CHPATER ONE

1.0 Introduction

A solar cell panel, solar electric panel, photo-voltaic (PV) module or just solar panel is an
assembly of photo-voltaic cells mounted in a framework for installation. Solar panels
use sunlight as a source of energy to generate direct current electricity. A collection of PV
modules is called a PV panel, and a system of PV panels is called an array. Arrays of
a photovoltaic system supply solar electricity to electrical equipment (Adams et. al., 2017).

When people think about alternative or renewable energy, the first image that comes to mind is
often large blue or black solar panels on rooftops or portable highway signs that have a small
panel attached. These solar panels, also known as photovoltaic modules (or PV modules),
convert sunlight into electricity, and they have been the backbone of renewable energy for
decades. The photovoltaic effect (how sunlight is converted into electrical energy) was
discovered over a hundred years ago! Yet widespread implementation of this technology has
been very gradual. Only in very recent years has photovoltaics gained wide popularity as an
alternative way to produce electricity (Adams et. al., 2017).

In 1958 the first PV modules were launched into space to power satellites. Even today, solar
power is the primary source of energy at the International Space Station. On Earth as well, PV
has traditionally been used in areas where there is no practical source of electrical power but
there is abundant sunshine. Solar panels are often used for remote applications: like powering
cabins, RVs, boats and small electronics when grid service is not available. Today, “grid-tied” or
“grid-interactive” solar PV systems are commonly employed by homeowners and businesses as a
cost-effective way to incorporate solar electricity into everyday life, taking advantage of
available solar energy while still enjoying the safety net of the utility grid (Adams et. al., 2017).

1.1 How Solar Panels (or PV Modules) Work

In very basic terms, a solar panel (PV module) is a device that will produce a flow of electricity
under sunlight. This electricity can be used to charge batteries and, with the aid of an inverter, it
can power normal household electrical devices, or “loads”. PV modules can also be used in
systems without batteries. Most solar panels (properly called “modules”) are framed in

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aluminum, topped with tempered glass, and sealed by a waterproof backing. Sandwiched
between the glass and backing layers are the photo-reactive cells themselves, often made of
silicon. On the back of the module is a junction box that may or may not have two cables coming
out of it. If the junction box has no cables, it can be opened to access the electrical terminals
where wires can be attached to conduct the generated electricity away from the module. If there
are cables already in place, the junction box is usually sealed and not user-accessible. Sealed
junction boxes are more common (Black et. al., 2016).

There are lots of ways to make use of solar electricity. One of the simplest is to charge small
electronic devices, like cell phones and music players, with lightweight, portable PV modules.
Solar panels can be used individually or wired together to form a solar array. For larger electrical
loads, there are two main types of systems for providing electrical power to homes, cabins and
offices, etc.: stand-alone battery based systems (also called “off-grid” systems) and grid-tied
systems (also known as “grid-interactive” or “utility-interactive”). You’ll want to decide which
system is best for your needs by reading more about both (Black et. al., 2016).

1.2 Solar PV Cell Technology

There are several technologies used to make solar cells – the building blocks of panels:

Monocrystalline Solar Panels: Monocrystalline solar panels are often the most expensive due
to the manufacturing process, which uses large amounts of highly purified silicon and a great
deal of energy. Monocrystalline solar cells are about 13-16% efficient at converting sunlight to
electricity. These have a black appearance (Black et. al., 2016).

Polycrystalline Solar Panels (aka multicrystalline): Polycrystalline cell efficiencies range

between 11-14% so polycrystalline solar panels are slightly less expensive than monocrystalline
ones on a price-per-Watt basis. These have a blue appearance (Bowden et. al., 2021).

Amorphous Solar Panels (aka thin-film): Amorphous solar panels, or thin-film amorphous
silicon, A-si, are not constructed from individual cells, but are made by depositing a photo-
sensitive compound onto a substrate. While these solar panels have lower efficiencies, (usually
7-10%), they offer certain advantages. They can often be used in hotter climates since they suffer
less power loss than other types under hot conditions. Additionally, the amorphous technology

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does not use the typical “glass sandwich” construction, allowing for the creation of flexible solar
panels, which are still very durable (Bowden et. al., 2021).

1.3 Solar Electrical Characteristics

PV panels produce DC, or direct current electricity. This is the same type of electricity that is
produced by your car battery or other batteries. The appliances in our homes use a different type
of electricity called AC), or alternating current. DC electricity flows in one direction only, while
AC electricity changes direction rapidly, offering certain advantages in transmission (greater
distances through smaller wires) (Bowden et. al., 2021).

