maximum at II. INTEGRAL OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS:
x0. If f(x) is decreasing (f '(x) < 0) for all x in some interval (a, x0] and f(x) is increasing (f '(x) > 0) for all 1. ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙𝒅𝒙 = −𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 + 𝒄 9. ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙 + 𝒄
x in some interval [x0, b), then f(x) has a local minimum at x0. 2. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝒄 10. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙 + 𝒄
3. ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙| + 𝒄 𝒅𝒙
 The second derivative test for local extrema: If f '(x0) = 0 and f ''(x0) > 0, then f(x) has a local 11. ∫ = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑪 = −𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑪, |𝒙| ≤ 𝟏
√𝟏−𝒙𝟐
4. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙 − 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒙| + 𝒄 𝒅𝒙
minimum at x0. If f '(x0) = 0 and f ''(x0) < 0, then f(x) has a local maximum at x0. 5. ∫ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙| + 𝒄 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙| + 𝒄 12. ∫ = 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 𝒙 = −𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 𝒙 , 𝒙 ≥ 𝟏
𝑿√𝒙𝟐 −𝟏
 To solve word problems of maxima and minima: 6. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙| + 𝒄
13. ∫
𝒅𝒙
= 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑪 = −𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 𝒙 + C
𝟐
7. ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙 + 𝒄 𝟏+𝒙 𝟐
1. Draw the figure and list down the facts given in the question.
8. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙𝒅𝒙 = −𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒙 + 𝒄
2. From the given function convert one variable in term of the other. III. INTEGRAL OF POWERS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: The integrals of powers of trigonometric functions
3. Write down the function to be optimized and convert it into a function of one variable by using will be limited to those which may, by substitution, be written in the form ∫ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢
the result of step 2.
4. Then proceed to find maxima or minima by applying second derivative test. 1. Techniques of Integration: Integrating Powers and Product of Sines and Cosines∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥
5. Evaluate all components of the question.
X. Absolute Extrema We have two cases: both m and n are even or at least one of them is odd.

 Definition of absolute maxima: y0 is the "absolute maximum" of f(x) on I if and only if y0 ≥ f(x) for all 2. Case I: m or n odd Suppose n is odd - then substitute sinx = t. Indeed, we have cosxdx = dt and hence
x on I. 𝒏/𝟐
∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎 𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝒕𝒎 (𝟏 − 𝒕𝟐 ) 𝒅𝒕 .
 Definition of absolute minima: y0 is the "absolute minimum" of f(x) on I if and only if y0 ≤ f(x) for all
x on I. 1  cos 2u cos2 u  1  cos 2u
3. Case II: m and n are even : Use the trigonometric identities sin2 u 
 The extreme value theorem: If f(x) is continuous in a closed interval I, then f(x) has at least one 2 , 2
absolute maximum and one absolute minimum in I.
 Occurrence of absolute maxima: If f(x) is continuous in a closed interval I, then the absolute maximum IV. INTEGRALS OF MULTIPLES OF SIN AND COS : for integrals
of f(x) in I is the maximum value of f(x) on all local maxima and endpoints on I. ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒎𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒏𝒙)𝒅𝒙, ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒎𝒙) 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒏𝒙)𝒅𝒙,
 Occurrence of absolute minima: If f(x) is continuous in a closed interval I, then the absolute minimum
of f(x) in I is the minimum value of f(x) on all local minima and endpoints on I. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒎𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒏𝒙)𝒅𝒙 use the transformation formula

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1 𝒑𝒙+𝒒 𝒑𝒙+𝒒
1. Sin(mx).sin(nx) = 2 [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥] X. Integrals of the form ∫
𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄
𝒅𝒙 or ∫ 𝒅𝒙
√𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄
1 2
2. Sin(mx).cos (nx) = 2 [𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥]  Put px+q = 𝜆
𝑑(𝑎𝑥 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐)
+ 𝜇 = 𝜆(2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝜇.
1 𝑑𝑥
3. cos(mx).cos(nx) = 2 [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥]  Evaluate 𝜆 and 𝜇 by equating the coefficients of like powers of x from both sides
2𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝟏 2𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝟏
 Express given integral as 𝜆 ∫ 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜇 ∫ 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 OR 𝜆 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜇 ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝒂𝒙 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄 𝒂𝒙 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄 𝟐 √𝒂𝒙 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄 √𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄
V. REDUCTION FORMULA : In integrals of the form∫ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙, ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 , ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 , ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙
Use 
Use completion of square method for the second integral , to convert it into standard form

Then use suitable integral formula.
1. For ∫ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 , substitute tannx = tann-2x tan2x = tann - 2x(sec2x - 1) , then put tanx = t XI. Integrals of the form ∫(𝒑𝒙 + 𝒒) √𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝒅𝒙 :
𝑑(𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐)
2. For ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 , substitute cotnx = cotn-2x cot2x = cot n - 2x(cosec2x - 1) , then put cotx = t  Put px+q = 𝜆 + 𝜇 = 𝜆(2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝜇.
𝑑𝑥
3. For ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 , substitute secnx = secn-2x sec2x = secn - 2x(tan2x + 1) , then put secx = t  Evaluate 𝜆 and 𝜇 by equating the coefficients of like powers of x from both sides
4. For ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒏 𝒙𝒅𝒙 , substitute cosecnx = cosecn-2x cosec2x = cosecn - 2x(cot2x + 1) , then put cosecx = t
 Express given integral as 𝜆 ∫(2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)√𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝑑 𝑥 + 𝜇 ∫ √𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 (𝑓(𝑥))𝑛+1
VI. INTEGRALS INVOLVING √𝒂𝟐 ± 𝒙𝟐 𝑨𝑵𝑫 √𝒙𝟐 ± 𝒂𝟐 ----Trigonometric substitutions may be used to eliminate  Use the formula ∫(𝑓(𝑥)) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1 to evaluate the first integral and use completion of square
radicals from integrals method for the second integral , to convert it into standard form
1. for √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 then dx = a cost dt  Then use suitable integral formula.
2. for √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 then dx = a sec2t dt 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
3. for √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡 then dx = a sect tant dt XII. Integrals of the form ∫ 𝒂+𝒃𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙, ∫ 𝒂+𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙, ∫ 𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙+𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙, ∫ (𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙)𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝟏
∫ 𝒂+𝒃𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙+𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙
VII. Standard formula
 Divide numerator and denominator by cos2x
1 1 𝑥 1 𝑥  Express sec2x ,if any, in the denominator as 1+tan2x
1. ∫ 𝑎2 +𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = tan−1 𝑎 + 4. ∫ √𝑎2 −𝑥2 dx = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 +C  Put tanx = t so that sec2xdx = dt
𝑎 𝑎
C 1 𝒅𝒙
5. ∫ dx = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 | + C XIII. RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS OF SIN AND COS. ∫
𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙
1 √𝑎 2 +𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥
2. ∫ 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2
6. ∫
1
dx = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + C  put sinx = 2
𝑥 and cosx = 2
𝑥
1 𝑎+𝑥 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2
𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑎−𝑥| + C √𝑥 2 −𝑎 2 2 2
2𝑎
7. ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 dx =
𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑎 + C  then substitute
1
3. ∫ 𝑥2− 𝑑𝑥 = 2
𝑥 𝑎2
 Then use completion of square method
𝑎2
1 𝑥−𝑎 8. ∫ √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 dx = 2
√𝑎 + 𝑥 + 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 | + C
2 2
XIV.
𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙+𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙
𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 ∫ 𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 + 𝒅𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 𝒅𝒙
2𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥+𝑎| + C 𝑥 𝑎2
9. ∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 dx = 2
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + C  write numerator = λ( derivative of denominator) + μ(denominator), i.e.
asinx + bcosx = λ( acosx − bsinx) + μ(csinx + dcosx )
𝟏 𝟏  obtain the values of λ and μ by equating the coefficients of sinx and cosx from both the sides.
VIII. Integrals of the form ∫ 𝒂𝒙𝟐+𝒃𝒙+𝒄 𝒅𝒙 or ∫ 𝒅𝒙 : Apply completion of square method to convert 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥−𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥+𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
√𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄  Express the given integral as 𝜆 ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜇 ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥dx. And evaluate.
2 2
𝑏 √4𝑎𝑐−𝑏2 𝑃(𝑥)
ax + bx + c = a [(𝑥 +
2
2𝑎
) + ( 2𝑎 ) ] and use suitable standard formula. XV. THE METHOD OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS : to integrate the rational function f(x) = 𝑄(𝑥)
𝒙𝟐 +𝟏 𝒙𝟐 −𝟏 𝟏 1. If degree(P) ≥ 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 (𝑸) , perform polynomial long-division. Otherwise go to step 2.
IX. Integrals of the form∫ 𝒙𝟒+𝝀𝒙𝟐+𝟏 𝒅𝒙 , ∫ 𝒙𝟒+𝝀𝒙𝟐+𝟏 𝒅𝒙 , ∫ 𝒙𝟒+𝝀𝒙𝟐+𝟏 𝒅𝒙 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝝀 ∈ 𝑹 ,
2. Factor the denominator Q(x) into irreducible polynomials: linear and irreducible quadratic
 Divide numerator and denominator by x2 polynomials.
1 2 1
 Express denominator as (𝑥 ± 𝑥) ± 𝑘 2 , ( choose the sign between x and 𝑥 as opposite of that in 3. Find the partial fraction decomposition by usingthe following table
Form of rational function Form of partial function
numerator. 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
1 1
 Substitute x + 𝑥 = t or x - 𝑥 = t as the case may be . +
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
 Reduce the integral to standard form and apply suitable formula.

