FLUID MECHANICS

Hoàng Công Liêm, PhD

 REFERENCES
➢ Vũ Duy Quang, Thủy Khí Động Lực Ứng Dụng,
NXB Xây Dựng, 2005.
➢ Nguyễn Hữu Chí (1998), 1000 Bài toán Thủy khí
Động lực .
➢ Vũ Duy Quang, Phạm Đức Nhuận, Giáo Trình Kỹ
Thuật Thủy Khí, NXB Khoa Học và Kỹ Thuật,
2009.
➢ Çengel Y.A., Cimbala J.M. (2020), Fluid mechanics:
Fundamentals and Applications, Mc Graw Hill.

➢ Nakayama Y., Introduction to Fluid Mechanics,

Butterworth-Heinemann 2000.
 Chapter I: Introduction

1. Object and study methods

2 A brief history of fluid mechanics

3. Properties of fluid
4. Forces acting on flow
1. Object and study methods
1.1 Object
Object of study: Fluid
Liquid: A liquid, such as water, alcohol, or oil, is a fluid that is composed of
molecules that are more mobile than those in a solid. Their intermolecular forces
are weaker, so liquids do not hold their shape. Instead, they flow and take the
shape of their container, forming a horizontal free surface at the top (ρ =const).

Gas: A gas, such as helium, nitrogen, or air, is a fluid that flows until it fills the
entire volume of its container. Gases are composed of molecules that are much
farther apart than those of a liquid. As a result, the molecules of a gas are free to
travel away from one another until a force of repulsion pushes them away from
other gas molecules, or from the molecules on the surface of a container (ρ
≠const).
 (Yunus A. Çengel, John M. Cimbala, Fluid mechanic: fundamentals and applications)

• Hydrostatics: Study of fluids at rest or flow with constant

velocity
• Kinematics: Study of the geometry of fluid motion
• Fluid dynamics: Study of the forces that cause accelerated
motion.
❖ Types of Fluids

 Real fluid
◦ which possess viscosity, surface tension and compressibility. Practically
all fluids are real fluids.
 Viscosity and compressibility plays an important role in fluid
mechanics.
 Note: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is
called the drag force, and the magnitude of this force depends, in part,
on viscosity.

 Ideal fluid
◦ which does not contain viscosity, surface tension and they are
incompressible, is also called as inviscid fluid.
 Ideal fluids does not exist in nature (imaginary fluids)
1.2. Study methods
• Theoretical method
• Experimental method
• Semi - experimental method
  p  p  p
Gradient: gradp = i + j +k
x y z
 u x u y u z
Divergent: divu = + +
x y z
  
i j k
   
Rotor: rotu =
x y z
ux uy uz
Laplace operator:

   2 2 2
Δ= = +
2
+
x 2
y 2
z 2

Partial derivative V(x,y,z,t):

dV V V dx V dy V dz
= + + +
dt t x dt y dt z dt
The number of fluid engineering applications is enormous in
transportation, mechanics, aviation…such as:
▪ Lift and drag of airplanes
▪ Stability and control of ship
▪ Pumps and turbines
▪ Lubrication of mechanical systems
2. A brief history of fluid mechanics
experimental studies
Hydraulics hydraulics was born in the utilization of water channels
and ships

Hydrodynamics theoretical studies

Fluid mechanics
3.1 Mobility
In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each
other, but the volume remains relatively constant because of
the strong cohesive forces between the molecules. As a
result, a liquid takes the shape of the container it is in, and it
forms a free surface in a larger container in a gravitational
field.

A gas, on the other hand, expands until it encounters the

walls of the container and fills the entire available space.
This is because the gas molecules are widely spaced, and
the cohesive forces between them are very small. Unlike
liquids, a gas in an open container cannot form a free
surface.
3.2. Continuum
A fluid is composed of molecules which may
be widely spaced apart, especially in the gas
phase. It is convenient to disregard the
atomic nature of the fluid and view it as
continuous, homogeneous matter with no
holes, that is, a continuum.

The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions

and to assume that the properties vary continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.