In order to use solar electricity to run normal household devices, you’ll need a solar inverter,
which converts DC to AC. A small system to charge batteries or power small electrical devices
(like cell phones and personal music players) doesn’t require an inverter, but be sure to use the
correct adapters and, if needed, voltage converters or limiters (Bowden et. al., 2021).

A basic primer on electricity will help make all of this clear:

Volt – Unit of electrical potential

Ampere – Rate of current flow

Watt – Rate of energy supply or consumption

So now, let’s look at these values in terms of energy and power.

Power is the rate at which energy is supplied – like the speedometer on your car – and this is
measured in Watts

Energy is the measure of power over time – like your car’s odometer – and this is measured in
Watt-hours or killowatt-hours

One of the best examples is your an old incandescent light bulb. If it is rated at 60 Watts and you
leave the light on for one hour, you are using 60 Watt-hours of energy. So consumption can be
measured in this formula:

Power (Watts) x Time (hours) = Energy (Watt-hours)

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In the car analogy, the odometer counts the quantity of miles traveled. Your electric utility bill
shows the number of kilowatt-hours (kWh, or 1,000 Watt-hours) you use per month. So how
does the wattage rating of a solar panel affect the amount of energy the panel produces? Simple –
with all else being constant, a higher-wattage solar panel will produce more energy over time
than a lower-wattage panel. A 100-Watt solar panel will produce twice as much energy as a 50-
Watt solar panel at the same location during the same period of time. It’s worth mentioning also
that solar modules’ wattage output rating is based on what the modules produce under
laboratory-controlled conditions, called Standard Test Conditions (STC). STC allows solar
panels to be compared to each other using the same metric. However, because these rated
wattages represent ideal laboratory conditions, it’s likely that the module will produce lower
wattage in actual use (Bowden et. al., 2021).

PV modules also have and ratings. The rated wattage of a panel is equal to its operating voltage
multiplied by its operating current: Watts = Voltage x Amps . The amount of energy in Watt-
hours that a panel will produce is a product of the wattage of the panel and the number of hours
of full-intensity sunlight, or insolation, that it receives.

For example, a solar panel that outputs 100 Watts for two hours will produce 200 Watt-hours of
energy. The actual number of Watt-hours a panel produces will very likely be less than this
theoretical value due to many factors that affect the efficiencies of the system components. There
are standard factors used to correct for real-world energy losses, but our present focus is the
basic electrical principles. Keep in mind that insolation values are also tied to STC and are based
on location (Bowden et. al., 2021).

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

In 1839, the ability of some materials to create an electrical charge from light exposure was first
observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel. Though these initial solar panels were too inefficient
for even simple electric devices they were used as an instrument to measure light. The
observation by Becquerel was not replicated again until 1873, when Willoughby
Smith discovered that the charge could be caused by light hitting selenium. After this
discovery, William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day published "The action of light on
selenium" in 1876, describing the experiment they used to replicate Smith's results. In
1881, Charles Fritts created the first commercial solar panel, which was reported by Fritts as
"continuous, constant and of considerable force not only by exposure to sunlight but also to dim,
diffused daylight."However, these solar panels were very inefficient, especially compared to
coal-fired power plants.In 1939, Russell Ohl created the solar cell design that is used in many
modern solar panels. He patented his design in 1941. In 1954, this design was first used by Bell
Labs to create the first commercially viable silicon solar cell. In 1957, Mohamed M.
Atalla developed the process of silicon surface passivation by thermal oxidation at Bell
Labs. The surface passivation process has since been critical to solar cell efficiency (Christian,
2019).

Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity through
the photovoltaic effect. Most modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells.
The structural (load carrying) member of a module can be either the top layer or the back layer.
Cells must be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most modules are rigid, but
semi-flexible ones based on thin-film cells are also available. The cells are usually connected
electrically in series, one to another to the desired voltage, and then in parallel to increase
current. The power (in watts) of the module is the mathematical product of the voltage (in volts)
and the current (in amperes) of the module. The manufacture specifications on solar panels are
obtained under standard condition which is not the real operating condition the solar panels are
exposed to on the installation site (Christian, 2019)

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A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel and functions as its output interface.
External connections for most photovoltaic modules use MC4 connectors to facilitate easy
weatherproof connections to the rest of the some system. A USB power interface can also be
used (Christian, 2019)

2.1 Order of Module Connection

Module electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage or in
parallel to provide a desired current capability (amperes) of the solar panel or the PV system.
The conducting wires that take the current off the modules are sized according to the current
rating and may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition metals.
Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module shading, to
maximize the output of module sections still illuminated (Crawford et. al., 2012).