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𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 XXI. INTEGRATION OF SOME SPECIAL IRRATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS integrals of the

+ + 𝜑(𝑥)
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)(𝑒𝑥 + 𝑓) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑓 form∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑃√𝑄
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵 1
+  ∫ (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)√𝑐𝑥+𝑑 𝑑𝑥: P and Q are both linear functions of x, put Q = t2.i.e. cx + d = t2.
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2
1
𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶  ∫ (𝑎𝑥2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐) 𝑝𝑥+𝑞 𝑑𝑥: P is a quadratic expression and Q is linear expression of x, put Q = t2.
+ + √
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 i.e. put px + q = t 2

𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 1 1
+ +  ∫ 𝑑𝑥 : P is a linear expression and Q is quadratic expression of x, put P = ,
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)3 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)3 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)√𝑝𝑥2 +𝑞𝑥+𝑟 𝑡
1
𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴
+ 2
𝐵𝑥+𝐶
, where cx2+dx+e can not be i.e. ax+ b = 𝑡
.
𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑐𝑥 +𝑑𝑥+𝑒 1 1 −𝑡dt
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒) further factorised  ∫ dx : P and Q are pure quadratic expressions, put x= ,to obtain ∫ , then put c+dt2
(𝑎𝑥2 +𝑏)√𝑐𝑥2 +𝑑 𝑡 (𝑎+𝑏𝑡2 )√𝑐+𝑑𝑡2
A ,B , C are real numbers to be determined by taking LCM and comparing the coefficients of like
= u2
terms from the numerator . 𝑝𝑥+𝑞
4. Integrate the result of step 3.  ∫ dx : P and Q are pure quadratic expressions and 𝜑(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟, put x = t2.
(𝑎𝑥2 +𝑏)√𝑐𝑥2 +𝑑
𝒅𝒙
XVI. To evaluate ∫ 𝒙(𝒙𝒏 +𝒌) , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑛 ≥ 2
 Multiply numerator and denominator by xn-1 VIII. DEFINITE INTEGRAL:
 Then substitute xn = t , so that n x n-1 dx = dt
 Then apply partial fraction. 1. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Let f (x) be continuous on [a, b]. If F(x) is any antiderivative of f (x),
𝑏
XVII. If a rational function contains only even powers of x in both numerator and denominator then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) where b, the upper limit, and a, the lower limit, are given values.Notice that
 Put x2 = y t in the given rational function the constant of integration does not appear in the final expression of equation.
 Resolve the rational function obtained in step 1 into partial fraction 2. Areas above and below a curve:If the graph of y = f(x), between x = a and x = b, has portions above and
𝑏
 Replace back y = x2. Then integrate. portions below the X axis, then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) is the sum of the absolute values of the positive
areas above the X axis and the negative areas below the X axis. the value of b is the upper limit and the
XVIII. Integration by Parts – If u and g are two functions of x then the integral of product of two functions =
value of a is the lower limit.
1st function × 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝟐𝒏𝒅𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 - integral of the product of the derivative of 1st
function and the integral of the 2nd function
 Write the given integral∫ 𝑢(𝑥). 𝑣(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 where you identify the two functions u(x) and v(x) as the 1st and 2nd
function by the order
I – inverse trigonometric function
L – Logarithmic function
A – Algebraic function
T – Trigonometric function 3. Mean Value Theorem(for definite integrals) If f is continuous on  a, b  , then at some
E – Exponential function 1 b
point c in  a, b  , f  c   f  x  dx
 Note that if you are given only one function, then set the second one to be the constant function g(x)=1. b  a a
 integrate the given function by using the formula
𝑑
∫ 𝑢(𝑥). 𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢(𝑥) ∫ 𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [(𝑑𝑥 𝑢(𝑥)) (∫ 𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 4. Definite integral as the limit of a sum of all the strips between a and b, having areas of
XIX. Integrals of the form ∫ 𝒆 𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙) ′
+ 𝒇 (𝒙)] dx 𝑓(𝑎 + ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑘 − 1ℎ). ℎ that is,
𝑏
 Express the integral as sum of two integrals , one containing f(x) and other containing f’(x)i.e., ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑𝑘=𝑛
𝑘=1 [𝑓(𝑥 + (𝑘 − 1)ℎ)] × ℎ
ℎ→0
∫ 𝒆𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒇′ (𝒙)] dx = ∫ 𝒆𝒙 𝒇(𝒙)𝐝𝐱 + ∫ 𝒆𝒙 𝒇′(𝒙)𝐝𝐱
 Evaluate the first integral by integration by parts by taking ex as 2nd function
= lim ℎ[𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑎 + 2ℎ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)ℎ)]
 2nd integral on R.H.S. will get cancelled by the 2nd term obtained by evaluating the 1st integral. ℎ→0
 We get ∫ 𝒆𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒇′ (𝒙)] dx = ex f(x) + C
XX. Integrals of the type ∫ 𝒆𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒃𝒙𝒅𝒙 or∫ 𝒆𝒂𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒃𝒙𝒅𝒙 Steps :- 1. Find nh = b – a
 Apply integration by parts twice by taking eax as the first function.