This idealization is valid as long as the size of the system we deal with is
large relative to the space between the molecules.
3.3. Compressibility and expansion

❖ Compressibility

A fluid contracts when more pressure is

applied on it and expands when the
pressure acting on it is reduced

Fluids contract V ↓ as p ↑.
Fluids expand V↑ as p ↓.
Assume that fluid of volume V at pressure p decreased its
volume by V due to the further increase in pressure by p
The coefficient of compressibility:

1 Δ𝑉 2
𝛽𝑝 = − (𝑚 /𝑁)
Δ𝑝 𝑉𝑜

(-) means volume and pressure are inversely proportional (volume

decreases as pressure is increased

1
Bulk Modulus of fluid: K= (𝑁/𝑚2 )
𝛽𝑝

For water of normal temperature/pressure K = 2.06 x 109 Pa.

❖ Expansion

Fluids contract V ↓ as T ↓.
Fluids expand V↑ as T ↑.

Coefficient of Volume Expansion:

1 Δ𝑉
𝛽𝑇 =
Δ𝑇 𝑉0
Where:
T: Change in temperature
V: Change in volume
Vo : Initial volume.
3.4. Surface tension and capillary effect
❖ Surface tension
The attractive forces applied on the
interior molecule by the surrounding
molecules balance each other because
of symmetry.
A net attractive force acting on the
molecule at the surface of the liquid
tends to pull the molecules on the
surface toward the interior of the liquid
The result is that the liquid minimizes its
surface area.
The surface of a liquid is apt to shrink, and its free surface is in
such a state where each section pulls another as if an elastic film
is being stretched. The tensile strength per unit length of assumed
section on the free surface is called the surface tension.

Coefficient of surface tension 𝜎s is expressed in the unit N/m

❖ Capillary effect

The liquid molecules at the solid–liquid

interface are subjected to both cohesive
forces (the forces between like molecules) by
other liquid molecules and adhesive forces
(the forces between unlike molecules) by the
molecules of the solid.

The water molecules are more strongly

attracted to the glass molecules than they
are to other water molecules, and thus
water tends to rise along the glass surface

The capillary effect is the rise or fall of a

liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into
the liquid.
3.5. Viscosity
There is a property that represents the
internal resistance of a fluid to motion and
that property is the viscosity

The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body

in the flow direction is called the drag force,
and the magnitude of this force depends, in
part, on viscosity.
Consider a fluid layer between two very large parallel plates separated by
a distance h. A constant parallel force F is applied to the upper plate while
the lower plate is held fixed.

(1)
A

(2)

The shear stress 𝜏 acting on this fluid layer is

𝐹 𝑈
= =𝜇
𝐴 ℎ

µ: Dynamic viscosity or absolute viscosity (N.s/m2)

Fluids for which the rate of deformation is linearly

proportional to the shear stress are called Newtonian
fluids
 In one-dimensional shear flow of Newtonian fluids, shear stress can be
expressed by the linear relationship
𝑑𝑢
Shear stress:  = 𝜇
𝑑𝑦

The shear force acting on a Newtonian

fluid layer (or, by Newton’s third law,
the force acting on the plate) is

𝑑𝑢
F = 𝐴 = 𝜇𝑆
𝑑𝑦

In fluid mechanics, the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density appears

frequently. For convenience, this ratio is given the name kinematic
viscosity 𝜇
=
ρ

Two common units of kinematic viscosity are m2 /s and

stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm2 /s)
3.6. Mass and Weight

 Density (): Density is defined as mass per unit volume

𝑚
𝜌= (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
𝑉
 Weight 𝑃 = 𝑚. 𝑔(𝑁)
 Specific weight (): The weight of a unit volume of a
substance
P
 = =  .g ( N / m 3 )
V
Specific gravity 𝑆𝐺()

𝜌
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝐻2𝑂
Surface forces: such as the pressure forces that
act on the surface of the element and are
proportional to the surface area.

Body forces: such as gravity that act throughout

the entire body of the element and are proportional
to the volume of the body.
 Dimensions and Units

o Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.

o The magnitudes assigned to dimensions are called units.
o Primary dimensions include mass m, length L, time t, and
temperature T.
Mass: m (kg)
Time: t (s)
Length: L (m)
Temperature: T (oC , oK)

Secondary Dimensions in Fluid Mechanics

Summary

 Overview of fluid and fluid mechanics.