Some special solar PV modules include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or
mirrors onto smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit area (such
as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way (Crawford et. al., 2012).

Solar panels also use metal frames consisting of racking components, brackets, reflector shapes,
and troughs to better support the panel structure (Crawford et. al., 2012).

2.2 Efficiency

Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions (STC) and hence the
on field output power might vary. Power typically ranges from 100 to 365 Watts (W).
The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same rated output – an 8%
efficient 230 W module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 W module. Some
commercially available solar modules exceed 24% efficiency. Currently, the best achieved
sunlight conversion rate (solar module efficiency) is around 21.5% in new commercial
products[12] typically lower than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The most efficient
mass-produced solar modules[disputed – discuss] have power density values of up to 175
W/m2 (16.22 W/ft2) (Da Silva et al., 2016).

Scientists from Spectrolab, a subsidiary of Boeing, have reported development of multi-junction

solar cells with an efficiency of more than 40%, a new world record for solar photovoltaic

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cells. The Spectrolab scientists also predict that concentrator solar cells could achieve
efficiencies of more than 45% or even 50% in the future, with theoretical efficiencies being
about 58% in cells with more than three junctions.

Capacity factor of solar panels is limited primarily by geographic latitude and varies significantly
depending on cloud cover, dust, day length and other factors. In UK seasonal capacity factor
ranges from 2% (December) to 20% (July), with average annual capacity factor of 10-11%,
while in Spain the value reaches 18%. Globally, capacity factor for utility-scale PV farms was
16.1% in 2019.

Radiation-Dependent Efficiency

Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range

of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar radiation range
(specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence, much of the
incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher efficiencies if
illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into
six to eight different wavelength ranges that will produce a different color of light, and direct the
beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This has been projected to be capable of raising
efficiency by 50% (Da Silva et al., 2016).

2.3 Arrays of PV Modules

A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most installations contain
multiple modules adding voltages or current to the wiring and PV system. A photovoltaic system
typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules, an inverter, a battery pack for energy
storage, charge controller, interconnection wiring, circuit breakers, fuses, disconnect switches,
voltage meters, and optionally a solar tracking mechanism. Equipment is carefully selected to
optimize output, energy storage, reduce power loss during power transmission, and conversion
from direct current to alternating current (Da Silva et al., 2016).

Aluminum Nanocylinders

Research by Imperial College London has shown that solar panel efficiency is improved by
studding the light-receiving semiconductor surface with aluminum nanocylinders, similar to

7
the ridges on Lego blocks. The scattered light then travels along a longer path in the
semiconductor, absorbing more photons to be converted into current. Although these
nanocylinders have been used previously (aluminum was preceded by gold and silver), the light
scattering occurred in the near-infrared region and visible light was absorbed strongly.
Aluminum was found to have absorbed the ultraviolet part of the spectrum, while the visible and
near-infrared parts of the spectrum were found to be scattered by the aluminum surface. This, the
research argued, could bring down the cost significantly and improve the efficiency as aluminum
is more abundant and less costly than gold and silver. The research also noted that the increase in
current makes thinner film solar panels technically feasible without "compromising power
conversion efficiencies, thus reducing material consumption". Solar panel efficiency can be
calculated by MPP (maximum power point) value of solar panels (Da Silva et al., 2016).

Solar inverters convert the DC power to AC power by performing the process of maximum
power point tracking (MPPT): solar inverter samples the output Power (I-V curve) from the solar
cell and applies the proper resistance (load) to solar cells to obtain maximum power.

MPP (Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP voltage (V mpp) and MPP
current (I mpp): it is a capacity of the solar panel and the higher value can make higher MPP.

Micro-inverted solar panels are wired in parallel, which produces more output than normal
panels wired in series, with the output of the series determined by the lowest performing panel.
This is known as the "Christmas light effect". Micro-inverters work independently to enable each
panel to contribute its maximum possible output for a given amount of sunlight (Da Silva et al.,
2016).

2.4 Technology

Most solar modules are currently produced from crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells made
of multicrystalline and monocrystalline silicon. In 2013, crystalline silicon accounted for more
than 90 percent of worldwide PV production, while the rest of the overall market is made up
of thin-film technologies using cadmium telluride, CIGS and amorphous silicon.