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2.Evaluate f(a) , f(a+h), f(a+ 2h), …, f{a + (n – 1)h} and set pattern in terms of h ,h 2 ,h 3 etc. IX. AREA UNDER THE BOUNDED REGION
𝑏
 Area of the region bounded by the curve y = f(x) , the x axis and ordinates x = a and x = b is ∫𝑎 𝑦𝑑𝑥 =
𝑏
3.Use ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ℎ[𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑎 + 2ℎ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)ℎ)] 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
ℎ→0
𝑏
 Area of the region bounded by the curve x = f(y) , the y axis and ordinates y = a and y= b is ∫𝑎 𝑥𝑑𝑦 =
4.After combining the terms of constant , h , h 2, h3 together, apply the summation formulas 𝑏
(𝑛−1)𝑛 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + (𝑛 − 1) = .
2
(𝑛−1)𝑛(2𝑛−1)
 If y = f 1(x) and y = f 2(x) are two curves intersecting at the points (a, b) and (c, d) then the area enclosed
 12 +22 + 32 + ⋯ + (𝑛 − 1)2 = 6
. 𝑐
between the curves is given by ∫𝑎 (𝑦𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 − 𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑥.
(𝑛−1)2 𝑛2
 13 +23 + 33 + ⋯ + (𝑛 − 1)3 = 4
.  If x = f 1(y) and x = f 2(y) are two curves intersecting at the points (a, b) and (c, d) then the area enclosed
𝑐
2 𝑛−1 (𝑟 𝑛 −1) between the curves is given by ∫𝑎 (𝑥𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 − 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑦.
 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎 (𝑟−1) ,|𝑟| >1.
𝑛−1 𝑛ℎ
 WORKING RULE-
sin{𝑎+( )ℎ} sin( ) I. Trace the graph of the curves and write about them in brief.
2 2
 Sina +sin(a+h) +sin(a+2h)+ … +sin{a+(n - 1) h} = ℎ .
sin( ) II. Find the points of intersection of the curves.
2
𝑛−1 𝑛ℎ III. Express y in term of x befrom the equation of the curve if you are integrating w.r.t. x ( or x
cos{𝑎+( )ℎ} sin( )
2 2
 cosa +cos(a+h) +cos(a+2h)+ … +cos{a+(n - 1) h} = ℎ . in term of y if you wish to integrate w.r.t. y ) as the case may be.
sin( )
2
IV. Consider the area under the bounded region as definite integral by using the concept
5. Properties of the Definite Integral
discussed above.
V. Evaluate the definite integral.
If f (x) and g(x) are defined and continuous on [a, b], except maybe at a finite number of points, then we have the VI. Write the answer in sq. units.
following linearity principle for the integral:

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
(i) ∫𝑎 (𝑓(𝑥) ± g(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
𝑏 𝑏
(ii) ∫𝑎 𝛼𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝛼 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑐
(iii) ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0  DEFINITION: A matrix A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 is defined as an ordered rectangular array of numbers in
P0: The value of the integral do not change if variable of integration is changed 𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 ⋯ 𝒂𝟏𝒏
𝑏 𝑏 m rows and n columns. 𝑨 = [ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝒂𝒎𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝟐 ⋯ 𝒂𝒎𝒏
P1: The integral changes its sign if limit of integration is interchanged.
𝑏 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 1. ROW MATRIX A matrix can have a single row A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝟏×𝒏 = [ a11 a12 a13 … a1n]
𝑎 𝑏 𝒂𝟏𝟏
P2: The integral can be expressed as sum of sub-integrals 2. COLUMN MATRIX - A matrix can have a single column A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝟏=[ 𝒂𝟐𝟏 ]
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, where a < c < b 𝒂𝒎𝟏
𝑏 𝑏
P3: ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 3. ZERO or NULL MATRIX – A matrix is called the zero or null matrix if all the entries are 0.
𝑎 𝑎 4. SQUARE MATRIX - A matrix for which horizontal and vertical dimensions are the same (i.e., an
P4: ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
matrix).
P5: ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 5. DIAGONAL MATRIX - A square matrix A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒏 is called diagonal matrix if aij = 0 for 𝒊 ≠
𝑎
2𝑎 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝒋.
P6: ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = { 0
0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = − 𝑓(𝑥) 6. SCALAR MATRIX - A diagonal matrix A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒏 is called the scalar matrix if all its diagonal
elements are equal.
𝑎
𝑎
2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 7. IDENTITY MATRIX – A diagonal matrix A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒏 is called the identity matrix if aij = 1 for i
P7: ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = { 0 = j , it is denoted by In.
0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(−𝑥) = − 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑖 . 𝑒. 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
8. UPPER TRIANGULAR MATRIX - A square matrix A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒏 is called upper triangular
matrix if aij = 0 for 𝒊 > 𝒋

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9. LOWER TRIANGULAR MATRIX - A square matrix A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒏 is called lower triangular

matrix if aij = 0 for 𝒊 < 𝒋

 MATRIX OPERATIONS

1. DEFINITION: Two matrices A and B can be added or subtracted if and only if their Note: That AxB is not the same as BxA
dimensions are the same (i.e. both matrices have the identical amount of rows and
columns. 8. Properties of matrix multiplication
2. Addition
If A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 and B = [𝒃𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 are matrices of the same type then the sum is a matrixC =  AB ≠ BA
[𝑪𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏  A(BC) = (AB)C
obtained by adding the corresponding elements aij+bij i.e. A+B = C if aij+bij =cij  AIn = A = InA
3. Matrix addition is commutative , associative and distributive over multiplication -  AB = 0 ⇏ 𝐴 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = 0
 If AB = AC then not necessarily B = C
 A+B=B+A  A (B + C) = AB + AC
 If A is a square matrix of order n then A satisfies any given matrix polynomial
 A + (B + C) = (A+ B) + C  (A+B)C= AC + BC
f(A) = amAm+am-1Am-1 + … + a2A2+a1A+a0I
4. Subtraction
If A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 and B = [𝒃𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 are matrices of the same type then the difference is a 9. Transpose of Matrices : The transpose of a matrix is found by exchanging rows for
matrix D = [𝒅𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏obtained by subtracting the corresponding elements aij - bij i.e. A - columns i.e. Matrix A = (aij) and the transpose of A is:AT=(aji) where j is the column
B = C if aij - bij =dij number and i is the row number of matrix A.
5. Equal matrices –Two matrices are said to be equal if they have the same order and their  (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝐴  (𝐴. 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵 𝑇 𝐴𝑇
corresponding elements are also equal i.e. A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 = B = [𝒃𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 if aij = bij for all I, j .  (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵 𝑇  (𝑘. 𝐴)𝑇 = 𝑘. 𝐴𝑇
6. Scalar multiplication- If A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 and B = [𝒃𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 are matrices of the same order and k,
m are scalars then, scalar multiplication is defined as kA=[kaij].  Symmetric matrix. For a symmetric matrix A = AT i.e. aij = aji
 Skew -symmetric matrix. For a skew-symmetric matrix AT = - A i.e. aji = - aij.
 K(A+B) = Ka + Kb  (m+n) A = mA+ nA  (mk)A = m(kA) =k(mA)
 Note that the diagonal elements of the skew symmetric matrix are 0.
 A + AT is a symmetric matrix.
7. Matrix Multiplication
 A - AT is a skew - symmetric matrix.
DEFINITION: When the number of columns of the first matrix is the same as the number of  Every square matrix A can be expressed as a sum of a symmetric P and skew symmetric Q
(𝐴+𝐴𝑇 ) (𝐴− 𝐴𝑇 )
rows in the second matrix then matrix multiplication can be performed. matrices where P = and Q =
2 2