 The key fluid properties:
◦ Continuum
◦ Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity
◦ Viscosity
◦ Compressibility and expansion
◦ Surface Tension and Capillary Effect.
 Dimensions and Units.
 Chapter 2: Fluid statics

1. Pressure

2. The basic equation of fluid statics

3. Hydrostatic forces
4. Pascal’s law, buoyancy and stability

5. Fluids in rigid-body motion

1.1. Definition
Statics: the fluid is either at rest or moving in such a manner that there
is no relative motion between adjacent particles.

* Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per

unit area
Pressure has units of newtons per square meter (N/m2 ), which
engineers call a pascal (Pa).

1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
1 at = 98100 Pa = 98.1 kPa
at : Technical atmosphere, is defined as the pressure exerted by a
10-meter column of water at 4°C
 S
P
P (I)

A M ∆A
𝐴

If the surface has a finite area

and the pressure is uniformly (II)
distributed over this area

▪ Average pressure
𝑃
𝑝𝑎𝑣𝑔 = (2.1)
𝐴
A: Area
P: Normal force
∆𝑃 𝑑𝑃
▪Pressure at a point M 𝑝𝑀 = lim =
∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴 𝑑𝐴
a. The pressure of a fluid always acts
perpendicular to the wall in contact
with the fluid.

b. The pressure at a point in a fluid has

the same magnitude in all directions.
2. The basic equation of fluid statics

The first objective of this chapter is to obtain an equation for computing

the pressure field in a static fluid.
We apply Newton’s second law to a differential fluid element of mass
dm = ρ dV, with sides dx, dy, and dz.

dF = dFB + dFs = 0 (2.1)

- M: Center of gravity
- p(x,y,z): pressure at point M
- dV: the volume of the element
The body force d𝐹Ԧ𝐵 = 𝑎𝑑𝑚
Ԧ = 𝑎𝜌𝑑𝑉
Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ ρdxdydz (2.2)
𝑎(X,Y,Z)
Ԧ : is the local body force acceleration vector

The body force in x,y, z direction is:

d𝐹𝐵,𝑥 = 𝑋ρdxdydz
d𝐹𝐵,𝑦 = 𝑌ρdxdydz (2.3) 1 𝜕p
p− dx dydz
d𝐹𝐵,𝑧 = 𝑍ρdxdydz 2 𝜕x

The net pressure force (surface force)

can be found by summing the forces
that act on the six faces of the fluid
element
d𝐹Ԧ𝑠 = 𝑖Ԧ𝑑𝐹𝑠,𝑥 + 𝑗Ԧ𝑑𝐹𝑠,𝑦 + 𝑘𝑑𝐹𝑠,𝑧 p+
1 𝜕p
dx dydz
2 𝜕x
 1 𝜕p
p− dx dydz
We use a Taylor series expansion of the 2 𝜕x
pressure about point M to determine the
pressure at each of the six faces of the
element

1 𝜕p
The net surface force in the x direction on p+ dx dydz
2 𝜕x
the element is given by

1 𝜕p 1 𝜕p 𝜕p
𝑑𝐹𝑠,𝑥 = p − dx dydz − p + dx dydz = − dxdydz
2 𝜕x 2 𝜕x 𝜕x

𝜕p
Similarly, 𝑑𝐹𝑠,𝑦 = − dxdydz
𝜕𝑦
𝜕p
𝑑𝐹𝑠,𝑧 = − dxdydz
𝜕𝑧

𝜕p 𝜕p 𝜕p
d𝐹Ԧ𝑠 = - 𝑖Ԧ + 𝑗Ԧ +𝑘 dxdydz = −gradp dxdydz (2.4)
𝜕x 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Combining the formulations for surface and body forces from eq 2.2 and
eq 2.4 we have:

dFs + dFB = −gradp dxdydz + 𝑎Ԧ ρdxdydz = 0

−gradp + 𝑎Ԧ ρ = 0 (2.5)

Equation 2.5 is Euler’s equation of static fluid

1 𝜕p
X− =0
ρ 𝜕x
1 𝜕p (2.6)
Y− =0
ρ 𝜕y Equations 2.6 describe the pressure
1 𝜕p variation in each of the three
Z− =0
ρ 𝜕z coordinate directions in a static fluid.
2.2. Pressure variation in a fluid at rest
From eqs 2.6 we can obtain eq 2.7 by a simple transformation.
1 p
dx X − =0
 x
1 p
dy Y − =0
 y
1 p
dz Z − =0
 z
1 p p p
Xdx + Ydy + Zdz − ( dx + dy + dz ) = 0
 x y z

