4.

Circuit Theorems: Thevenin’s

and Norton’s theorems
• A linear, active, resistive network which contains one or more
voltage or current sources can be replaced by a single voltage
source and a series resistance (Thévenin’s theorem), or by a
single current source and a parallel resistance (Norton’s
theorem).
• The voltage is called the Thévenin equivalent voltage, 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡 , and
the current the Norton equivalent current, 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 .

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Example
Consider the following problem,
with a large circuit involving
various components and a
resistor 𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜 . Find the current
across 𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜 for 𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜 =
5, 10, 20, 80, 290 Ω.

52
Solution
• One can use conventional
methods
• It would be helpful to reduce
the circuit to a simple one to
enable solving for different
values of the resistance.
• Consider the circuit without
the resistor making it possible
to obtain open circuit voltage,
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 .

53
Solving using Nodal analysis
𝑣𝑣3 𝑣𝑣3 − 𝑣𝑣4
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 3 : − + 4 − =0
60 20
⇒ 4𝑣𝑣3 − 3𝑣𝑣4 = 240,
𝑣𝑣3 − 𝑣𝑣4 𝑣𝑣1 𝑣𝑣1
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 1&4 : − − =0
20 80 40
⇒ 3𝑣𝑣1 − 4𝑣𝑣3 + 4𝑣𝑣4 = 0
Looking at the supernode; 𝑣𝑣4 =
𝑣𝑣1
160𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣1 and 𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑣𝑣4 =
40
𝑣𝑣1
160 × + 𝑣𝑣1 = 5𝑣𝑣1
40
345
Hence 𝑣𝑣1 = 30 𝑉𝑉, 𝑣𝑣3 = 𝑉𝑉, 𝑣𝑣4 =
2
150 𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 30 𝑉𝑉.

54
Next is to consider
when the circuit is
terminated using a
short circuit
This forms a new
cct that needs to
be analyzed afresh

Note that 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣2 = 0 and consequently, 𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 = 0

𝑣𝑣3 𝑣𝑣3
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 3 : 4 − − = 0 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣3 = 60 𝑉𝑉
60 20
Hence short circuit current, 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is the current through 20Ω
resistor
𝑣𝑣3 − 𝑣𝑣1 60
𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = = = 3 𝐴𝐴
20 20
To obtain Thevenin’s or Nortons equivalent circuit,
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 30
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = = = 10Ω
𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 3
55
 • Now go back to the scenario with the resistance R
and replace them using the equivalent circuit;
• Find 𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 for different 𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜 using Thevenin’s circuit.
𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡𝑡 30
𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 = =
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜 10 + 𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜
Or using Norton’s circuit;
𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 10 30
𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 = 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 =3 =
𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 + 𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜 10 + 𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜 10 + 𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜
Now evaluate the values
𝑹𝑹𝑶𝑶 (Ω) 5 10 20 80 290
𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 (𝐴𝐴) 2 3/2 1 1/3 1/10
𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 = 𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜2 𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜 20 45/2 20 80/9 29/10

Note: Power of the load resistor is maximized with the resistance value is 10 ohms.

56
Example
• Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit seen by 𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜

57
Solution
• Use nodal analysis to obtain open voltage
circuit
• Using voltage division
5
𝑣𝑣1 = 150 × = 30 𝑉𝑉,
5 + 20
12
𝑣𝑣2 = 150 × = 100 𝑉𝑉.
12 + 6
Open voltage circuit
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑣𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑣1 = 70 𝑉𝑉

58
• Short circuiting leads to supernode 1,2
with the same voltage (𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣2 )
• For the short circuit
150 − 𝑣𝑣1 150 − 𝑣𝑣2 𝑣𝑣1
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 1&2 : + −
𝑣𝑣2 20 6 5
− = 0,
12
Leading to 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣2 = 65 𝑉𝑉
Using node 2
150 − 𝑣𝑣2 𝑣𝑣2
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 2 : − 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − =0
6 12
85 65 35
Leading to 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = − = 𝐴𝐴
6 12 4
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 35
Hence 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡 = = 70 ÷ = 8 Ohms
𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 4
Leading to this simplified circuit

59
 Exercise
Consider the following circuit Find 𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 if 5 ≤ 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 ≤ 15.
involving a large part connected to
𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜 . Find the Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit seen by R_o using mesh
analysis