Let A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒎×𝒏 and B = [𝒃𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒑. Then the product of A and B is the matrix C, which has 10. Elementary transformation - Following elementary row or column transformations
dimensions mxp. The ijth element of matrix C is found by multiplying the entries of the ith row can be applied to a matrix
of A with the corresponding entries in the jth column of B and summing the n terms. The
elements of C are:  Interchange of any two rows or columns 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑗 or 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝐶𝑗 .
 Multiplication of any row or column by any non-zero number(scalar) 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑘𝑅𝑖 or 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝑘𝐶𝑖

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 The addition to the elements of any row or column the scalar multiples of any other row or  Non- Singular matrix – A square matrix is said to be non-singular if |𝑨| ≠ 𝟎
column 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑘𝑅𝑗 or 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝐶𝑖 + 𝑘𝐶𝑗 ,k can be any number positive or negative.  If A and B are non-singular matrices of the same order then AB and BA are also non-
 Working rule to find A-1 by elementary transformations singular matrices of the same order.

a) Write A = InA, apply elementary row transformations to both the matrices A on LHS 12. THE PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
and In on RHS till you get In= BA. Then B is the required A-1
P1 The value of the determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns are interchanged
b) Write A = AIn, apply elementary column transformations to both the matrices A on LHS P2 𝑅𝑖 ⟷ 𝐶𝑖 ⟹ ∆= ∆′ ⇒ |𝐴| = |𝐴𝑇 |
and In on RHS till you get In= AB. Then B is the required A-1 P3 If two rows or columns of a determinant is interchanged the sign of the determinant changes 𝑅𝑖 ⟷
𝑅𝑗 or 𝐶𝑖 ⟷ 𝐶𝑗 ⟹ ∆= −∆.
NOTE : Apply only one kind of transformations (row or column ) in all the steps in one P4 If any two rows or columns of a determinant is identical then its value is 0.
particular answer. P5 If each element of any row or column is multiplied by a scalar then the value of the determinant gets
multiplied by that scalar.𝑅𝑖 ⟶ 𝑘𝑅𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑖 ⟶ 𝑘𝐶𝑖 ⟹ ∆= 𝑘∆.
11. The Determinant of a Matrix P6 If each element of a row or column can be expressed as sum of two or more terms then the
determinant can be expressed as sum of two or more determinants of the same orders.
 DEFINITION: Determinants play an important role in finding the inverse of a matrix P7 If any row (or column) of a determinant is proportional to any other row (or column) then the value
and also in solving systems of linear equations. The determinant of a square matrix A is a of the determinant is 0. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑘𝑅𝑗 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑖 = 𝑘𝐶𝑗 ⟹ ∆= 0.
number associated with every square matrix and is denoted by det(A) or |A|. P8 If ,to each element of any row or column, is added the equimultiples of the corresponding elements of
 MINOR The minor of the element aij of |A| is given by Mij, where Mij is the determinant of the (n-1) one or more rows or columns, the value of the determinant remains unchanged. 𝑅𝑖 ⟶ 𝑅𝑖 +
x (n-1) matrix that is obtained by deleting row i and column j (where the element aij lies) of the 𝑘𝑅𝑗 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑖 ⟶ 𝐶𝑖 +𝑘𝐶𝑗 ⟹ ∆1 = ∆.
determinant of A. P9 If a determinant can be regarded as a polynomial function in x , and if it becomes 0 by putting x = a
 COFACTOR - The cofactor of the element aij given by Aij = (-1)i+j Mij then (x – a) is a factor of the determinant.
+ − + P10 If the elements of any row or column is multiplied by its corresponding cofactors and summed up
+ −
 Sign convention for the cofactors [ ] , [− + −] etc. then the result is the determinant itself.
− +
+ − + P11 If the elements of any row or column is multiplied by the cofactors of any other row orcolumn and
 ADJOINT (OR ADJUGATE) OF A MATRIX - the transpose of the matrix of cofactors adj(A) summed up then the result is 0.
T
=[Cij] =[Cji] P12 The determinant of the product of two square matrices of the same order is equal to the product of
their determinants. i.e. |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|
 If A is a square matrix of order n then A . adj A = adj A. A = |𝐴|𝐼𝑛 P13 If each element of a particular row or column is 0 then the value of the determinant is 0.
 If A is a square matrix of order n then|𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴| = |𝐴|𝑛−1 P14 If A is a square matrix of order n then |𝑘𝐴| = 𝑘 𝑛 |𝐴|
𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐
 Determinant of a 2x2 matrix If A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝟐×𝟐 = [𝒂
𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 ] then|𝑨| = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐
13. APPLICATION OF DETERMINANT
𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟑
 Determinant of a 3x3 matrixIf 𝑨 = [𝒂𝒊𝒋 ]𝟑×𝟑 = [𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 ] then 𝑥1 𝑦1 1
1
𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟑  Area of the triangle whose vertices are (x1,y1) , (x2 , y2), (x3, y3) is given by ∆= | |𝑥2 𝑦2 1||
𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟑 𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 2
det A= |𝑨| = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 |𝒂 | − 𝒂 | | + 𝒂 𝑥3 𝑦3 1
𝟏𝟑 |𝒂 |
𝟑𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟑
𝟏𝟐 𝒂
𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟑 𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 𝑥1 𝑦1 1
 Condition of collinearity of the points (x1,y1) , (x2 , y2), (x3, y3) is given by |𝑥2 𝑦2 1| = 0
 Determinant of a nxn matrix If A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒏 then detA= |𝑨| = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝟏𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝑨𝟏𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑥3 𝑦3 1
𝒂𝟏𝒏 𝑨𝟏𝒏 where Aij is the cofactor of the element aij given by Aij = (-1)i+j Mij.
 Singular matrix – A square matrix is said to be singular if |𝑨| = 𝟎

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𝑥 𝑦 1 iv. Calculate 𝐴−1 = |𝐴|

𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴

 Equation of a line passing through the points(x, y), (x1,y1) , (x2 , y2) is given by |𝑥1 𝑦1 1| = 0
𝑥2 𝑦2 1 NOTE - From the above it is clear that the existence of a solution depends on the value of the
determinant of A. There are three cases:
14. The Inverse of a Matrix 1. If the |𝐴| ≠ 0 then the system is consistent with unique solution given by 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵
2. If |𝐴| = 0 (A is singular) and adjA .B ≠ 0 then the solution does not exist. The system is
 DEFINITION: If A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋]𝒏×𝒏is non-singular ( i.e. det(A) does not equal zero ), then there inconsistent.
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴
exists an nxn matrix A-1 which is called the inverse of A, such that: 𝐴−1 = |𝐴| 3. If |𝐴| = 0 (A is singular) and adjA .B = 0 then the system is consistent with infinitely
 AA-1= A-1A = I where I is the identity matrix. many solutions.to find these solutions put z = k in two of the equations and solve them by matrix
 If A and B are two invertible matrices of the same order ,then (AB) -1= B-1A-1 method.
 If A , B and C are three invertible matrices of the same order ,then (ABC) -1= C-1B-1A-1 For homogeneous system of linear equations, AX = 0 (B = 0)
 If A is an invertible matrix then AT is also invertible and (AT)-1 = (A-1) T 1. If the |𝐴| ≠ 0 then the system is consistent with trivial solution x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
2. If |𝐴| = 0 (A is singular) and adjA .B ≠ 0 then the solution does not exist. The system is
15. SOLVING SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS USING INVERSE MATRIX METHOD inconsistent.
3. If |𝐴| = 0 (A is singular) and adjA .B = 0 then the system is consistent with infinitely
DEFINITION: A system of linear equations is a set of equations with n equations and n many solutions. to find these solutions put z = k in two of the equations and solve them by matrix
unknowns, is of the form of method.