Emerging, third generation solar technologies use advanced thin-film cells. They produce a
relatively high-efficiency conversion for the low cost compared to other solar technologies. Also,

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high-cost, high-efficiency, and close-packed rectangular multi-junction (MJ) cells are preferably
used in solar panels on spacecraft, as they offer the highest ratio of generated power per kilogram
lifted into space. MJ-cells are compound semiconductors and made of gallium arsenide (GaAs)
and other semiconductor materials. Another emerging PV technology using MJ-cells
is concentrator photovoltaics ( CPV ) (Da Silva et al., 2016).

2.5 Thin Film

In rigid thin-film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the same production line.
The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical connections are created in
situ, a so-called "monolithic integration." The substrate or superstrate is laminated with an
encapsulant to a front or back sheet, usually another sheet of glass. The main cell technologies in
this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon
has a sunlight conversion rate of 6–12% (Dunlop et al., 2012).

Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by depositing
the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible substrate. If the substrate is
an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then monolithic integration can be used. If it is a
conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be used. The cells are assembled
into modules by laminating them to a transparent colourless fluoropolymer on the front side
(typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the other
side (Dunlop et al., 2012).

2.6 Smart Solar Modules

Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This enables performing
MPPT for each module individually, and the measurement of performance data for monitoring
and fault detection at module level. Some of these solutions make use of power optimizers, a
DC-to-DC converter technology developed to maximize the power harvest from solar
photovoltaic systems. As of about 2010, such electronics can also compensate for shading
effects, wherein a shadow falling across a section of a module causes the electrical output of one
or more strings of cells in the module to fall to zero, but not having the output of the entire
module fall to zero (Dunlop et al., 2012).

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2.7 Performance and Degradation

Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions (STC): irradiance of
1,000 W/m2, solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at 25 °C. The actual voltage and
current output of the module changes as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so
there is never one specific voltage at which the module operates. Performance varies depending
on geographic location, time of day, the day of the year, amount of solar irradiance, direction and
tilt of modules, cloud cover, shading, soiling, state of charge, and temperature (Dunlop et al.,
2012).

For optimum performance, a solar panel needs to be made of similar modules oriented in the
same direction perpendicular to direct sunlight. Bypass diodes are used to circumvent broken or
shaded panels and optimize output. These bypass diodes are usually placed along groups of solar
cells to create a continuous flow (Dunlop et al., 2012).

Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open-circuit

voltage (VOC), short-circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum power voltage
(VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, (watt-peak, Wp), and module efficiency
(%). Open-circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage the module can produce when not
connected to an electrical circuit or system. VOC can be measured with a voltmeter directly on
an illuminated module's terminals or on its disconnected cable (Dunlop et al., 2012).

The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test conditions (not the
maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could measure approximately 1 by 2 metres
(3 ft × 7 ft), will be rated from as low as 75 W to as high as 600 W, depending on their
efficiency. At the time of testing, the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a
typical manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 W increments, and either rate them at +/- 3%,
+/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%. The ability of solar modules to withstand damage by rain, hail, heavy
snow load, and cycles of heat and cold varies by manufacturer, although most solar panels on the
U.S. market are UL listed, meaning they have gone through testing to withstand hail. Potential-
induced degradation (also called PID) is a potential-induced performance degradation in
crystalline photovoltaic modules, caused by so-called stray currents. This effect may cause
power loss of up to 30%. The largest challenge for photovoltaic technology is the purchase price

10
per watt of electricity produced. Advancements in photovoltaic technologies have brought about
the process of "doping" the silicon substrate to lower the activation energy thereby making the
panel more efficient in converting photons to retrievable electrons (Dunlop et al., 2012).

Chemicals such as boron (p-type) are applied into the semiconductor crystal in order to create
donor and acceptor energy levels substantially closer to the valence and conductor bands. In
doing so, the addition of boron impurity allows the activation energy to decrease twenty-fold
from 1.12 eV to 0.05 eV. Since the potential difference (EB) is so low, the boron is able to
thermally ionize at room temperatures. This allows for free energy carriers in the conduction and
valence bands thereby allowing greater conversion of photons to electrons (Mearns et al., 2015).