60
 Maximum power transfer
• At times it is desired to obtain the maximum power transfer from an active network to an
external load resistor
• Key is to transfer maximum power to the load resistor
𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔
𝑖𝑖𝑙𝑙 =
𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 + 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙
Power of the resistor can be written as
2
𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔2
𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙 = 𝑖𝑖𝑙𝑙2 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 = 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 = 2
𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 + 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 + 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙
For maximum power transfer, the derivative wrt to load resistor should be zero, ie
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔2 2𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔2 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔2 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 − 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙
= 2− 3 = 3 =0
𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝑅
𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙
Complex linear circuits can be converted
Hence 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 = 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 into Thévenin equivalent models such that
Maximum power transfer occurs when 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 matches 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 leading to matching corresponds to selecting the
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔2 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔2 equivalent resistors equally hence ensuring
𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙 = 2 = 4𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝑅 𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑔 maximum power transfer.

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Example
• Find the value of the resistor to be connected between 1 and 2 for
maximum power transfer

62
Solution
• First find Thevenin equivalent circuit.
• Consider open circuit voltage
• Using nodal analysis, 𝑣𝑣3 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 4 ×
4 = 16 𝑉𝑉
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
• Note that current moves through 2
4
ohms resistor as a loop such that;
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣3 + 2 × = 24 𝑉𝑉
4

63
• For the short circuit case; 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣2 = 0
and 𝑣𝑣3 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
𝑣𝑣3 𝑣𝑣3 𝑣𝑣3
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 3 : 4 − − − = 0 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣3 = 4 𝑉𝑉
4 4 2
𝑣𝑣3 𝑣𝑣3
Then 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = + = 3 𝐴𝐴
4 2
Consequently, 𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 24 𝑉𝑉 and 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 24
= =8Ω
𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 3

For maximum power transfer, 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 = 8Ω and

2
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑙𝑙 (𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡𝑡 /2)^2 144
𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙 = = = = 18 𝑊𝑊.
𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 8

64
Example
• Find the value of the resistor to be connected between 1 and 2 for
maximum power transfer.

65
Solution

• To find Thevenin equivalent circuit, the open circuit voltage becomes;

• Using Nodal analysis, 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣1
𝑣𝑣1
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 1 : −20𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 − = 0 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣1 = −500𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥
25
500 − 300𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 3 : − 𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 2000𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑣𝑣1 = 5
2000
Yielding 𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 = 10 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 and 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = −5 𝑉𝑉
66
 5
• For the short circuit case; 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣1 = 0 and 𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
2
• Then 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = −20𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 = −50 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑣𝑣 5
• Hence, 𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = −5 𝑉𝑉 and 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = − = 100Ω
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −0.005

• Maximum power point

occurs when a load resistor
of 100 ohms is connected.
𝑣𝑣𝑙𝑙2
• Hence 𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = =
𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡𝑡 2
𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙
2 25 5
= = 𝑊𝑊
𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 400 80

67
Exercise
Find the value of the load resistor, 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 , Find the value of the load resistor, 𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜 ,
for maximum power transfer for maximum power transfer

68
Superposition Principle
• A linear network containing two or more independent sources can be
analyzed to obtain the various voltages and branch currents by
allowing the sources to act one at a time, then superposing the
results.
• This principle applies because of the linear relationship between
current and voltage.
• Voltage sources to be suppressed while a single source acts are
replaced by short circuits; current sources are replaced by open
circuits.

69
Example
Compute the current in the 23 Ω resistor by applying the superposition
principle

70
Solution
With 200V acting alone (current source as open
circuit)
• To get equivalent resistance, note 23 Ω is in
series with 4 Ω and in parallel with 27 Ω. Then
their equivalent resistance is in series with 47
Ω.
27(4+23)
• 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 47 + = 60.5Ω and
27+(4+23)
200
• Total current, 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 = = 3.31 𝐴𝐴
60.5
′ 27
• Such that 𝐼𝐼23Ω = 3.31 = 1.65𝐴𝐴
27+ 23+4

71
• When 20 A current source acts alone (voltage
source replaced by short circuit)
• Equivalent circuit to the left of the source (27 Ω is
in parallel to 47 Ω and their equivalent is in series
with 4 Ω)
27 × 47
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = + 4 = 21.15Ω
27 + 47
• Using current divider rule;
" 21.5
𝐼𝐼23Ω = × 20 = 9.58 𝐴𝐴
21.15 + 23
Therefore, total current across 23 Ω resistor
′ "
𝐼𝐼23 = 𝐼𝐼23 Ω + 𝐼𝐼23Ω = 11.23 A

72