______________________________________________________________________________________

The unknowns are denoted by x1,x2,...xn and the DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

coefficients (a's and b's above) are assumed to be given. In matrix form the system of equations
above can be written as:  An equation containing an independent variable, a dependent variable and differential coefficients of
the dependent variable with respect to the independent variable is called a differential equation DE.
 The ORDER of a differential equation is the highest derivative that appears in the equation.
 The DEGREE of a differential equation is the power or exponent of the highest derivative that
appears in the equation.
which can be expressed in matrix equation as AX =B
 Unlike algebraic equations, the solutions of differential equations are functions and not just numbers.
By pre-multiplying both sides of this equation by A-1 gives:
 IVP or an initial value problem is one in which some initial conditions are given to solve a DE.
A-1 (AX) = A-1 B ⟹ (𝐴−1 𝐴)𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐼𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵 ⇒ 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵  To form a DE from a given equation in x and y containing arbitrary constants (parameters) –
STEPS 1. Differentiate the given equation as many times as the number of arbitrary constants involved
i. Evaluate |𝐴|. Refer the note given below. in it .
ii. Evaluate the cofactors of elements of A. 2. Eliminate the arbitrary constant from the equations of y, y’, y’’ etc.
iii. Form the adjoint of A as the matrix of cofactors  A first order linear differential equation has the following form:

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 Steps For Solving a Homogeneous Differential Equation

The general solution is given by where
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
1. Rewrite the differential in homogeneous form = 𝐹 ( ) or = 𝐹( )
called the integrating factor. If an initial condition is given, use it to find the constant C. 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
2. Make the substitution y = vx (for first eq.) or x = vy (for 2nd eq.) where v is a variable.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣
Here are some practical steps to follow: 3. Then use the product rule to get =𝑣+𝑥 𝑜𝑟 =𝑣+𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
4. Substitute to rewrite the differential equation in terms of v and x or v and y only
1. If the differential equation is given as , rewrite it in the form ,
5. Divide by xd or yd where d is the degree of the polynomials M and N.
6. Follow the steps for solving separable differential equations.
where 7. Re-substitute v = y/x or v = x / y.
2. Find the integrating factor .
VECTORS
3. Evaluate the integral
 A quantity that has magnitude as well as direction is called a vector. It is denoted by directed line segment
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑜𝑟 𝑎, where A is the initial point and B is the terminal point . The distance AB is called the magnitude
𝐴𝐵
4. Write down the general solution . denoted by |𝐀𝐁| = 𝐚 and the vector is dirtected from A to B.
5. If you are given an IVP, use the initial condition to find the constant C.
𝑑𝑦  If 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂, then coefficients of 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑘̂ i.e. a 1 , a 2 and a 3 are called the DIRECTION RATIOS
 VARIABLE SEPARABLE FORM The differential equation of the form 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is called
𝑑𝑦
of 𝑎
separable, if f(x,y) = h(x) g(y); that is, 𝑑𝑥 = ℎ(𝑥)𝑔(𝑦) - - - (I) ⃗
𝐚 𝐚𝟏
 ̂
Any UNIT VECTOR along 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂, is given by 𝐚 = |𝐚⃗| = 𝐢̂ +
 In order to solve it, perform the following STEPS: √𝐚𝟏 𝟐 +𝐚𝟐 𝟐 +𝐚𝟑 𝟐
𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑
1. Solve the equation g(y) = 0, which gives the constant solutions of (I); 𝐣̂ + ̂ , then 𝑙 =
𝐤 𝒂𝟏
,𝐦 =
𝑎2
and n =
𝑎3
𝑑𝑦 √𝒂𝟏 𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 𝟐 +𝒂𝟑 𝟐 √𝒂𝟏 𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 𝟐 +𝒂𝟑 𝟐 √𝒂𝟏 𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 𝟐 +𝒂𝟑 𝟐 √𝑎1 2 +𝑎2 2 +𝑎3 2 √𝑎1 2 +𝑎2 2 +𝑎3 2
2. Rewrite the equation (I) as 𝑔(𝑦) = ℎ(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , and, then,
3.
1
integrate ∫ 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ℎ(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 to obtain G(y) = H(x) + C are called the DIRECTION COSINES of 𝑎.
 FIXED VECTOR is that vector whose initial point or tail is fixed. It is also known as localised
4. Write down all the solutions; the constant ones obtained from (1) and the ones given in (3); vector. For example, the initial point of a position vector is fixed at the origin of the coordinate axes.
5. If you are given an IVP, use the initial condition to find the particular solution. Note that it may So, position vector is a fixed or localised vector.
happen that the particular solution is one of the constant solutions given in (1). This is why Step 4 is  FREE VECTOR is that vector whose initial point or tail is not fixed. It is also known as a non-
important. localised vector. For example, velocity vector of particle moving along a straight line is a free vector.
Homogeneous Differential Equations  CO-INITIAL VECTORS are those
vectors which have the same initial point
 A function which satisfies 𝑓(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆𝑛 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) for a given n is called a homogeneous function of
order n.
 A differential equation is called a HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION if it can be written are four coinitial vectors
in the form M(x,y)dx + N(x,y)dy = 0 where M and N are of the same degree.
𝑑𝑦 𝑦  CO-TERMINUS VECTORS are those
 A first-order ordinary differential equation is said to be homogeneous if it can be written in the form 𝑑𝑥
= 𝐹(𝑥) vectors which have a common terminal
𝑦
Such equations can be solved by the change of variables 𝑣 = 𝑥
which transforms the equation into the separable
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣 point. are four coterminous
equation 𝑥
= 𝐹(𝑣)−𝑣 vectors

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2. Parallelogram law of vectors for addition of two vectors.If two vectors are completely
represented by the two sides OA and OB respectively of a parallelogram. Then, according to the law of parallelogram of

vectors, the diagonal OC of the parallelogram will be resultant , such that

3. Polygon law of vectors for addition of more than two vectors. If a number of vectors can be
represented both in magnitude and direction by the sides of an open convex polygon taken in the
 NEGATIVE VECTOR A vector is said to
same order, then the resultant is represented completely in magnitude and direction by the closing
be negative of a given vector if its
side of the polygon, taken in the opposite order.
magnitude is the same as that of the given
vector, but the direction is reversed.
MULTIPLICATION OPERATIONS FOR VECTORS:

1. MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A SCALAR, When a vector 𝑎. is multiplied by a real

 POSITION VECTOR gives the position of a point with reference to the origin of the coordinate system.
number, say m, then we get another vector m𝑎. The magnitude of m𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ is m times the magnitude of 𝑎.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ where |𝑂𝑃| = 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
Position vector of P(x , y , z) is given as 𝑂𝑃 If m is positive, then the direction of m𝑎 is the same as that of . 𝑎 If m is negative, then the direction
 COLLINEAR VECTORS are those vectors that act either along the same line or along parallel of m𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ is opposite to that of 𝑎.
lines. These vectors may act either in the same direction or in opposite directions. if 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏⃗ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 2. SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF TWO VECTORS to yield a scalar.
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 = 𝜆𝑏⃗ 𝑎. 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎||𝑏|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
 PARALLEL VECTORS are two  ANTI-PARALLEL VECTORS are two where |a| and |b| denote the length of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ and θ is the angle between them.
collinear vectors acting along the same collinear vectors acting in the opposite It is important to remember that there are two different angles between a pair of vectors, depending
direction. directions. on the direction of rotation. However, only the smaller of the two is taken in vector multiplication