Waste and recycling

CdTe and CIGS solar cells contain cadmium, a toxic heavy metal with a tendency to accumulate
in the food chain. Solder used in installation also contains lead. Leftover PV panels can
contaminate soil, as it happened in 2013 when US-based Solyndra solar farm bankrupted leaving
broken panels on site. IRENA 2016 study estimated the amount of PV waste at 78 millions tons
by 2050. Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 95% of certain
semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-ferrous
metals. Some private companies and non-profit organizations are currently engaged in take-back
and recycling operations for end-of-life modules. EU law requires manufacturers to ensure their
solar panels are recycled properly. Similar legislation is underway in Japan, India, and Australia.
A 2021 study by Harvard Business Review indicates that by 2035 the discarded panels will
outweigh new units by a factor of 2.56 and cost of recycling a single PV panel by then will reach
$20-30, which would increase the LCOE of PV by a factor 4. Analyzing the US market, where
no EU-like legislation exists as of 2021, HBR noted that with the cost of sending it to a landfill
being just $1-2 there's a significant financial incentive to either discard the decommissioned
panels or send them to for low-tech disassembly in low-income countries with much of the toxic
elements ending up released to the environment, while a mandatory recycling legislation would
(Mearns et al., 2015).

Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules:

11
Silicon based modules: aluminum frames and junction boxes are dismantled manually at the
beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill and the different fractions are
separated - glass, plastics and metals. It is possible to recover more than 80% of the incoming
weight. This process can be performed by flat glass recyclers since morphology and composition
of a PV module is similar to those flat glasses used in the building and automotive industry. The
recovered glass, for example, is readily accepted by the glass foam and glass insulation industry.
Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such as the use of
chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor materials. For cadmium
telluride modules, the recycling process begins by crushing the module and subsequently
separating the different fractions. This recycling process is designed to recover up to 90% of the
glass and 95% of the semiconductor materials contained. Some commercial-scale recycling
facilities have been created in recent years by private companies. For aluminium flat plate
reflector: the trendiness of the reflectors has been brought up by fabricating them using a thin
layer (around 0.016 mm to 0.024 mm) of aluminum coating present inside the non-recycled
plastic food packages.

Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together manufacturers, recyclers
and researchers to look at the future of PV module recycling (Mearns et al., 2015).

12
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Effects of Dust on Solar Panel

The degree of efficiency deterioration depends on the specific mass and size of dust particles
deposition on PV module surface. As the mass of dust deposition increases, power output and the
efficiency of the module decrease, and as the size becomes smaller, power output decreases
as smaller particles block more radiation on PV module surface. The different pollutant
depositions may include red soil, ash, sand, calcium carbonate, silica, etc. The presence of air
pollution may significantly deteriorate the energy yield of PV panels; even after a short period of
the panels’ outdoor exposure (e.g., 2 months) without cleaning, it may cause a decrement of
6.5% in energy production approximately (Sarver et al. 2013).

In desert area, the accumulation of dust on PV panel surface is very high. The reduction in solar
efficiency due to dust on PV panel is approximately 40%. In this context, various PV system
cleaning methods are adopted currently (Kumar and Chaurasia 2014). The analysis under this
category of the environmental effects is the most frequent and problematic one as compared to
others. Thus, this is faced on a regular basis throughout the year, unlike other conditions.
Pollution basically, in respect to PV panel, is the accumulation of dust particles on the PV
module surface. These particles may comprise of sand, ash, etc. in accordance with the vicinity
in which the panel has been kept (Adinoyi and Said 2013). The experiment performed under this
category contains analysis of the drop in solar irradiations due to dust. In Fig. 1, accumulation of
dust on solar PV system is shown in GBU hostel itself (Adams et. al., 2017).

Researchers (Rajput and Sudhakar 2013) investigated experimentally the effect of deposited dust
particles on PV modules and provided a concept on electrical performances. The study
concentrated on parameters such as radiation availability, efficient operating strategies, design
and sizing of these systems. It was concluded that dust significantly reduces the efficiency of
solar PV module. Researchers also carried out a performance analysis on the environmental
effects on PV modules (Darwish 2013). The research inferred that the mean of the daily
energy loss along a year caused by dust deposited on PV module surface is around 4.4%. In long
periods without rain, daily energy losses can be higher than 20%. Dust particles differ in phase,
sort, chemical and physical properties depending on many environmental conditions. Air,

13
humidity and temperature in addition to wind speed play a significant role in defining isolated
dust and how it will collect on the PV cell.