1
Xdx + Ydy + Zdz = dp (2.7)

Assumptions:
(1) Static fluid.
(2) Gravity is the only body force.
(3) The z axis is vertical and upward
X=0; Y=0; Z= -g

Substituting X,Y, Z into equation 2.7, we have:

dp
dp =  (− gdz )  dp = − dz  + dz = 0

Assuming constant density in liquid hydrostatic calculations, for which
above equation integrates to

p
z + = const (2.8)
γ

Equation 2.8 is the basic equation of fluid statics

Assuming that pressure at point A is unknown, from equation 2.8
we have
po po po
pA pB z
zA + = zB +
   h

p A = pB +  ( z B − z A )
B A zo

zA
zB

C C

If point B is at the free surface, then: pB = po

p0 : pressure at free surface

pA = p0 +  ( z0 − z A )
pA = p0 +  h
 z
po = pa
B

In case the free surface of a liquid

open to the atmosphere p0 = patm h
A
patm : standard atmospheric
pressure
pA = patm + γh (2.9) zA zB

Standard atmospheric pressure is the absolute pressure that is measured at

sea level and at a temperature of 15°C. Its value is patm = 101.3 kPa
2.3 Absolute and gage pressure

• The pressure at a point within a fluid mass will be designated as

either an absolute pressure (pabs) or a gage pressure (pgage).
• Absolute pressure is measured relative to a perfect vacuum (absolute
zero pressure), whereas gage pressure is measured relative to the
local atmospheric pressure. Thus, a gage pressure of zero corresponds
to a pressure that is equal to the local atmospheric pressure.
• Absolute pressures are always positive, but gage pressures can be
either positive or negative depending on whether the pressure is
above atmospheric pressure (a positive value) or below atmospheric
pressure (a negative value). A negative gage pressure is also referred
to as a suction or vacuum pressure (pvac)
pgage= pabs - patm
pvac= patm - pabs 1atm = 101.3 kPa
2.4. Meanings of basic equation of fluid statics

 Hydraulic meaning
𝑝
◦ z - vertical elevation feature; - pressure head
𝛾
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠
◦ 𝑧+ = 𝐻𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 - total absolute hydrostatic head.
𝛾
𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒
◦ 𝑧+ = 𝐻𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 - total gage hydrostatic head.
𝛾

 Physical meaning
◦ Total potential energy for unit weight is expressed as
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
𝑧+𝛾 𝑔𝑑𝑚 𝑧+𝛾 𝑑𝐺 (𝑧𝑑𝐺) (𝛾𝑑𝐺) 𝑝
= = + = 𝑧 + = 𝐻 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑔𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝐺 𝑑𝐺 𝑑𝐺 𝛾
2.5. Measurement of static pressure
a. Barometer
Atmospheric pressure can be measured using a simple device called
a barometer
The atmospheric pressure can be determined

pB = pA + γHg .h
Hg
patm = pB = 0 + γHg .h

patm = γHg .h

For example, standard atmospheric pressure, 101.3 kPa, will cause

the mercury column γHg = 133 550 N/m3 to rise h ≈ 760 mm in the tube
b. Manometer
A manometer consists of a transparent tube that is used to
determine the gage pressure in a liquid
The pressure at point A in the vessel is
the same as at point B in the tube,
since both points are on the same
level.
pC = pD = γ1 .ℎ𝐷𝐸
1
pC = pA + γ. ℎ𝐵𝐶

pA = γ1 .ℎ𝐷𝐸 − γ. ℎ𝐵𝐶
3. Hydrostatic forces
3.1. Hydrostatic force on plane submerged surface
a. Magnitude of the Force
On a plane surface, the hydrostatic
forces form a system of parallel
forces, and we often need to
determine the magnitude of the
force and its point of application,
which is called the Center of
Pressure (the point through which
Force acts on the surface)
 po o


dP

P yc
x
y

M
y dS(p)
D
S

C : The centroid of the area S

ds: The element of area S
hc: Depth of C
h: Depth of ds
yc: Distance from C to ox
y: Distance from ds to ox
(the y coordinate) : The angle between the plane surface
(or its extension) and the free surface
The resultant force acting on the surface is
found by summing the contributions of the
infinitesimal forces over the entire area.
P = න dP
S
dP=pdS 𝑃 = න pdS
S