Some Properties of the Dot Product

 For unit vector triad 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂ , ̂= 𝒌

𝑖̂ . 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ . 𝑘̂ =1 and 𝒊̂ . 𝒋̂ = 𝒋̂ . 𝒌 ̂ . 𝒊̂ = 0
 If 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂,and 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖̂ + 𝑏2 𝑗̂ + 𝑏3 𝑘̂ are two vectors then 𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3
 EQUAL VECTORS Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.  For a vector a, where |a| denotes the length (magnitude) of a.
 Thus, given two vectors, the angle between them can be found by rearranging the above formula:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗
−1 𝑎⃗. 𝑏
Since the three vectors have the same direction, 𝜃 = cos |𝑎||𝑏|
𝑎⃗.⃗⃗⃗𝑏
Moreover, the three vectors are also equal in magnitude.  ⃗ =
⃗ in the direction of 𝒃
The magnitude of the projection of 𝒂
|𝑏|
THE ADDITION OF VECTORS:if 𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂,and 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖̂ + 𝑏2 𝑗̂ + 𝑏3 𝑘̂ are two vectors then 𝑎 +  The dot product is commutative:
𝑏⃗ = (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝑗̂ + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )𝑘̂  The dot product is distributive over vector addition:
1. Triangle law of vectors for addition of two vectors. If two vectors can be represented both in  The dot product is bilinear:
magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle taken in the same order, then the resultant is
 When multiplied by a scalar value, dot product satisfies:
represented completely, both in magnitude and direction, by the third side of the triangle taken in the
 Two non-zero vectors a and b are perpendicular if and only if a • b = 0.
opposite order.
Corollary: 1) If three vectors are represented by the three sides of a triangle taken in order, then their resultant is zero.  the dot product does not obey the cancellation law: If a • b = a • c and a ≠ 0: then a • (b − c) = 0:
If a is perpendicular to (b − c), we can have (b − c) ≠ 0 and therefore b ≠ c.
2) If the resultant of three vectors is zero, then these can be represented completely by the three sides of a
triangle taken in order.

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1. VECTOR MULTIPLICATION OF TWO VECTORS to yield another vector. Properties of Scalar Triple Product:
The cross product of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗, written 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗, is defined by: 𝒂 ⃗ =𝒏
⃗ x𝒃 ̂ a b sin  * If𝑎 = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂, 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖̂ + 𝑏2 𝑗̂ + 𝑏3 𝑘̂and 𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑖̂ + 𝑐2 𝑗̂ + 𝑐3 𝑘̂ then their scalar triple product is given by
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑
where a and b are the magnitude of vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗;  is the angle between the vectors, and 𝑛̂ is [𝑎 𝑏⃗ 𝑐 ] = 𝑎. (𝑏⃗ × 𝑐 ) = |𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟑 |
the unit vector (vector with magnitude = 1) that is perpendicular (at 90 degrees to/ orthogonal to/ 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
normal to) both 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗. But there are two vectors that this could be - one on either side of the  𝑎. (𝑏⃗ × 𝑐) = (𝑎 × 𝑏⃗). 𝑐 i.e. position of dot and cross can be interchanged without altering the product.
plane formed by the two vectors), so we choose 𝑛̂ to be the one which makes (𝑎, 𝑏⃗, 𝑛̂) a right
handed triad.

Some Properties of the Cross Product

 The cross product of any two parallel vectors is the null vector since sin 0 = 0,
 i × i = j × j = k × k = 0.
 ̂,
𝒊̂ x 𝒋̂ = 𝒌 ̂ = 𝒊̂, 𝒌
𝒋̂ x 𝒌 ̂ x 𝒊̂ = 𝒋̂, ̂ , ̂𝒌 x 𝒋̂ = −𝒊̂, 𝒊̂ x 𝒌
𝒋̂ x𝒊̂ = −𝒌 ̂ = −𝒋̂
* , , in that order form a right handed system if . . > 0
𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌  [𝑎 𝑎 𝑐 ] = 0 i.e. scalar triple product is 0 if any two vectors are equal.
 ⃗ x𝒃
𝒂 ⃗ = (a2b3 - a3b2)i + (a3b1 - a1b3)j + (a1b2 - a2b1)k = |𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 |  [𝑘𝑎 𝑎 𝑐 ] = 0 i.e. scalar triple product is 0 if any two vectors are parallel.
𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟑
 Show that
 The cross product is anti-commutative: 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ = - 𝑏⃗ x 𝑎  If three vectors are coplanar then .
 ⃗
The cross product of a vector with itself is the null vector, in particular: 𝑎 x 𝑎 = 0  ⃗ − 𝑎) (𝑐 − 𝑎) (𝑑 − 𝑎) ] = 0 = 0
Four points A( ), B( ), C( ) and D( ) are coplanarif [(𝑏
𝑎⃗×𝑏⃗ LINEAR PROGRAMMING
 A unit vector perpendicular to both 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏⃗ is given by ⃗|
|𝑎⃗×𝑏 The mathematical models which tells to optimise (minimize or maximise) the objective function Z subject
 The area of the parallelogram formed by 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ = | 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗| to certain condition on the variables is called a Linear programming problem (LPP).
 Since area of the triangle OAB is half of the area of the parallelogram, the area of the triangle formed The standard form of the linear programming problem is used to develop the procedure for solving a general
1
by two vectors = 2 |𝑎 x 𝑏⃗| programming problem.
1. A general LPP is of the form
 It does not obey the cancellation law: If a × b = a × c and a ≠ 0 then: (a × b) − (a × c) = 0 and, by the Max (or min) Z = c1x1 + c2x2 + … +cnxn
distributive law above: a × (b − c) = 0 Now, if a is parallel to (b − c), then even if a ≠ 0 it is possible subject to the constraints
that (b − c) ≠ 0 and therefore that b ≠ c.
 However, if both a · b = a · c and a × b = a × c, then it can be concluded that b = c
.
SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT .
.
It is defined for three vectors in that order as the scalar
. ( × )It denotes the volume of the parallelopiped formed
by taking a, b, c as the co-terminus edges. x1, x2, ....xn are called decision variable.
i.e. V = magnitude of × . = | × . | c1, c2,…. Cn, a11, a12,…. amn are all known constants
Z is called the "objective function" of the LPP of n variables which is to be maximized or minimized.
 OBJECTIVE FUNCTION: The Objective Function is a linear function of variables which is to be
The value of scalar triple product depends on the cyclic order of the vectors and is independent of the position of the optimised i.e., maximised or minimised. e.g., profit function, cost function etc. The objective function
dot and cross. These may be interchange at pleasure. However and anti-cyclic permutation of the vectors changes the may be expressed as a linear expression.
value of triple product in sign but not a magnitude.