Another study being conducted by researchers inferred that dust is the lesser acknowledged
factor that significantly influences the performance of the PV installations (Mani and Pillai
2010). They appraised on the current status of research in studying the impact of dust on PV
system performance and identified challenges to further pertinent research. However, some
researchers proposed and discussed the effect of dust on the transparent cover of solar collectors
(Elminir 2006). The reduction in glass normal transmittance depends strongly on the dust
deposition density in conjunction with plate tilt angle, as well as on the orientation of the surface
with respect to the dominant wind direction. The evolutions of the power variation with
increasing PV cell pollution. It has been found that the slope of best straight line passing through
the data points of the solar cell installed at a 45° angle facing south suggests a decrease in the
output power of about 17.4% per month (Sarver et al. 2013).

3.1 Maintenance of Solar Panel

Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20% range, is reduced by the accumulation of
dust, grime, pollen, and other particulates on the solar panels, collectively referred to as soiling.
"A dirty solar panel can reduce its power capabilities by up to 30% in high dust/pollen or desert
areas", says Seamus Curran, associate professor of physics at the University of Houston and
director of the Institute for NanoEnergy, which specializes in the design, engineering, and
assembly of nanostructures. The average soiling loss in the world in 2018 is estimated to at least
3% - 4%.AA

Paying to have solar panels cleaned is a good investment in many regions, as of 2019. However,
in some regions, cleaning is not cost-effective. In California as of 2013 soiling-induced financial
losses were rarely enough to warrant the cost of washing the panels. On average, panels in
California lost a little less than 0.05% of their overall efficiency per day.

There are also occupational hazards with solar panel installation and maintenance. Birds’ nests
and other debris that can get lodged under the solar panels, which can cause disruptions in the
system, lead to fire if there are any loose connections, or just cause the system to degrade over
time.

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A 2015–2018 study in the UK investigated 80 PV-related incidents of fire, with over 20 "serious
fires" directly caused by PV installation, including 37 domestic buildings and 6 solar farms. In ⅓
of the incidents root cause was not established, majority of others was caused by poor
installation, faulty product or design issues. The most frequent single element causing fires was
the DC isolators.

A 2021 study by kWh Analytics determined median annual degradation of PV systems at 1.09%
for residential and 0.8% for non-residential ones, almost twice more than previously
assumed. PVEL module reliability study found increasing trend in solar module failure rates with
30% of manufacturers experiencing safety failures related to junction boxes (growth from 20%)
and 26% bill-of-materials failures (growth from 20%)(Sarver et al. 2013).

3.2 Waste and Recycling of Solar Panel

CdTe and CIGS solar cells contain cadmium, a toxic heavy metal with a tendency to accumulate
in the food chain. Solder used in installation also contains lead. Leftover PV panels can
contaminate soil, as it happened in 2013 when US-based Solyndra solar farm bankrupted leaving
broken panels on site. IRENA 2016 study estimated the amount of PV waste at 78 millions tons
by 2050. Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 95% of certain
semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-ferrous
metals. Some private companies and non-profit organizations are currently engaged in take-back
and recycling operations for end-of-life modules. EU law requires manufacturers to ensure their
solar panels are recycled properly. Similar legislation is underway in Japan, India, and Australia.

Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules:

Silicon based modules: aluminum frames and junction boxes are dismantled manually at the
beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill and the different fractions are
separated - glass, plastics and metals. It is possible to recover more than 80% of the incoming
weight. This process can be performed by flat glass recyclers since morphology and composition
of a PV module is similar to those flat glasses used in the building and automotive industry. The
recovered glass, for example, is readily accepted by the glass foam and glass insulation industry.

15
Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such as the use of
chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor materials. For cadmium
telluride modules, the recycling process begins by crushing the module and subsequently
separating the different fractions. This recycling process is designed to recover up to 90% of the
glass and 95% of the semiconductor materials contained. Some commercial-scale recycling
facilities have been created in recent years by private companies. For aluminium flat plate
reflector: the trendiness of the reflectors has been brought up by fabricating them using a thin
layer (around 0.016 mm to 0.024 mm) of aluminum coating present inside the non-recycled
plastic food packages.

Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together manufacturers, recyclers
and researchers to look at the future of PV module recycling (Adams et. al., 2017).

16
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Conclusion

Effect of dust on solar PV panel has the mass of dust deposition increases, power output and the
efficiency of the module decrease, and as the size becomes smaller, power output decreases as
smaller particles block more radiation on PV module surface.

17
4.1 Recommendation

The most effective way to clean your solar panels is with a hose and a bucket of soapy water.
Essentially, in the same manner you would wash your car at home. Because you don't want to
scratch the panels in any way, it's best to use just water and a non-abrasive sponge to apply soapy
water.

18
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