P = න p0 + γh dS

P = න p0 dS + න γhdS
The integral is the first moment of the surface
S S area about the x axis

P = p0S + γsinα  ydS = p0S + γsinαyC S = ( p 0 + γh C ) S

S

P = pC S where pc is the absolute pressure in the liquid at the

location of the centroid of area S
Incase po = patm and p is gauge pressure (pd) , we have:

P = hC S (2.10)
 patm
b. Location of the resultant 
hydrostatic force P
❖ Assumption: dP

- The submerged area is P

symmetrical with respect to the yc
axis passing through the centroid y
and parallel to the y-axis
- po = patm and p is gauge pressure
M
pgage y dS(p)
D
S
D: Location of P (the center of pressure)

Equating the moment of the resultant force to the moment of the distributed
pressure force about the x-axis (based on Varignon's law of moment) gives
PyD =  ydP (a)
S
Py D = γhC SyD = γyC sin αSy D
 patmpo
Otherwise, we have: 
dP = pds = hds = ysinds
dP

 =  sin  ds
 2
ydP y P
S S yc
=  sin   y 2 ds y
S

With න 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 y
M
dS(p)
𝑠
D
S
𝐼𝑥𝑥 is the second moment of area
about the x axis
𝑦𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑆𝑦𝐷 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐼𝑥𝑥 (b)

𝐼𝑥𝑥
From Eq (a), (b) 𝑦𝐷 =
𝑦𝑐 𝑆
 Otherwise, we have: 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥,𝐶 + 𝑦𝑐2 𝑆
𝐼𝑥𝑥,𝐶 is the second moment of area about the x-axis passing through the centroid
of the area
𝐼𝑥𝑥,𝐶 (2.11)
𝑦𝐷 = 𝑦𝑐 +
𝑦𝑐 𝑆
❖ If the submerged area is NOT symmetrical with respect to the axis passing
through the centroid and parallel to the y-axis. ➔ determine xD?
-Taking the sum of the moments of the infinitesimal forces dP about the y axis we
obtain:
P = γh CS=γyC sin αS
Px D =  pxds
S p = γh=γy sin 
γyC sin αSxD = γ sin α  yxds
S
න 𝑦𝑥 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐼𝑥𝑦 Area moment of inertia about the x and y axis
𝑠
𝐼𝑥𝑦
𝑥𝐷 = (2.12)
𝑦𝑐 𝑆
3.2. Hydrostatic force on a submerged curved surface

* xOy  free surface

patm

Sx, Sy , Sz are the projection of S on a plane perpendicular to the x,y,

z axis, respectively
hcx, hcy: Depth of the centroid of Sx, Sy , respectively
V is the volume of fluid above the curved surface
𝑃 = 𝑖Ԧ𝑃𝑥 + 𝑗Ԧ𝑃𝑦 + 𝑘𝑃𝑧

dPx =dPcos
dPz =dPsin
Assuming that ds is very small and
can be considered as plane surface
dP =hds (h: depth of the centroid of ds)

dPx = hdscos = hdsx

Px = γhcxSx
Px =   hds x =  hcx sx
Sx Py = γhcySy

The horizontal force and its location are the same as for an imaginary vertical
plane surface of the same projected area
Similarly, we have:

dPz =dPsin

dP =hds
dPz = hdssin = hdsz

 hds
Sz
z =V

V: the volume of fluid above the curved surface

Pz = V

The net vertical force will be equal to the weight of fluid directly
above the surface
 (+) (-)

Px = hcxSx
Py = hcySy (2.13)

Pz = V

P= Px2 + Py2 + Pz2 (2.14)

When the curved surface is a circular arc (full circle or any part of it), the
resultant hydrostatic force acting on the surface always passes through the
center of the circle
 3.3. Pressure Diagram