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 CONSTRAINTS: Limited time, labour, resources etc. may be expressed as linear inequations or  The determination of the optimal solution from the feasible region.
equations and are called constraints. There are two techniques to find the optimal solution of an LPP.Corner Point Method and ISO- PROFIT
 OPTIMISATION: A decision which is considered the best one, taking into consideration all the (OR ISO-COST) of the LPP.
circumstances is called an optimal decision. The process of getting the best possible outcome is 1. Corner Point Method
called optimisation. The optimal solution to a LPP, if it exists, occurs at the corners of the feasible region.
 SOLUTION OF A LPP: A set of values of the variables x1, x2,….xn which satisfy all the constraints The method includes the following steps
is called the solution of the LPP.. Step 1:Find the feasible region of the LLP.
 FEASIBLE SOLUTION: A set of values of the variables x1, x2, x3,….,xn which satisfy all the Step 2:Find the co-ordinates of each vertex of the feasible region.
constraints and also the non-negativity conditions is called the feasible solution of the LPP. These co-ordinates can be obtained from the graph or by solving the equation of the lines.
 OPTIMAL SOLUTION: The feasible solution, which optimises (i.e., maximizes or minimizes as Step 3:At each vertex (corner point) compute the value of the objective function.
the case may be) the objective function is called the optimal solution. Step 4:Identify the corner point at which the value of the objective function is maximum (or minimum
2. Mathematical Formulation of Linear Programming Problems depending on the LPP)
There are mainly four steps in the mathematical formulation of linear programming problem as a The co-ordinates of this vertex is the optimal solution and the value of Z is the optimal value
mathematical model. We will discuss formulation of those problems which involve only two variables. 2. ISO- PROFIT (OR ISO-COST) This method of optimization involves the following method.
1. Identify the decision variables and assign symbols x and y to them. These decision variables are those Step 1:Draw the half planes of all the constraints
quantities whose values we wish to determine. Step 2:Shade the intersection of all the half planes which is the feasible region.
2. Identify the set of constraints and express them as linear equations/inequations in terms of the decision Step 3:Since the objective function is Z = ax + by, draw a dotted line for the equation ax + by = k, where k is
variables. These constraints are the given conditions. any constant. Sometimes it is convenient to take k as the LCM of a and b.
3. Identify the objective function and express it as a linear function of decision variables. It might take the Step 4:To maximize Z draw a line parallel to ax + by = k and farthest from the origin. This line should
form of maximizing profit or production or minimizing cost. contain at least one point of the feasible region. Find the coordinates of this point by solving the equations of
4. Add the non-negativity restrictions on the decision variables, as in the physical problems, negative the lines on which it lies.
values of decision variables have no valid interpretation. To minimize Z draw a line parallel to ax + by = k and nearest to the origin. This line should contain at least
3. Graphical Method of Solution of a Linear Programming Problem one point of the feasible region. Find the co-ordinates of this point by solving the equation of the line on
The graphical method is applicable to solve the LPP involving two decision variables x and y. Suppose which it lies.
the LPP is to Step 5: If (x1, y1) is the point found in step 4, then x = x1, y = y1, is the optimal solution of the LPP and
Optimize Z = ax + by subject to the constraints Z = ax1 + by1 is the optimal value.

 We may come across LPP which may have no feasible (infeasible) solution If the intersection of the
constraints is empty. The given problem has no feasible solution. Therefore the given L.P.P has no
solution.
To solve an LPP by the graphical method includes two major steps.  We may come across LPP which may have unbounded solution If the feasible region is an unbounded
 The determination of the solution space that defines the feasible solution - To determine the convex region- then M is the maximum value of z if the open half plane determined by z = ax + by > M
feasible solution of an LPP, we have the following steps. has no point in common with the feasible region, otherwise z has no maximum value. Similarly m is the
Step 1:Since the two decision variable x and y are non-negative, consider only the first quadrant of xy- plane minimum value of z if the open half plane determined by z = ax + by < m has no point in common with
Step 2: the feasible region, otherwise z has no minimum value.
Draw the line ax + by = c ...(1)
For each constraint, the line (1) divides the first quadrant in to two regions say R1 and R2,suppose (x1, y1) is a THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
point in R1. If this point satisfies the in equation ax + by ≥ 𝑜𝑟 ≤ c then shade the region R1. If (x1, y1) does  Points are defined as ordered triples of real numbers and the distance between points P1 = (x1, y1, z1)
and P2 = (x2, y2, z2) is defined by the formula
not satisfy the inequation, shade the region R2. Usually we take the point (x1, y1) as (0, 0) if the line is not
passing through the origin. P1P2 = √(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 .
Step 3: Corresponding to each constraint, we obtain a shaded region. The intersection of all these shaded  Distance of the point P(x,y,z) from the origin is √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 .
regions is the feasible region

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 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ (x1, y1, z1) and

Section formula - the coordinate of a point R dividing the line segment PQ joining P (𝑎)  Perpendicular Distance of a Point P from a Line Let AB is straight line passing through point A (a, b, c)
Q(𝑏⃗) (x2, y2, z2) in the ratio m : n is given by and having direction cosines l, m, n.
AN = projection of line AP on straight line AB = l(x – a) + m(y – b) + n(z – c) and AP = √(x–a)2+(y–b)2+(z–
Internal division
c)2
⃗ +𝑛𝑎⃗
𝑚𝑏 𝑚𝑥2 +𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 +𝑛𝑦1 𝑚𝑧2 +𝑛𝑧1
Vector form 𝑟 = , Cartesian form x = ,y= ,z= ∴ perpendicular distance of point P from AB PN = √AP 2 – AN 2
𝑚+ 𝑛 𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛
Equation of Straight Line in Different Forms:
External division VECTOR EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE
⃗ −𝑛𝑎⃗
𝑚𝑏 𝑚𝑥2 −𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 −𝑛𝑦1 𝑚𝑧2 −𝑛𝑧1
Vector form 𝑟 = , Cartesian form x = ,y= ,z= (i) Line passing through a given point A( ) and parallel to a vector :
𝑚− 𝑛 𝑚−𝑛 𝑚−𝑛 𝑚−𝑛 Where is the p.v. of any general point P on the line The vector equation of a straight line passing through
⃗
𝑎⃗+𝑏 𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2 𝑧1 +𝑧2
 Midpoint formula: Vector form 𝑟 = , Cartesian form x = ,y= ,z= and λ is any real number. the origin and parallel to a vector is = n .
2 2 2 2  Symmetrical Form:Equation of straight line
⃗ +𝑐
𝑎⃗+𝑏 passing through point P (x1, y1, z1) and whose
 Position vector of centroid of a triangle with vertices A (𝑎), 𝐵( 𝑏⃗ ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶( 𝑐 ) is given by 𝑥–𝑥1
=
𝑦–𝑦1
=
3 direction cosines are l, m, n is 𝑙 𝑚
𝑧–𝑧1
 DIRECTION COSINES OF A line - if α, β, γ be the angles which a given directed line makes with the positive 𝑛
directions of the co-ordinate axes, then cosα , cosβ , cosγ are called the direction cosines of the given line and are
generally denoted by l, m, n respectively. Thus, l = cosα, m = cosβ and n = cosγ
 Line passing through two given points A( ) and B( ) = = + λ( – ): Equation of straight line passing
l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 𝑥–𝑥 1 𝑦–𝑦1 𝑧–𝑧1
 Direction Ratios:If a, b, c are three numbers proportional to the direction cosine l, m, n of a straight line, then a, b, through two points P (x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) is 𝑥 = =𝑧
2 –𝑥1 𝑦2 –𝑦1 2 –𝑧1
c are called its direction ratios. They are also called direction numbers or direction components.  Equation of the line of intersection of two planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0, a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 is a1x + b1y
+ c1z + d1 + 𝜆(a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 ) = 0
 The general coordinates of a point on a line is given by (x1 + lr, y1 + mr, z1 + nr) where r is distance between point

 Direction Cosine of a Line joining two given Points: P (x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) (x1, y1, z1) and point whose coordinates is to be written.

SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO LINES

 Two lines in space can be parallel, intersecting or neither (called skew lines). Le

be two lines.
 Angle between two Lines (i) They intersect if .
Let θ be the angle between two straight lines AB and AC whose direction cosines are l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, then
cosθ = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 (ii) They are parallel if 1 and 2 are collinear. Parallel lines are of the form
If direction ratios of two lines are a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 , then angle between two lines is given by
Perpendicular distance between them is constant and is equal to .

 Condition of perpendicularity: If the given lines are perpendicular, then θ = 900 i.e. cos θ = 0 (iii) For skew lines, shortest distance between them (along common perpendicular) is given by .

=> l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0 or a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0 .
Equation of Plane in Different Forms:
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛 𝑎1 𝑏 𝑐
 Condition of parallelism: If the given lines are parallel, then θ = 00, 𝑙1 = 𝑚1 = 𝑛1 or 𝑎2
= 𝑏1 = 𝑐1
2 2 2 2 2
 Projection of a line joining two point P (x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) on another line whose direction cosines are
l, m, n is AB = l(x2 – x1) + m(y2 – y1) + n(z2 – z1)

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EQUATION OF A PLANE IN VECTOR FORM  Angle between the planes is defined as angle between normals of the planes drawn from any point to the
planes. Angle between the planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 is
Following are the four useful ways of specifying a plane.
i. Normal form - A plane at a perpendicular distance d from the
origin and normal to a given direction has the equation
( is a unit vector).
Note:
* If a1a2 +b1b2 +c1c2 = 0, then the planes are perpendicular to each other.
ii. A plane passing through the point A( ) and normal to has the 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
* If 1 = 1 = 1 then the planes are parallel to each other.
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
equation .  Perpendicular Distance: The length of the perpendicular from the point P(x1, y1, z1) to the plane ax + by + cz

iii. Parameteric equation of the plane passing through A( ) and parallel to the plane of vectors ( ) and ( ) is + d = 0 is .
given by .
 Intersection of a Line and a Plane If the equation of a plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0, then direction cosines
iv. Parameteric equation of the plane passing through A( ), B( ) C( )(A, B, C non-collinear) is given by
of the normal to this plane are a, b, c. So angle between normal to the plane and a straight line having
=> . direction cosines l, m ,n is given by cos θ = al+bm+cn/√a2+b2+c2.Then angle between the plane and the
In Cartesian form, the equation of the plane assumes the form Ax + By + Cz = D. The vector normal to this plane is straight line is π/2 –θ.
 Plane and straight line will be parallel if al + bm + cn = 0
 Plane and straight line will be perpendicular if a/l = b/m = c/n.
and the perpendicular distance of the plane from the origin is .
PROBABILITY THEORY
i. General equation of a plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0
 An experiment is a situation involving chance or probability that leads to results called outcomes.
ii. Normal form - Equation of the plane is lx + my + nz = d where d is the length of the normal from the origin to
 An outcome is the result of a single trial of an experiment.
the plane and (l, m, n) be the direction cosines of the normal.
 An event is one or more outcomes of an experiment.
iii. The equation to the plane passing through P(x1, y1, z1) and having direction ratios (a, b, c) for its normal is
 The sample space of an experiment is the set of all possible outcomes of that experiment.
a(x – x1) + b(y – y1) + c (z – z1) = 0
 Probability is the measure of how likely an event is.
iv. The equation of the plane passing through three non-collinear points (x1, y1, z1),(x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3 , z3) is
 The probability of event A is the number of ways event A can occur divided by the total number of possible
outcomes
The Number Of Ways Event A Can Occur
P(A) =
The total number Of Possible Outcomes
=0
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
v. The equation of the plane whose intercepts are a, b, c on the x, y, z axes respectively is 𝑎
+ 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1 (a b c  If P(A) > P(B) then event A is more likely to occur than event B.
≠ 0)  If P(A) = P(B) then events A and B are equally likely to occur.
vi. Equation of YZ plane is x = 0, equation of plane parallel to YZ plane is x = d.  If event A is impossible, then P(A) = 0.
vii. Equation of ZX plane is y = 0, equation of plane parallel to ZX plane is y = d.  If event A is certain, then P(A) = 1.
viii. Equation of XY plane is z = 0, equation of plane parallel to XY plane is z = d.  The complement of event A is . P( ) = 1 - P(A)
 The probability of a sample point ranges from 0 to 1.
 Four points namely A (x1, y1, z1), B (x2, y2, z2), C (x3, y3, z3) and D (x4, y4, z4) will be coplanar if one point lies  The sum of the probabilities of the distinct outcomes within a sample space is 1.
on the plane passing through other three points.  Two events are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time (i.e., they have no outcomes in common).
 Two events, A and B, are independent if the fact that A occurs does not affect the probability of B occurring.
 Two events are dependent if the outcome or occurrence of the first affects the outcome or occurrence of the
second so that the probability is changed.

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 The conditional probability P(B|A) of an event B in relationship to an event A is the probability that event B

occurs given that event A has already occurred. The formula for conditional probability is:

 For events A and B, provided that

 Addition Rule1: When two events, A and B, are mutually exclusive, the probability that A or B will occur is the
sum of the probability of each event. P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
 Addition Rule2: When two events, A and B, are non-mutually exclusive P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
 Addition Rule3: When two events, A and B, are independent, the probability that A or B will occur is P(A or B) =
P(A) + P(B) - P(A) · P(B)
 Multiplication Rule 1 :When two events, A and B, are independent, the probability of both occurring is: P(A and
B) = P(A) · P(B)
 Multiplication Rule 2 :When two events, A and B, are dependent, the probability of both occurring is: P(A and B)
= P(A) · P(B|A)
 Tot al P robabi l i t y Th eorem . Let A1, A2, ... , An be a set of mutually exclusive events that together
form the sample space S. Let B be any event from the same sample space, such that P(B) > 0. Then,
p ( B ) = p ( A 1 ) · p ( B |A 1 ) + p( A 2 ) · p( B |A 2 ) + . . . + p ( A n ) · p( B |A n )
 Bayes' theorem Let A1, A2, ... , An be a set of mutually exclusive events that together form the sample
space S. Let B be any event from the same sample space, such that P(B) > 0. Then,

 A discrete variable is a variable which can only take a countable number of values.
 Let X be a random variable that takes the numerical values X1, X2, ..., Xn with probablities p(X1), p(X2), ...,
p(Xn) respectively. A discrete probability distribution consists of the values of the random variable X and their
corresponding probabilities P(X).

The probabilities P(X) are such that ∑ P(X) = 1

 Bernoulli Trials - An experiment in which a single action is repeated identically over and over. The possible
results of the action are classified as "success" or "failure". The trials must all be independent. The binomial
probability formula is used to find probabilities for Bernoulli trials.

 The Binomial Distribution - The probability of achieving exactly k successes in n trials is P(X= r) = nCr prqn – r
where n = number of trials
k = number of successes
n – k = number of failures
p = probability of success in one trial
q = 1 – p = probability of failure in one trial

 Expectation and Variance If X ~ B(n,p), then the expectation and variance is given by:

1. E(X) = np
2. Var(X) = npq

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