 A pressure diagram is the graphical representation of the variation in the

intensity of pressure over surface.
 Based on the 2 characteristics of static pressure
 Pressure of a fluid always acts perpendicular to the wall in contact
with the fluid.
 Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions.
◦ Represents
 the pressure value (qualitatively),
 the acting direction of pressure on the surface.
 Consider the pressure distribution along a vertical wall of a tank of constant
width b, which contains a liquid having a specific weight . Since the pressure
must vary linearly with depth, we can represent the variation as is shown in
below figure where the gauge pressure is equal to zero at the upper surface
and equal to h at the bottom

 The resultant hydrostatic force acting on the rectangular area S = bh is

𝑃 = 𝑉𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚
= (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚) x (𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒)

1
P = γh cS = γ h 2 b
2
4. Archimedes’ principle and Pascal’s law
4.1. Archimedes’ principle
a. Archimedes’ principle

A fluid exerts an upward force on a body

immersed in it. This force that tends to lift
the body is called the buoyant force and is
denoted by FB. The buoyant force is caused
by the increase of pressure with depth in a
fluid

The buoyant force acting on a body of

uniform density immersed in a fluid is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
body, and it acts upward through the
centroid of the displaced volume.
FB= V (2.15)
b. Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

GM >0 : Stable
GM <0 : unstable

A measure of stability for floating bodies is the metacentric height GM, which
is the distance between the center of gravity G and the metacenter M—the
intersection point of the lines of action of the buoyant force through the body
before and after rotation.

A floating body is stable if the body is

a. bottom-heavy and thus the center of gravity G is below the centroid B of the
body
b. The metacenter M is above point G.
4.2. Pascal’s law
Δp
p0
p A = p0 + γh A
p B = p0 + γh B hA hB
A 
B

p A = p0 + Δp + γh A
p B = p 0 + Δp + γh B

The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure

throughout by the same amount
 P1 4P1
p1 = = (1)
ω1  d1 2

 d22
G = p1 (2)
4

2
4P1  d 22
 d2 
G= = P1  
 d1 4
2
 1 
d
d2=10d1 => G =100P1
 5. Fluids in rigid body motion
In rigid-body motion, all particles are in combined translation and
rotation, and there is no relative motion between particles
+ Body force: Gravity and inertial force.

 5.1 Acceleration on a Straight Path

An open container is translating along a straight path with a
constant acceleration a
a. Pressure at a point:
- Gravity: G = mg
- Inertial force: F = -ma.
+ Acceleration in x, y, z directions
X= -a
Y= 0
Z= -g
Substituting X,Y,X into eq (2.7), we have
1
Xdx + Ydy + Zdz = dp

1
-adx- gdz = 𝑑𝑝
𝜌

dp = (-adx- gdz)
The pressure is determined by integration to be:
p = (- ax - gz) + c

- At origin (x = y = z = 0), p = p0 => c=p0

a
p = po +  (− x − z )
g
b. Surfaces of constant pressure

P = const ➔ dp =0 => -adx- gdz = 0

a
Vertical rise of surface: z = − x+c
g
The slope of the liquid’s free surface  𝑎
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = −
𝑔

𝐿
Δℎ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
2

L
5.2 Rotation in a Cylindrical Container
Let us study the case where a cylindrical vessel filled with liquid
is rotating at constant angular velocity 
a. Pressure at a point
Gravity: G = mg
Centripetal acceleration: F = m2r
(centrifugal force) r
X = 2x; Y = 2y; Z = -g

- Substituting X,Y,Z into eq 2.7, we have

dp =(2xdx + 2ydy - gdz)

-Integrating, we have
ω2 x 2 ω2 y 2
p = ρ( + − gz) + C
2 2
 ω2 r 2
At origin : x = y = z = 0, p = p0 = C p=ρ −  z + p0
2

b. Surfaces of constant pressure (p=const, dp =0)

ω2 r 2
ρ − z = C
2
The surfaces of constant pressure are paraboloids of revolution
* The equation of the free surface : p= p0
ω2 r 2
ρ −  z =0 r
2
The height of this paraboloid is

ω2 r 2
h = z = (2.8)
2g
Summary

 Average and local pressure

 Absolute, gage, vacuum pressure
 Hydrostatic force on a plane submerged surface and on a
submerged curved surface
 Pressure diagram
 Archimedes' principal and pascal’s law
 Fluids in rigid-body motion